# Ice Peak Formation

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Geological formation in British Columbia, Canada

Ice Peak Formation Stratigraphic range: Pleistocene Approx. 1 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N East side of Mount Edziza; the two lateral exposures of rock in the upper left corner are part of the upper assemblage of the Ice Peak Formation. Type Geological formation[1] Unit of Mount Edziza volcanic complex[2] Sub-units Upper assemblage[3] Lower assemblage[3] Underlies Pillow Ridge Formation, Edziza Formation, Kakiddi Formation, Big Raven Formation[1][4][3] Overlies Armadillo Formation, Nido Formation, Pyramid Formation[3][5] Lithology Primary Alkali basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, benmoreite, trachyte[6] Other Trachybasalt, tristanite[3] Location Coordinates 57°41′25″N 130°38′08″W / 57.69028°N 130.63556°W / 57.69028; -130.63556[7] Region British Columbia[1] Country Canada[1] Type section Named for Ice Peak[5] Named by Souther et al., 1984[1] Paleogeological map of the Ice Peak Formation at the end of the Ice Peak eruptive period

The **Ice Peak Formation** (**IPF**) is a [stratigraphic unit](/source/Stratigraphic_unit) of [Pleistocene](/source/Pleistocene) age in northwestern [British Columbia](/source/British_Columbia), Canada. It is the seventh youngest and fifth most voluminous of 13 [geological formations](/source/Geological_formation) comprising the [Mount Edziza volcanic complex](/source/Mount_Edziza_volcanic_complex) (MEVC), which consists of [volcanic rocks](/source/Volcanic_rock) of late [Cenozoic](/source/Cenozoic) age. The IPF is underlain by the 6.3-million-year-old [Armadillo Formation](/source/Armadillo_Formation), the 4.4-million-year-old [Nido Formation](/source/Nido_Formation) and the 1.1-million-year-old [Pyramid Formation](/source/Pyramid_Formation_(British_Columbia)), all of which are older units of the MEVC. Overlying the IPF are the younger and much less voluminous Pillow Ridge, [Edziza](/source/Edziza_Formation), [Kakiddi](/source/Kakiddi_Formation) and [Big Raven](/source/Big_Raven_Formation) formations of the MEVC; all of these formations were deposited by volcanic eruptions in the last 0.9 million years. The [stratigraphic](/source/Stratigraphic) position of the Ice Peak Formation suggests that it is about 1 million years old.

The IPF is subdivided into two units informally called the upper and lower assemblages. The upper assemblage consists of randomly oriented [alkali basalt](/source/Alkali_basalt), [hawaiite](/source/Hawaiite), [trachybasalt](/source/Trachybasalt), [tristanite](/source/Tristanite), [mugearite](/source/Mugearite), [benmoreite](/source/Benmoreite) and [trachyte](/source/Trachyte) which are in the form of [lavas](/source/Lava) and [pyroclastic rocks](/source/Pyroclastic_rock). This assemblage conprises the upper portion of [Ice Peak](/source/Ice_Peak), as well as [The Neck](/source/The_Neck_(British_Columbia)), the [Camp](/source/Camp_Hill_(British_Columbia)) and [Cache](/source/Cache_Hill) hills and the [Ornostay](/source/Ornostay_Bluff) and [Koosick](/source/Koosick_Bluff) bluffs. The lower assemblage consists mainly of alkali basalt and hawaiite, but also includes small volumes of trachybasalt, mugearite and tristanite. It comprises the bulk of the Ice Peak volcanic pile and occurs on the surrounding [Big Raven Plateau](/source/Big_Raven_Plateau).

## History

The Ice Peak Formation was first defined by [Jack Souther](/source/Jack_Souther), [Richard Lee Armstrong](/source/Richard_Lee_Armstrong) and J. Harakal in 1984.[1] It was mapped as one of 15 [geological formations](/source/Geological_formation) of the [Mount Edziza volcanic complex](/source/Mount_Edziza_volcanic_complex), a group of late [Cenozoic](/source/Cenozoic) [volcanic rocks](/source/Volcanic_rock) in northwestern [British Columbia](/source/British_Columbia), Canada.[8][9] In 1988, Jack Souther mapped the IPF in more detail and the number of geological formations comprising the volcanic complex was dropped to 13; the [Sheep Track](/source/Sheep_Track_Formation) and Kounugu formations were reassigned as [members](/source/Member_(geology)) of the [Big Raven](/source/Big_Raven_Formation) and [Nido](/source/Nido_Formation) formations, respectively, and are no longer recognized.[3][10][11]

## Stratigraphy

[Stratigraphically](/source/Stratigraphically), the IPF is subdivided into two units informally called the upper and lower assemblages. The lower assemblage is the most widespread, having been largely buried under younger rocks and [felsenmeer](/source/Felsenmeer), [till](/source/Till), glacial and [fluvial](/source/Fluvial) outwash, as well as [solifluction](/source/Solifluction) deposits. Most exposures of this assemblage occur along the western and eastern edges of the [Big Raven Plateau](/source/Big_Raven_Plateau) in [ridges](/source/Ridge) and at the head of valleys.[3] The upper assemblage is exposed along the [Mess Creek Escarpment](/source/Mess_Creek_Escarpment) at the southwestern end of the Big Raven Plateau, along the north side of [Sezill Creek](/source/Sezill_Creek) valley at the western end of the [plateau](/source/Plateau), at the head of valleys at the northwestern end of the plateau, at the southern end of [Mount Edziza](/source/Mount_Edziza) in the middle of the plateau, and on ridges east of Mount Edziza.[3][12]

The IPF is the seventh-youngest unit of the MEVC and has a volume of 76.7 cubic kilometres (18.4 cubic miles), making it the fifth-most voluminous geological formation of the MEVC. It is also the youngest geological formation of the MEVC that contains more than 70 km3 (17 mi3) of volcanic material.[6] The IPF overlies the 1.1-million-year-old [Pyramid Formation](/source/Pyramid_Formation_(British_Columbia)), the 4.4-million-year-old Nido Formation and the 6.3-million-year-old [Armadillo Formation](/source/Armadillo_Formation), all of which are older units of the MEVC.[3][13] Overlying the IPF are the much less voluminous Pillow Ridge, [Edziza](/source/Edziza_Formation), [Kakiddi](/source/Kakiddi_Formation) and Big Raven formations; these are younger geological units of the MEVC deposited by volcanic eruptions in the last 0.9 million years.[1][3][14]

## Lithology

[Lithologically](/source/Lithologically), the IPF is the most diverse geological formation of the MEVC.[6] It is [structurally](/source/Structural_geology) and [petrographically](/source/Petrographically) complex, containing a significant volume of volcanic rocks of [intermediate composition](/source/Intermediate_composition) such as [tristanite](/source/Tristanite), [trachybasalt](/source/Trachybasalt), [mugearite](/source/Mugearite) and [benmoreite](/source/Benmoreite).[15][16] The only volcanic rocks of [mafic](/source/Mafic) composition are [alkali basalt](/source/Alkali_basalt) and [hawaiite](/source/Hawaiite), whereas the main volcanic rock of [felsic](/source/Felsic) composition is [trachyte](/source/Trachyte).[3][17] [Basalt](/source/Basalt) of the IPF is similar to older basalts throughout the MEVC with the exception of its [vesicular texture](/source/Vesicular_texture); it contains open vesicles rather than [amygdules](/source/Amygdule) filled with [calcite](/source/Calcite) or [silica](/source/Silica).[15] IPF trachyte is similar in composition to the younger Edziza Formation trachyte, but they are separated by an [erosion surface](/source/Erosion_surface).[18] Most of the volcanic rocks comprising the IPF were erupted from [Ice Peak](/source/Ice_Peak), the [prominent](/source/Topographic_prominence) south peak of Mount Edziza.[5][7] It is the western rim of a small [caldera](/source/Caldera) which formed on the summit of a [stratovolcano](/source/Stratovolcano) whose northern flank is buried under the younger, 2,786 m (9,140 ft) high stratovolcano of the Edziza Formation.[19][20]

### Upper assemblage

Randomly oriented alkali basalt, hawaiite, trachybasalt, tristanite, mugearite, benmoreite and trachyte [lavas](/source/Lava) and [pyroclastic rocks](/source/Pyroclastic_rock) comprise the upper assemblage. In addition to occurring on the gently sloping surface of the Big Raven Plateau, these rocks also form [Camp Hill](/source/Camp_Hill_(British_Columbia)), [Ornostay Bluff](/source/Ornostay_Bluff), [Cache Hill](/source/Cache_Hill), [Koosick Bluff](/source/Koosick_Bluff), [The Neck](/source/The_Neck_(British_Columbia)) and the upper portion of Ice Peak.[3][21] Camp Hill is a small [volcanic cone](/source/Volcanic_cone) rising about 180 m (590 ft) above the southwestern portion of the Big Raven Plateau near the Mess Creek Escarpment. About 10 km (6.2 mi) to the southeast, the volcanic cone of Cache Hill rises about 120 m (390 ft) on a ridge between the Big Raven Plateau in the north and the [Kitsu Plateau](/source/Kitsu_Plateau) in the southwest.[22][23] The Ornostay and Koosick bluffs are on the lower western flank of Ice Peak adjacent to the [head](/source/River_source) of Sezill Creek.[24] On the northern side of [Sorcery Ridge](/source/Sorcery_Ridge) east of the Big Raven Plateau, the roughly 300 m (980 ft) in diameter [volcanic plug](/source/Volcanic_plug) of The Neck rises 215 metres (705 feet) above an east–west valley immediately south of [Idiji Ridge](/source/Idiji_Ridge).[3][25]

#### Ice Peak

The head of [Sezill Creek](/source/Sezill_Creek) valley with [Ornostay Bluff](/source/Ornostay_Bluff) at centre-left and [Ice Peak](/source/Ice_Peak) at upper right

Highly irregular lava flows up to 90 m (300 ft) thick are exposed in the summit region of Ice Peak. They are mixed with equal amounts of [epiclastic](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epiclastic) fill and pyroclastic [breccia](/source/Breccia) which, together with the lava flows, [dip](/source/Strike_and_dip) gently to the west, northwest and southwest from the destroyed summit [crater](/source/Volcanic_crater). Most of the breccia consists of randonly oriented [bombs](/source/Volcanic_bomb) and [blocks](/source/Volcanic_block), but [ash](/source/Volcanic_ash) and [cinders](/source/Scoria) are locally preserved under the lava flows as [beds](/source/Bed_(geology)) or thick deposits. Basalt, mugearite and trachybasalt are the main volcanic rocks comprising the lava flows, whereas trachyte is present in smaller volumes. The trachybasalt is slightly [porphyritic](/source/Porphyritic) which contrasts with the highly porphyritic basalts and mugearites.[21] Two lobes of trachyte originating from under the central [ice cap](/source/Ice_cap) comprise the Ornostay and Koosick bluffs, both of which are similar in composition and [geomorphology](/source/Geomorphology).[24] The steep sides and unusually large thicknesses of these two bluffs is attributed to them having been extruded through glacial ice.[26]

Extensive erosion of the stratovolcano on its eastern side has exposed [sills](/source/Sill_(geology)), [dikes](/source/Dike_(geology)) and irregular [intrusions](/source/Intrusion), all of which are compositionally identical to the upper assemblage lavas.[27] The smallest dikes are only a few centimetres wide, whereas tabular intrusions reach thicknesses of 120–150 m (390–490 ft) and lengths of more than 1.5 km (0.93 mi).[28] At the head of [Tennaya Creek](/source/Tennaya_Creek) is a series of [spurs](/source/Spur_(topography)) containing white recessive bands of [silt](/source/Silt) and ashy clay.[29] These well-stratified bands, intermixed with [cobbles](/source/Cobbles) and pebbles of Ice Peak lava, probably formed when [ejecta](/source/Ejecta) from the volcano deposited in a periodic [crater lake](/source/Volcanic_crater_lake) at the summit. Exposed in the summit area of Ice Peak are several small [normal faults](/source/Normal_fault), the largest of which occurs just south of [Tennaya Glacier](/source/Tennaya_Glacier). A nearby normal fault steeply dips to the east and has displaced thick, flat-lying lava flows and [interbedded](/source/Interbedding) [lacustrine](/source/Lacustrine) deposits by about 60 m (200 ft).[30]

#### Camp Hill

Ornostay and [Koosick](/source/Koosick_Bluff) bluffs on the lower western flank of Ice Peak

Most of the lithology of Camp Hill is hidden due to [colluvium](/source/Colluvium) covering much the volcanic edifice.[3][22] However, exposures of its internal structure occur on the southwestern flank and in moderately incised, radial meltwater [channels](/source/Channel_(geography)) elsewhere.[22] A lower unit of [tuff breccia](/source/Tuff_breccia) containing partially [palagonitized](/source/Palagonite) [sideromelane](/source/Sideromelane) is locally interbedded with pillow breccia and [pillow lava](/source/Pillow_lava), as well as [pahoehoe](/source/Pahoehoe) with quenched lava lobes.[3][22] They are thought to have been deposited when Camp Hill first erupted under remnants of glacier ice on the Big Raven Plateau.[23][31] The overlying upper unit is an assemblage of bombs, [scoria](/source/Scoria), [tephra](/source/Tephra) and irregular lava flows deposited by volcanic activity after the surrounding ice had melted away.[32] Both units are composed of alkali basalt or hawaiite characterized by [plagioclase](/source/Plagioclase), [pyroxene](/source/Pyroxene) and [olivine](/source/Olivine) [phenocrysts](/source/Phenocryst).[3]

#### Cache Hill

Cache Hill consists of pillow lava, tuff breccia and several lava flows with a basaltic composition that overlie a gravel deposit up to 135 m (443 ft) thick.[33] A coarsely porphyritic basalt flow comprises the base of the volcano and is sporadically exposed along its southwestern flank. It contains tabular [feldspar](/source/Feldspar) phenocrysts up to 1.5 cm (0.59 in) long that are clear to pale amber in colour, which contrasts with the medium grey [matrix](/source/Matrix_(geology)). Overlying the basal flow are about seven vesicular basalt flows, all of which are [aphyric](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aphyric), fine-grained and dark grey. All of these relatively thin lava flows contain well-developed [columnar joints](/source/Columnar_joint) and are interbedded with scoria deposited by [lava fountaining](/source/Lava_fountaining).[22] Like Camp Hill, the basalt at Cache Hill is either alkali basalt or hawaiite with phenocrysts of plagioclase, pyroxene and olivine.[3]

#### The Neck

Trachyte is the main rock comprising The Neck, which consists of two parts. The outer part is a 2.5–3.5 m (8.2–11.5 ft) thick cylinder of fine-grained, [foliated](/source/Foliation_(geology)) trachyte that is in the form of [concentric](/source/Concentric) shells. In contrast, the inner part is made up of coarse-grained trachyte that is in the form of gently curved tabular or vertical, closely stacked planar bodies. Loosely [agglutinated](/source/Agglutinate_(geology)) basaltic tephra of the Beta Peak eruptive centre of the Nido Formation surrounds The Neck.[25]

### Lower assemblage

Location of the Ice Peak Formation in [British Columbia](/source/British_Columbia), Canada

The lower assemblage consists mainly of alkali basalt and hawaiite, but also includes small volumes of intermediate lava such as trachybasalt, mugearite and tristanite.[3][34] It comprises the bulk of the Ice Peak volcanic pile and is largely in the form of an asymmetrical basaltic [shield volcano](/source/Shield_volcano). The basalt is in the form of relatively thin lava flows that are normally less than 3 m (9.8 ft) thick. These thin, columnar-jointed lava flows extend at least 16 km (9.9 mi) from the central vent in all directions with the exception of the southern flows, which travelled south for only about 5 km (3.1 mi).[34] The intermediate lavas comprise several thick flows at the eastern end of a ridge extending east from [Nanook Dome](/source/Nanook_Dome) where they overlie [Pliocene](/source/Pliocene) basalt of the Nido Formation.[3][34]

The northeastern flank of the Ice Peak volcanic pile contains up to 78 m (256 ft) of sideromelane tuff breccia and pillow lava.[35] These deposits are exposed on two ridges and are believed to have formed when basaltic lava of the lower assemblage ponded against stagnant ice in [cirques](/source/Cirque).[36] The lowermost basalt flow of the lower assemblage along the northern side of Sezill Creek valley contains pillows at its base.[37] It also directly overlies [hyaloclastites](/source/Hyaloclastite) and is brecciated and deformed, suggesting it may have been extruded onto a glacier or an [ice sheet](/source/Ice_sheet).[31][38]

## Age

[Potassium–argon dating](/source/Potassium%E2%80%93argon_dating) of IPF hawaiite from an unnamed ridge at [57°41.4′N 130°32.1′W / 57.6900°N 130.5350°W / 57.6900; -130.5350](https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ice_Peak_Formation&params=57_41.4_N_130_32.1_W_) has yielded an anomalously old age of 3.7 ± 1.0 million years, which contains a large margin of error and has therefore been disregarded.[3][39][40] The second-oldest potassium–argon date, 2.8 ± 0.2 million years, comes from IPF hawaiite northwest of Cache Hill.[40] A nearly identical potassium–argon date of 2.8 ± 0.1 million years has been obtained from IPF trachyte at the head of Sezill Creek valley between the Ornostay and Koosick bluffs.[3][40] Massive trachyte in the upper part of Ice Peak has yielded potassium–argon dates of 1.5 ± 0.4 million years and 1.5 ± 0.1 million years.[41] Similarly, a potassium–argon date of 1.6 ± 0.2 million years has been obtained from trachyte of The Neck.[25] The youngest IPF potassium–argon date of 1.2 ± 0.1 million years is from trachyte on top of Idiji Ridge southeast of the summit of Ice Peak.[3][40] These dates being older than those of the underlying 1.1-million-year-old Pyramid Formation may be partially due to excess [argon](/source/Argon) in IPF rocks; therefore the dates are considered unreliable.[6][15][42] The true age of the IPF is estimated to be about 1 million years old due to its stratigraphic position under the 0.9-million-year-old Edziza Formation.[43]

## See also

- [Volcanism of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex](/source/Volcanism_of_the_Mount_Edziza_volcanic_complex)

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation_1-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation_1-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation_1-6) [Government of Canada: Ice Peak Formation](#CITEREFGovernment_of_Canada:_Ice_Peak_Formation).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards199710,_11_2-0)** [Edwards 1997](#CITEREFEdwards1997), pp. 10, 11.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-13) [***o***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-14) [***p***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-15) [***q***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-16) [***r***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-17) [***s***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-18) [***t***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-19) [***u***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-20) [***v***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1988_3-21) [Souther 1988](#CITEREFSouther1988).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992207_4-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 207.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992145_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992145_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992145_5-2) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 145.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992267_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992267_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992267_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992267_6-3) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 267.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Ice_Peak_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Ice_Peak_7-1) [BC Geographical Names: Ice Peak](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Ice_Peak).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards19973_8-0)** [Edwards 1997](#CITEREFEdwards1997), p. 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoutherArmstrongHarakal1984337,_339_9-0)** [Souther, Armstrong & Harakal 1984](#CITEREFSoutherArmstrongHarakal1984), pp. 337, 339.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Kounugu_Formation_10-0)** [Government of Canada: Kounugu Formation](#CITEREFGovernment_of_Canada:_Kounugu_Formation).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_Canada:_Sheep_Track_Formation_11-0)** [Government of Canada: Sheep Track Formation](#CITEREFGovernment_of_Canada:_Sheep_Track_Formation).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Mount_Edziza_12-0)** [BC Geographical Names: Mount Edziza](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Mount_Edziza).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992145,_267_13-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 145, 267.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992207,_267_14-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 207, 267.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoutherArmstrongHarakal1984345_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoutherArmstrongHarakal1984345_15-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoutherArmstrongHarakal1984345_15-2) [Souther, Armstrong & Harakal 1984](#CITEREFSoutherArmstrongHarakal1984), p. 345.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther19921,_147,_150_16-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 1, 147, 150.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther19921_17-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoutherArmstrongHarakal1984345,_346_18-0)** [Souther, Armstrong & Harakal 1984](#CITEREFSoutherArmstrongHarakal1984), pp. 345, 346.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992145,_175_19-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 145, 175.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1990125_20-0)** [Souther 1990](#CITEREFSouther1990), p. 125.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992150_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992150_21-1) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 150.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992157_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992157_22-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992157_22-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992157_22-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992157_22-4) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 157.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDepartment_of_Energy,_Mines_and_Resources1989_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDepartment_of_Energy,_Mines_and_Resources1989_23-1) [Department of Energy, Mines and Resources 1989](#CITEREFDepartment_of_Energy,_Mines_and_Resources1989).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992155_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992155_24-1) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 155.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992154_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992154_25-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992154_25-2) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 154.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmellieEdwards201643_26-0)** [Smellie & Edwards 2016](#CITEREFSmellieEdwards2016), p. 43.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992145,_152_27-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 145, 152.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992152_28-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 152.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992151,_320_29-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 151, 320.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992151_30-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 151.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther199218_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther199218_31-1) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther199218,_19,_157_32-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 18, 19, 157.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992157,_159_33-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 157, 159.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992147_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992147_34-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992147_34-2) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 147.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992149_35-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 149.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992149,_150_36-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 149, 150.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpooner_et_al.19952046,_2047_37-0)** [Spooner et al. 1995](#CITEREFSpooner_et_al.1995), pp. 2046, 2047.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpooner_et_al.19952046_38-0)** [Spooner et al. 1995](#CITEREFSpooner_et_al.1995), p. 2046.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoutherArmstrongHarakal1984341,_345_39-0)** [Souther, Armstrong & Harakal 1984](#CITEREFSoutherArmstrongHarakal1984), pp. 341, 345.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992248_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992248_40-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992248_40-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992248_40-3) [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), p. 248.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouther1992154,_155_41-0)** [Souther 1992](#CITEREFSouther1992), pp. 154, 155.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpooner_et_al.19952047_42-0)** [Spooner et al. 1995](#CITEREFSpooner_et_al.1995), p. 2047.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpooner_et_al.19952053_43-0)** [Spooner et al. 1995](#CITEREFSpooner_et_al.1995), p. 2053.

### Sources

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- ["Sheep Track Formation"](https://web.archive.org/web/20231215003718/https://weblex.canada.ca/html/013000/GSCC00053013635.html). *[Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units](/source/Lexicon_of_Canadian_Geologic_Units)*. [Government of Canada](/source/Government_of_Canada). Archived from [the original](https://weblex.canada.ca/html/013000/GSCC00053013635.html) on December 15, 2023.

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- [Souther, J. G.](/source/Jack_Souther) (1988). "1623A" ([Geologic map](/source/Geologic_map)). *Geology, Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, British Columbia*. 1:50,000. Cartography by M. Sigouin, [Geological Survey of Canada](/source/Geological_Survey_of_Canada). [Energy, Mines and Resources Canada](/source/Energy%2C_Mines_and_Resources_Canada). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4095/133498](https://doi.org/10.4095%2F133498).

- [Souther, J. G.](/source/Jack_Souther) (1992). *The Late Cenozoic Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, British Columbia*. [Geological Survey of Canada](/source/Geological_Survey_of_Canada). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4095/133497](https://doi.org/10.4095%2F133497). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-660-14407-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-660-14407-7).

- [Souther, J. G.](/source/Jack_Souther); [Armstrong, R. L.](/source/Richard_Lee_Armstrong); Harakal, J. (1984). "Chronology of the Peralkaline, Late Cenozoic Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, Northern British Columbia, Canada". *[Geological Society of America Bulletin](/source/Geological_Society_of_America_Bulletin)*. **95** (3). [Geological Society of America](/source/Geological_Society_of_America): 337–349. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1984GSAB...95..337S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984GSAB...95..337S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1130/0016-7606(1984)95<337:COTPLC>2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0016-7606%281984%2995%3C337%3ACOTPLC%3E2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0016-7606](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7606).

- [Souther, J. G.](/source/Jack_Souther) (1990). "Volcanoes of Canada". In Wood, Charles A.; Kienle, Jürgen (eds.). [*Volcanoes of North America: United States and Canada*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eyDRib-FJh4C). [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-521-43811-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43811-X).

- Spooner, I. S.; Osborn, G. D.; Barendregt, R. W.; Irving, E. (1995). "A Record of Early Pleistocene Glaciation on the Mount Edziza Plateau, Northwestern British Columbia". *[Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences](/source/Canadian_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences)*. **32** (12). [NRC Research Press](/source/NRC_Research_Press): 2046–2056. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1995CaJES..32.2046S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995CaJES..32.2046S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1139/e95-158](https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fe95-158). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0008-4077](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-4077).

v t e Mount Edziza volcanic complex Cinder cones The Ash Pit Cache Hill Camp Hill Cinder Cliff Cocoa Crater Coffee Crater Eve Cone Exile Hill Icefall Cone Kana Cone Keda Cone Klastline Cone Mess Lake Cone Moraine Cone Nahta Cone Outcast Hill Ridge Cone Sidas Cone Sleet Cone Source Hill Storm Cone Thaw Hill Triplex Cones Twin Cone Walkout Creek centres Williams Cone Subglacial volcanoes Pillow Ridge Tennena Cone Tsekone Ridge Wetalth Ridge Central volcanoes Armadillo Peak Mount Edziza Ice Peak Spectrum Range Lava domes Glacier Dome IGC Centre Nanook Dome Pharaoh Dome The Pyramid Sphinx Dome Triangle Dome Lava fields Desolation Lava Field Mess Lake Lava Field Snowshoe Lava Field Plateaus Arctic Lake Plateau Big Raven Plateau Kitsu Plateau Ridges Artifact Ridge Cartoona Ridge Idiji Ridge Obsidian Ridge Pillow Ridge Sorcery Ridge Tsekone Ridge Wetalth Ridge Yagi Ridge Mountain passes Destell Pass Raspberry Pass Bluffs Koosick Bluff Ornostay Bluff Glaciers Idiji Glacier Tenchen Glacier Tencho Glacier Tennaya Glacier Streams Artifact Creek Ball Creek Bourgeaux Creek Chakima Creek Crayke Creek Elwyn Creek Flyin Creek Gerlib Creek Kadeya Creek Kitsu Creek Little Iskut River More Creek Nagha Creek Nido Creek Pyramid Creek Raspberry Creek Sezill Creek Shaman Creek Sorcery Creek Stewbomb Creek Tadekho Creek Taweh Creek Tenchen Creek Tennaya Creek Tsecha Creek Walkout Creek Stratigraphic units Armadillo Formation Big Raven Formation (Sheep Track Member) Edziza Formation Ice Peak Formation Kakiddi Formation Klastline Formation Little Iskut Formation Nido Formation (Tenchen Member) Pyramid Formation Raspberry Formation Other Cartoona Peak Gnu Butte Mess Creek Escarpment Volcanism of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Ice Peak Formation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Peak_Formation) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Peak_Formation?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.