# Hunting

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Searching, pursuing, and killing wild animals

Several terms  redirect here. For other uses, see [Hunt (disambiguation)](/source/Hunt_(disambiguation)), [Hunter (disambiguation)](/source/Hunter_(disambiguation)), [Hunters (disambiguation)](/source/Hunters_(disambiguation)), and [Hunting (disambiguation)](/source/Hunting_(disambiguation)).

For hunting done by non-humans, see [Predation](/source/Predation).

**Hunting** is the [human practice](/source/Human_activity) of seeking, pursuing, capturing, and killing [wildlife](/source/Wildlife) or [feral animals](/source/Feral_animal).[10] The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to obtain the animal's body for [meat](/source/Meat) and useful [animal products](/source/Animal_product) ([fur](/source/Fur)/[hide](/source/Hide_(skin)), [bone](/source/Bone)/[tusks](/source/Tusk), [horn](/source/Horn_(anatomy))/[antler](/source/Antler), etc.), for [recreation](/source/Recreation)/[taxidermy](/source/Taxidermy) (see [trophy hunting](/source/Trophy_hunting)), although it may also be done for resourceful reasons such as removing [predators](/source/Predator) dangerous to humans or [domestic animals](/source/Domestic_animal) (e.g. [wolf hunting](/source/Wolf_hunting)), to [eliminate](/source/Pest_control) [pests](/source/Pest_(organism)) and [nuisance animals](/source/Nuisance_animal) that damage [crops](/source/Crop)/[livestock](/source/Livestock)/[poultry](/source/Poultry) or [spread diseases](/source/Zoonosis) (see [varminting](/source/Varmint_hunting)), for trade/tourism (see [safari](/source/Safari)), or for [ecological conservation](/source/Conservation_biology) against [overpopulation](/source/Overpopulation) and [invasive species](/source/Invasive_species) (commonly called a [cull](/source/Culling#Wildlife)).

Recreationally hunted species are generally referred to as the *[game](/source/Game_(food))*, and are usually [mammals](/source/Mammal) and [birds](/source/Bird). A person participating in a hunt is a **hunter** or (less commonly) **huntsman**; a [natural area](/source/Natural_area) used for hunting is called a [game reserve](/source/Game_reserve); and an experienced hunter who helps organise a hunt and/or manage the game reserve is also known as a [gamekeeper](/source/Gamekeeper).

Hunter on a ground stand during a driven hunt in [Finland](/source/Finland)

Hunting activities by humans arose in *[Homo erectus](/source/Homo_erectus)* or earlier, in the order of millions of years ago. Hunting has become deeply embedded in various [human cultures](/source/Human_culture) and was once an important part of [rural](/source/Rural) economies—classified by economists as part of [primary production](/source/Primary_production_(economics)) alongside [forestry](/source/Forestry), [agriculture](/source/Agriculture), and [fishery](/source/Fishery). Modern regulations (see [game law](/source/Game_law)) distinguish lawful hunting activities from illegal [poaching](/source/Poaching), which involves the unauthorised and unregulated [killing](/source/Killing_of_animals), [trapping](/source/Trapping), or capture of animals.

[Bowhunter](/source/Bowhunter) with a [compound bow](/source/Compound_bow) using a [call](/source/Game_call)

Apart from [food](/source/Food) provision, hunting can be a means of [population control](/source/Population_control). Hunting advocates state that regulated hunting can be a necessary component[11] of modern [wildlife management](/source/Wildlife_management), for example to help maintain a healthy proportion of animal populations within an environment's ecological [carrying capacity](/source/Carrying_capacity) when natural checks such as [natural predators](/source/Natural_predator) are absent or insufficient,[12][13] or to provide funding for [breeding programs](/source/Breeding_program) and maintenance of [natural reserves](/source/Natural_reserve) and [conservation parks](/source/Conservation_area). However, [excessive hunting](/source/Overhunting) has also heavily contributed to the [endangerment](/source/Endangered_species), [extirpation](/source/Local_extinction) and [extinction](/source/Extinction) of many animals.[14][15] Some [animal rights](/source/Animal-rights) and [anti-hunting](/source/Anti-hunting) activists regard hunting as a [cruel](/source/Cruelty_to_animals), [perverse](/source/Zoosadism) and unnecessary [blood sport](/source/Blood_sport).[16][17] Certain hunting practices, such as [canned hunts](/source/Canned_hunt) and [trophy tours](/source/Safari) (especially to poor countries), are considered [unethical](/source/Fair_chase) and [exploitative](/source/Economic_exploitation) even by some hunters.

Professional [deerstalker](/source/Deer_stalking) standing over a downed [red stag](/source/Red_deer) in [Scotland](/source/Scotland)

[Marine mammals](/source/Marine_mammal) such as [whales](/source/Whale) and [pinnipeds](/source/Pinniped) are also targets of hunting, both recreationally and commercially, often with heated controversies regarding the morality, ethics and legality of such practices. The pursuit, harvesting or [catch and release](/source/Catch_and_release) of [fish](/source/Fish) and [aquatic](/source/Aquatic_animal) [cephalopods](/source/Cephalopod) and [crustaceans](/source/Crustacean) is called [fishing](/source/Fishing), which however is widely accepted and not commonly categorised as a form of hunting. It is also not considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them, as in [wildlife photography](/source/Wildlife_photography), [birdwatching](/source/Birdwatching), or scientific-research activities which involve [tranquilizing](/source/Tranquillizer_gun) or [tagging](/source/Electronic_tagging) of animals, although [green hunting](/source/Green_hunting) is still called so. The practices of [netting](/source/Butterfly_net) or [trapping](/source/Insect_trap) [insects](/source/Insect) and other [arthropods](/source/Arthropod) for [trophy collection](/source/Insect_collection), or the [foraging](/source/Foraging) or [gathering](/source/Hunter-gatherer) of [plants](/source/Plant) and [mushrooms](/source/Mushroom), are also not regarded as hunting.[18]

Hunter carrying a [reindeer](/source/Reindeer) in [Greenland](/source/Greenland)

Skillful [tracking](/source/Animal_tracking) and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word *hunt* to be used in the [vernacular](/source/Vernacular) as a [metaphor](/source/Metaphor) for searching and obtaining something, as in "[treasure hunting](/source/Treasure_hunting)", "[bargain](/source/Discounts_and_allowances) hunting", "[hunting for votes](/source/Political_campaign)" and even "[hunting down](/source/Punishment)" [corruption](/source/Corruption) and [waste](/source/Waste).

## Etymology

The word *hunt* serves as both a [noun](/source/Noun) ("the act, the practice, or an instance of hunting") and a [verb](/source/Verb) ("to pursue for food or in sport").[19] The noun has been dated to the early 12th century, from the verb *hunt*. [Old English](/source/Old_English) had *huntung, huntoþ*.[20] The meaning of "a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds" is first recorded in the 1570s. "The act of searching for someone or something" is from about 1600.[20]

The verb, Old English *huntian* "to chase game" ([transitive](/source/Transitive_verb) and [intransitive](/source/Intransitive_verb)), perhaps developed from *hunta* "hunter," is related to *hentan* "to seize," from [Proto-Germanic](/source/Proto-Germanic_language) *huntojan* (the source also of [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) *hinþan* "to seize, capture," [Old High German](/source/Old_High_German) *hunda* "booty"), which is of uncertain origin. The general sense of "search diligently" (for anything) is first recorded c. 1200.[21]

## Types

- Recreational hunting, also known as [trophy hunting](/source/Trophy_hunting), [sport hunting](/source/Sport_hunting) or "[sporting](/source/Field_sports)" - [Big game hunting](/source/Big_game_hunting) - [Big Five game](/source/Big_Five_game) ([lion](/source/Lion_hunting), [elephant](/source/Elephant_hunting_in_Kenya), [African buffalo](/source/African_buffalo), [African leopard](/source/African_leopard), [black rhinoceros](/source/Black_rhinoceros)) - [Bear hunting](/source/Bear_hunting) - [Bison hunting](/source/Bison_hunting) - [Boar hunting](/source/Boar_hunting) - [Tiger hunting](/source/Tiger_hunting) - [Reindeer and caribou hunting](/source/Reindeer_hunting_in_Greenland) - [Deer hunting](/source/Deer_hunting)/[stalking](/source/Deer_stalking) - Elk hunting - Medium/small game hunting - [Fox hunting](/source/Fox_hunting) - [Mink hunting](/source/Mink_hunting) - [Coon hunting](/source/Coon_hunting) - [Hare coursing](/source/Hare_coursing) - [Squirrel hunting](/source/Tree_squirrel#Relationship_with_humans) - [Fowling](/source/Fowling) - [Waterfowl hunting](/source/Waterfowl_hunting) - [Shorebird](/source/Shorebird) hunting ([snipe](/source/Snipe#Hunting), [woodcock](/source/Woodcock#Hunting), [curlew](/source/Curlew), [sandpiper](/source/Sandpiper), [plover](/source/Plover)) - [Upland hunting](/source/Upland_hunting) ([quail](/source/Quail_hunting), [pheasant](/source/Pheasant_shooting), [dove](/source/Mourning_dove), [grouse](/source/Grouse_hunting), [turkey](/source/Turkey_hunting))

- [Pest control](/source/Pest_control)/[nuisance management](/source/Nuisance_wildlife_management) - Predator hunting - [Wolf hunting](/source/Wolf_hunting) - [Jackal coursing](/source/Jackal_coursing) - [Coyote hunting](/source/Coyote#Hunting) - [Bobcat hunting](/source/Bobcat#Conservation) - [Varmint hunting](/source/Varmint_hunting) - [Rabbiting](/source/Rabbiting) - [Rook shooting](/source/Rook_shooting) - [Culling](/source/Culling)

- Commercial hunting and traditional sustenance hunting - [Seal hunting](/source/Seal_hunting) - [Whaling](/source/Whaling), [dolphin drive](/source/Dolphin_drive_hunting), [dugong hunting](/source/Dugong_hunting_in_Australia) - [Alligator hunting](/source/Alligator_hunting) - [Kangaroo hunting](/source/Kangaroo_meat)

- Other - [Falconry](/source/Falconry) - [Green hunting](/source/Green_hunting) - [Poaching](/source/Poaching) - [Trapping](/source/Trapping)

## History

### Lower to Middle Paleolithic

Further information: [Hunting hypothesis](/source/Hunting_hypothesis) and [Endurance running hypothesis](/source/Endurance_running_hypothesis)

Hunting has a long history. It predates the emergence of *[Homo sapiens](/source/Homo_sapiens)* ([anatomically modern humans](/source/Anatomically_modern_humans)) and may even predate the [genus](/source/Genus) *[Homo](/source/Homo)*.

The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the [Early Pleistocene](/source/Early_Pleistocene), consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of *[Homo erectus](/source/Homo_erectus)* about 1.7 million years ago ([Acheulean](/source/Acheulean)).[22] While it is undisputed that *Homo erectus* were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of *Homo erectus* from its australopithecine ancestors, including the production of [stone tools](/source/Stone_tool) and eventually the [control of fire](/source/Control_of_fire), is emphasised in the so-called "[hunting hypothesis](/source/Hunting_hypothesis)" and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and [social interaction](/source/Social_interaction).

There is no direct evidence for hunting predating *Homo erectus*, in either *[Homo habilis](/source/Homo_habilis)* or in *[Australopithecus](/source/Australopithecus)*. The early [hominid](/source/Hominidae) ancestors of humans were probably [frugivores](/source/Frugivore) or [omnivores](/source/Omnivore), with a partially carnivorous diet from [scavenging](/source/Scavenging) rather than hunting. Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption was presented in the 1990s.[23] It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behaviour may have been present well before the emergence of *Homo*.This can be argued on the basis of comparison with [chimpanzees](/source/Common_chimpanzee), the closest extant relatives of humans, who also engage in hunting, indicating that the behavioural trait may have been present in the [Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor](/source/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor) as early as 5 million years ago. The common chimpanzee (*[Pan troglodytes](/source/Pan_troglodytes)*) regularly engages in troop predation behaviour, where bands of beta males are led by an [alpha male](/source/Alpha_male). [Bonobos](/source/Bonobo) (*[Pan paniscus](/source/Pan_paniscus)*) have also been observed to occasionally engage in group hunting,[24] although more rarely than *Pan troglodytes*, mainly subsisting on a [frugivorous](/source/Frugivorous) diet.[25] Indirect evidence for [Oldowan](/source/Oldowan) era hunting, by early *Homo* or late *[Australopithecus](/source/Australopithecus)*, has been presented in a 2009 study based on an Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya.[26]

[Louis Binford](/source/Louis_Binford) (1986) criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly [scavengers](/source/Scavengers), not hunters,[27] Blumenschine (1986) proposed the idea of *confrontational scavenging*, which involves challenging and scaring off other [predators](/source/Predator) *after* they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining [protein](/source/Protein)-rich meat by early humans.[28]

Stone spearheads dated as early as 500,000 years ago were found in South Africa.[29] Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the [University of Southern California](/source/University_of_Southern_California), has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago.[30] The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting [spears](/source/Spear) dates to the very end of the [Lower Paleolithic](/source/Lower_Paleolithic), about 300,000 years ago. The [Schöningen spears](/source/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears), found in 1976 in [Germany](/source/Germany), are associated with *[Homo heidelbergensis](/source/Homo_heidelbergensis)*.[31]

The [hunting hypothesis](/source/Hunting_hypothesis) sees the emergence of [behavioral modernity](/source/Behavioral_modernity) in the [Middle Paleolithic](/source/Middle_Paleolithic) as directly related to hunting, including [mating behaviour](/source/Mating), the establishment of [language](/source/Language), culture, and [religion](/source/Origin_of_religion), [mythology](/source/Mythology) and [animal sacrifice](/source/Animal_sacrifice). Sociologist [David Nibert](/source/David_Nibert) of [Wittenberg University](/source/Wittenberg_University) argues that the emergence of the organized hunting of animals undermined the communal, egalitarian nature of early human societies, with the status of women and less powerful males declining as the status of men quickly became associated with their success at hunting, which also increased human violence within these societies.[32] However, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of [projectile points](/source/Projectile_points) and animal processing implements were discovered at the [Andean](/source/Andes) site of [Wilamaya Patjxa](/source/Wilamaya_Patjxa), [Puno District](/source/Puno_District) in [Peru](/source/Peru).[33]

Early humans progressively invented tools and techniques for trapping animals. The earliest spears were crafted from wood, with tips toughened by burning. By 15,000 BC, hunters employed wooden and bone [spear](/source/Spear)-launchers to enhance force and distance. These devices were frequently adorned with carvings of creatures.[34]

### Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic

Main article: [Hunter-gatherers](/source/Hunter-gatherers)

[Saharan rock art](/source/Saharan_rock_art) with prehistoric archers

[Inuit](/source/Inuit) hunting [walrus](/source/Walrus), 1999

Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple, or possibly main, [environmental factors](/source/Environmental_factor) leading to the [Holocene extinction](/source/Holocene_extinction) of [megafauna](/source/Megafauna) and their replacement by smaller [herbivores](/source/Herbivores).[35][36]

Humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the [Australian megafauna](/source/Australian_megafauna) that was widespread prior to human occupation.[37][38][39]

Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the [domestication](/source/Domestication) of [livestock](/source/Livestock) and the [dawn of agriculture](/source/Neolithic_Revolution), beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the [spear](/source/Spear), [hunting weapons](/source/Hunting_weapon) developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the [atlatl](/source/Atlatl) (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the [bow](/source/Bow_(weapon)) (18,000 years ago). By the [Mesolithic](/source/Mesolithic), [hunting strategies](/source/Hunting_strategy) had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and the [domestication of the dog](/source/Domestication_of_the_dog) about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known [mammoth](/source/Mammoth) hunting in Asia with [spears](/source/Spears) to approximately 16,200 years ago.[40]

Sharp [flint](/source/Flint) piece from [Bjerlev Hede](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bjerlev_Hede&action=edit&redlink=1) in central Jutland. Dated around 12,500 BC and considered the oldest hunting tool from Denmark.

Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. One theory is that in North America and [Eurasia](/source/Eurasia), [caribou and wild reindeer](/source/Reindeer) "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting"[41] (see also [Reindeer Age](/source/Reindeer_Age)), although the varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location.

Ancient Greek [black-figure pottery](/source/Black-figure_pottery) depicting the return of a hunter and his dog; made in [Athens](/source/Athens) c. 540 BC, found in [Rhodes](/source/Rhodes)

[Mesolithic](/source/Mesolithic) hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the [Americas](/source/Americas), [Sub-Saharan Africa](/source/Sub-Saharan_Africa), and [Siberia](/source/Siberia), as well as all of Australia, until the European [Age of Discovery](/source/Age_of_Discovery). They still persist in some [tribal societies](/source/Tribal_societies), albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved Paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some [indigenous peoples of the Amazonas](/source/List_of_indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil) ([Aché](/source/Ach%C3%A9)), some Central and Southern African ([San people](/source/San_people)), some peoples of [New Guinea](/source/New_Guinea) ([Fayu](/source/Fayu_people)), the [Mlabri](/source/Mlabri_people) of [Thailand](/source/Thailand) and [Laos](/source/Laos), the [Vedda people](/source/Vedda_people) of [Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka), and a handful of [uncontacted peoples](/source/Uncontacted_peoples). In Africa, one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes are the [Hadza](/source/Hadza_people) of Tanzania.[42]

### Neolithic and Antiquity

*[Artemis](/source/Artemis) with a Hind*, a [Roman](/source/Ancient_Rome) copy of an [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greece) sculpture, c. 325 BC, by [Leochares](/source/Leochares).

An example of a [Goguryeo tomb mural](/source/Goguryeo_tombs) of hunting, middle of the first millennium.

[Han dynasty](/source/Han_dynasty) tomb brick depicting a fishing and hunting scene

Even as [animal domestication](/source/Domestication#Animals) became relatively widespread and after the development of agriculture, hunting usually remained a significant contributor to the human food-supply. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included [protein](/source/Protein), [bone](/source/Bone) for implements, [sinew](/source/Sinew) for [cordage](/source/Rope), [fur](/source/Fur), [feathers](/source/Feathers), [rawhide](/source/Rawhide_(textile)) and leather used in clothing.

Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for [pastoral](/source/Pastoral) uses or for agriculture.[43] For example, [Inuit](/source/Inuit) in the [Arctic](/source/Arctic) trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of [sea mammals](/source/Marine_mammal) to make [kayaks](/source/Kayak), clothing, and footwear.

On ancient [reliefs](/source/Reliefs), especially from [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia), kings are often depicted by sculptors as hunters of [big game](/source/Big_game_hunting) such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a [war chariot](/source/War_chariot) - early examples of royalty symbolically and militaristically engaging in hunting[44] as "the sport of kings".[45] The cultural and [psychological](/source/Psychological) importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as [the horned god](/source/Horned_God) [Cernunnos](/source/Cernunnos) and [lunar goddesses](/source/Lunar_deity) of [classical antiquity](/source/Classical_antiquity), the Greek [Artemis](/source/Artemis) or Roman [Diana](/source/Diana_(mythology)). [Taboos](/source/Taboo) are often related[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a [divinity](/source/Divinity) could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a [reserve](/source/Nature_reserve) surrounding a temple. [Euripides](/source/Euripides)' tale of Artemis and [Actaeon](/source/Actaeon), for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or against impudent boasting.

Low-relief the boar hunt, [Taq-e Bostan](/source/Taq-e_Bostan)

With the domestication of the dog, [birds of prey](/source/Bird_of_prey), and the [ferret](/source/Ferret), various forms of animal-aided hunting developed, including [venery](/source/Medieval_hunting) ([scent-hound](/source/Scent_hound) hunting, such as [fox hunting](/source/Fox_hunting)), [coursing](/source/Coursing) ([sight-hound](/source/Sight_hound) hunting), [falconry](/source/Falconry), and [ferreting](/source/Ferreting). While these are all associated[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] with [medieval hunting](/source/Medieval_hunting), over time, various [dog breeds](/source/Dog_breed) were selected by humans for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as ["pointer"](/source/Pointing_breed) and "[setter](/source/Setter)".

See also: [Lion hunting](/source/Lion_hunting)

### Pastoral and agricultural societies

[Nobleman](/source/Nobleman) in hunting costume with his servant following the scent of a [stag](/source/Stag), 14th century

Even as agriculture and [animal husbandry](/source/Animal_husbandry) became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societies persisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. And within agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that prey upon [domestic and wild animals](/source/List_of_domesticated_animals) or to attempt to [extirpate](/source/Local_extinction) animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage.

When hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a selective one, two trends emerged:

1. the development of the role of the specialist hunter, with special training and equipment

1. the option of hunting as a "sport" for members of an upper social class

The meaning of the word *game* in [Middle English](/source/Middle_English) evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As the domestication of animals for meat grew, subsistence hunting remained among the lowest classes; however, the stylised pursuit of game in European societies became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, such as for lions or [wild boars](/source/Wild_boar), often done on [horseback](/source/Horseback) or from a [chariot](/source/Chariot), had a function similar to [tournaments](/source/Tournament_(medieval)) and manly sports. Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the [aristocracy](/source/Aristocracy) practice skills of war in times of peace.[46]

In most parts of [medieval](/source/Medieval) Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the [Robin Hood](/source/Robin_Hood) legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer". In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all.[47]

In medieval Europe, hunting was considered by [Johannes Scotus Eriugena](/source/Johannes_Scotus_Eriugena) to be part of the set of *[seven mechanical arts](/source/Mechanic_arts)*.[48]

### Use of dog

*Hunting Companions*, [Dutch](/source/Dutch_people) 19th-century painting featuring two dogs, a [shotgun](/source/Shotgun) and a game bag

Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter, such as [ferrets](/source/Ferrets), the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter. The domestication of the dog has led to a [symbiotic relationship](/source/Symbiosis) in which the dog's independence from humans is deferred. Though dogs can survive independently of humans, and in many cases do ferally, when raised or adopted by humans the species tends to defer to its control in exchange for habitation, food and support.[49]

Dogs today are used to find, chase, retrieve, and sometimes kill game. Dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. Different breeds of specifically bred [hunting dog](/source/Hunting_dog) are used for different types of hunting. Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as the [Labrador Retriever](/source/Labrador_Retriever), the [Golden Retriever](/source/Golden_Retriever), the [Chesapeake Bay Retriever](/source/Chesapeake_Bay_Retriever), the [Brittany Spaniel](/source/Brittany_Spaniel), and other similar breeds. [Game birds](/source/Upland_game_bird) are flushed out using flushing [spaniels](/source/Spaniel) such as the [English Springer Spaniel](/source/English_Springer_Spaniel), the various [Cocker Spaniels](/source/Cocker_Spaniel) and similar breeds.

The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the [Hunting Act 2004](/source/Hunting_Act_2004). The wild mammals include fox, hare, deer and mink. There are, however, exceptions in the Act.[50] Nevertheless, there have been numerous attempts on behalf of activists, pressure groups, etc. to revoke the act over the last two decades.[51][52][53]

## Religion

Further information: [Homo Necans](/source/Homo_Necans)

Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans, often in a [zoomorphic](/source/Zoomorphic) form, perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures.

In many [pagan religions](/source/Paganism), specific rituals are conducted before or after a hunt; the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place.[54] Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] In Roman religion, [Diana](/source/Diana_(mythology)) is the goddess of the hunt.[55]

[Mughal](/source/Mughal_Empire) [aristocrats](/source/Aristocrat) hunting a [blackbuck](/source/Blackbuck) alongside an [Asiatic cheetah](/source/Asiatic_cheetah), 1812

### Indian and Eastern religions

A group of [Sikhs](/source/Sikh) hunting (unknown [Pahari artist](/source/Pahari_painting), 18th century)

A [tiger hunt](/source/Tiger_hunting) at [Jhajjar](/source/Jhajjar), [Rohtak district](/source/Rohtak_district), Punjab, c. 1820

[Hindu scriptures](/source/Hindu_scripture) describe hunting as an occupation, as well as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered divine are described to have engaged in hunting. One of the names of the god [Shiva](/source/Shiva) is Mrigavyadha (deer-slayer).[56] The word *Mriga*, in many Indian languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for all animals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha, is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In the epic [Ramayana](/source/Ramayana), [Dasharatha](/source/Dasharatha), the father of [Rama](/source/Rama), is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, he accidentally killed [Shravana](/source/Shravana), mistaking him for game. During Rama's exile in the forest, [Ravana](/source/Ravana) kidnapped his wife, [Sita](/source/Sita), from their hut, while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and his brother [Lakshman](/source/Lakshman) went after him. According to the [Mahabharat](/source/Mahabharat), [Pandu](/source/Pandu), the father of the [Pandavas](/source/Pandavas), accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

[Jainism](/source/Jainism) teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamental conditions for being a [Jain](/source/Jain).[57]

[Buddhism](/source/Buddhism)'s first [precept](/source/Precept) is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living animals. [Buddha](/source/Gautama_Buddha) explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill."[58]

In [Sikhism](/source/Sikhism), only meat obtained from hunting, or slaughtered with the [Jhatka](/source/Jhatka) is permitted. The [Sikh gurus](/source/Sikh_gurus), especially [Guru Hargobind](/source/Guru_Hargobind) and [Guru Gobind Singh](/source/Guru_Gobind_Singh) were ardent hunters. Many old Sikh [Rehatnamas](/source/Sikh_Rehat_Maryada) like [Prem Sumarag](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prem_Sumarag&action=edit&redlink=1), recommend hunting [wild boar](/source/Wild_boar) and [deer](/source/Deer). However, among modern Sikhs, the practice of hunting has died down; some even saying that all meat is forbidden.

### Christianity, Judaism, and Islam

Ladies hunting in the 15th century

[Tapestry](/source/Tapestry) with a hunting scene, late 16th century

From [early Christian](/source/Early_Christian) times, hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church [clerics](/source/Cleric). Thus the *[Corpus Juris Canonici](/source/Corpus_Juris_Canonici)* (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The [Fourth Council of the Lateran](/source/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran), held under [Pope Innocent III](/source/Pope_Innocent_III), decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the [Council of Trent](/source/Council_of_Trent) is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy (*clamorosa*) hunting unlawful, but not quiet (*quieta*) hunting.[59]

Ferraris gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or "honest" recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however, thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church.[59]

Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting[60] is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by [synods](/source/Synod) at [Milan](/source/Milan), [Avignon](/source/Avignon), [Liège](/source/Li%C3%A8ge), [Cologne](/source/Cologne), and elsewhere. [Benedict XIV](/source/Benedict_XIV) declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the [ecclesiastical law](/source/Canon_law). In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.[59] Small-scale hunting as a family or [subsistence farming](/source/Subsistence_farming) activity is recognised by [Pope Francis](/source/Pope_Francis) in his encyclical letter, [Laudato si'](/source/Laudato_si'), as a legitimate and valuable aspect of employment within the food production system.[61]

Hunting is not forbidden in [Jewish law](/source/Jewish_law), although there is an aversion to it. The great 18th-century authority [Rabbi Yechezkel Landau](/source/Rabbi_Yechezkel_Landau) after a study concluded although "hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured... There is an unseemly element in it, namely cruelty." The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on the value of human life.[62][63]

Islamic [Sharia Law](/source/Sharia) permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered. However, this is only for the purpose of food and not for trophy hunting.[64]

## National traditions

### East Africa

Explorer and big game hunter [Samuel Baker](/source/Samuel_Baker) chased by an elephant, illustration from 1890

Main article: [Safari](/source/Safari)

A safari, from a [Swahili](/source/Swahili_language) word meaning "journey, expedition,"[65] especially in Africa, is defined as a journey to see or kill animals in their natural environment, most commonly in East Africa.[66] Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by the US author [Ernest Hemingway](/source/Ernest_Hemingway) and President [Theodore Roosevelt](/source/Theodore_Roosevelt).[67] A safari may consist of a several-days—or even weeks-long journey, with [camping](/source/Camping) in [the bush](/source/The_bush) or [jungle](/source/Jungle), while pursuing [big game](/source/Game_(food)). Nowadays, it is often used to describe hunting tours through African wildlife.[68]

Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by [licensed](/source/Hunting_license) and highly [regulated](/source/Regulation) professional hunters, local guides, [skinners](/source/Skinner_(profession)), and [porters](/source/Porter_(carrier)) in more difficult terrains.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] A special safari type is the solo-safari, where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by the hunter himself.[69]

### Indian subcontinent

[Weeks Edwin's](/source/Edwin_Lord_Weeks) painting *Departure for the Hunt*, c. 1885

A *Shikar* party in [Mandalay](/source/Mandalay), [Burma](/source/Burma), soon after the conclusion of the [Third Anglo-Burmese War](/source/Third_Anglo-Burmese_War) in 1886, when Burma was annexed to [British India](/source/British_India)

During the [feudal](/source/Indian_feudalism) and [colonial](/source/Colonial_India) times in [British India](/source/British_Raj), hunting or *shikar* was regarded as a regal sport in the numerous [princely states](/source/Princely_states), as many [maharajas](/source/Maharaja) and [nawabs](/source/Nawab), as well as British officers, maintained a whole corps of *shikari*s ([big-game hunters](/source/Big-game_hunting)), who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by a master of the hunt, who might be styled *mir-shikar*. Often, they recruited the normally low-ranking local tribes because of their [traditional knowledge](/source/Traditional_knowledge) of the environment and hunting techniques. Big game, such as [Bengal tigers](/source/Bengal_tigers), might be hunted from the back of an [Indian elephant](/source/Indian_elephant).

Regional [social norms](/source/Norm_(sociology)) are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few [sects](/source/Sect), such as the [Bishnoi](/source/Bishnoi), lay special emphasis on the conservation of particular species, such as the [antelope](/source/Antelope). India's [Wildlife Protection Act of 1972](/source/Wildlife_Protection_Act_of_1972) bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the [Chief Wildlife Warden](/source/Indian_Forest_Service) may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.[70]

The practice among the soldiers in British India during the 1770s of going out to hunt [snipes](/source/Snipe), a [shorebird](/source/Shorebird) considered extremely challenging for hunters due to its alertness, camouflaging colour and erratic flight behavior, is believed to be the origin of the modern word for [sniper](/source/Sniper), as snipe-hunters needed to be stealthy in addition to having [tracking](/source/Tracking_(hunting)) skills and [marksmanship](/source/Marksmanship).[71][72] The term was used in the nineteenth century, and had become common usage by the [First World War](/source/First_World_War).

### United Kingdom

Snowden Slights with [retriever](/source/Retriever) and [shotgun](/source/Shotgun) around 1910, 'the last of Yorkshire's [Wildfowlers](/source/Wildfowler)'[73]

Main article: [Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom](/source/Hunting_and_shooting_in_the_United_Kingdom)

See also: [Deer stalking](/source/Deer_stalking) and [Fox hunting legislation](/source/Fox_hunting_legislation)

Unarmed [fox hunting](/source/Fox_hunting) on horseback with hounds is the type of hunting most closely associated with the United Kingdom; in fact, "hunting" without qualification implies fox hunting.[74] What in other countries is called "hunting" is called "shooting" (birds)[75] or "stalking" (deer)[76] in Britain. Fox hunting is a social activity for the upper classes, with roles strictly defined by wealth and status.[77][78] Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasing of hares with [hounds](/source/Hound). Pairs of [sighthounds](/source/Sighthound) (or long-dogs), such as [greyhounds](/source/Greyhound), may be used to pursue a hare in coursing, where the greyhounds are marked as to their skill in coursing the hare (but are not intended to actually catch it), or the hare may be pursued with [scent hounds](/source/Scent_hound) such as [beagles](/source/Beagle) or harriers. Other sorts of [foxhounds](/source/Foxhound) may also be used for hunting [stags (deer)](/source/Stag) or [mink](/source/American_mink).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] [Deer stalking](/source/Deer_stalking) with rifles is carried out on foot without hounds, using stealth.[11]

These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK. [Animal welfare](/source/Animal_welfare) supporters believe that hunting causes unnecessary suffering to foxes, horses, and hounds. Proponents argue that the activity is a historical tradition. Using dogs to chase wild mammals was [made illegal](/source/Fox_hunting_legislation) in February 2005 by the [Hunting Act 2004](/source/Hunting_Act_2004); there were a number of exemptions (under which the activity may not be illegal) in the act for hunting with hounds, but no exemptions at all for hare-coursing.[76]

#### Shooting traditions

Game birds, especially [pheasants](/source/Pheasant) and [red grouse](/source/Red_grouse), are shot with shotguns for sport in the UK; the [British Association for Shooting and Conservation](/source/British_Association_for_Shooting_and_Conservation) says that over a million people per year participate in shooting, including game shooting, [clay pigeon shooting](/source/Clay_pigeon_shooting), and [target shooting](/source/Shooting_sports).[79] Shooting as practiced in Britain, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for game—around thirty-five million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been [factory farmed](/source/Factory_farming). Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions and assistants to help load shotguns. When in position, "[beaters](/source/Beater_(hunting))" move through the areas of cover, swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such events are often called "drives," "[driven hunting](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Driven_hunting&action=edit&redlink=1)," or "driven hunts" (e.g., [driven grouse shooting](/source/Driven_grouse_shooting)). The open season for [grouse](/source/Grouse) in the UK begins on 12 August, the so-called [Glorious Twelfth](/source/Glorious_Twelfth). The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the [Game Act 1831](/source/Game_Act_1831) ([1 & 2 Will. 4](/source/1_%26_2_Will._4). c. 32).

A similar tradition, *[ojeo](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ojeo&action=edit&redlink=1) [[es](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/ojeo)]*, exists in Spain.

### United States

Main article: [Hunting in the United States](/source/Hunting_in_the_United_States)

Hunting camp with [dressed deer](/source/Field_dressing_deer) at [Schoodic Lake](/source/Schoodic_Lake), Maine, in 1905

Carrying a bear trophy head at the [Kodiak Archipelago](/source/Kodiak_Archipelago)

North American hunting pre-dates the United States by thousands of years and was an important part of many [pre-Columbian](/source/Pre-Columbian) Native American cultures. Native Americans retain some hunting rights and are exempt from some laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under [federal law](/source/Federal_law)[80]—examples include [eagle feather laws](/source/Eagle_feather_law) and exemptions in the [Marine Mammal Protection Act](/source/Marine_Mammal_Protection_Act_of_1972). This is considered particularly important in [Alaskan native](/source/Alaska_Native) communities.

A man [target practicing](/source/Target_practice) for the hunting season

Gun usage in hunting is typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulations for [big-game hunting](/source/Big-game_hunting) often specify a minimum [caliber](/source/Caliber) or [muzzle energy](/source/Muzzle_energy) for [firearms](/source/Firearm). The use of [rifles](/source/Rifle) is often banned for safety reasons in areas with high [population densities](/source/Population_density) or limited [topographic relief](/source/Terrain). Regulations may also limit or ban the use of [lead](/source/Lead) in [ammunition](/source/Ammunition) because of environmental concerns. Specific seasons for [bow](/source/Bow_(weapon)) hunting or [muzzle-loading](/source/Muzzle-loader) [black-powder](/source/Black_powder) guns are often established to limit competition with hunters using more effective [weapons](/source/Weapons).

Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture; a 2006 poll showed seventy-eight per cent of Americans supported legal hunting,[81] although relatively few Americans actually hunt. At the beginning of the 21st century, just six per cent of Americans hunted. [Southerners](/source/Southern_United_States) in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate of five per cent, slightly below the national average, and while hunting was more common in other parts of the South at nine per cent, these rates did not surpass those of the Plains states, where twelve per cent of [Midwesterners](/source/Midwesterners) hunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average.[82] Overall, in the 1996–2006 period, the number of hunters over the age of sixteen declined by ten per cent, a drop attributable to a number of factors including [habitat loss](/source/Habitat_destruction) and changes in recreation habits.[83]

The principles of the [fair chase](/source/Fair_chase)[84] have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over one hundred years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularised by Theodore Roosevelt, and perpetuated by Roosevelt's formation of the [Boone and Crockett Club](/source/Boone_and_Crockett_Club), has been central to the development of the modern fair chase tradition. *Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting*, a book by Jim Posewitz, describes fair chase:

"Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase. This concept addresses the balance between the hunter and the hunted. It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionally succeed while animals generally avoid being taken."[85]

When [Internet hunting](/source/Internet_hunting) was introduced in 2005, allowing people to hunt over the Internet using remotely controlled guns, the practice was widely criticised by hunters as violating the principles of fair chase. As a representative of the [National Rifle Association of America](/source/National_Rifle_Association_of_America) (NRA) explained, "The NRA has always maintained that fair chase, being in the field with your firearm or bow, is an important element of hunting tradition. Sitting at your desk in front of your computer, clicking at a mouse, has nothing to do with hunting."[86]

Animals such as [blackbuck](/source/Blackbuck), [nilgai](/source/Nilgai), [axis deer](/source/Axis_deer), [fallow deer](/source/Fallow_deer), [zebras](/source/Zebra), [barasingha](/source/Barasingha), [gazelle](/source/Gazelle) and many other exotic game species can now be found on [game farms](/source/Game_farm) and [ranches](/source/Ranch) in [Texas](/source/Texas), where they were introduced for sport hunting. These hunters can be found paying in excess of $10,000 to take trophy animals on these controlled ranches.[87]

### Russia

Main article: [Hunting in Russia](/source/Hunting_in_Russia)

The [Russian](/source/Russia) imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulers—[Grand Princes](/source/Grand_Prince) and [Tsars](/source/Russian_Czar)—under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts. The imperial hunts were organised mainly in [Peterhof](/source/Petergof), [Tsarskoye Selo](/source/Tsarskoye_Selo), and [Gatchina](/source/Gatchina).

Riders gather for a [dingo](/source/Dingo) drive in [Morven, Queensland](/source/Morven%2C_Queensland), 1936.

### Australia

Main article: [Hunting in Australia](/source/Hunting_in_Australia)

Hunting in [Australia](/source/Australia) has evolved around the hunting and eradication of various animals considered to be pests or [invasive species](/source/Invasive_species) . All native animals are protected by law, and certain species such as [kangaroos](/source/Kangaroo) and [ducks](/source/Duck) can be hunted by [licensed](/source/Hunting_license) shooters but only under a special permit on [public lands](/source/Public_land) during [open seasons](/source/Hunting_season). The [introduced species](/source/Introduced_species) that are targeted include [European rabbits](/source/European_rabbit), [red foxes](/source/Red_fox), [deer](/source/Deer) ([sambar](/source/Sambar_deer), [hog](/source/Indian_hog_deer), [red](/source/Red_deer), [fallow](/source/European_fallow_deer), [chital](/source/Chital) and [rusa](/source/Javan_rusa)), [feral cats](/source/Feral_cats_in_Australia), [pigs](/source/Feral_pig#Australia), [goats](/source/Feral_goats_in_Australia), [brumbies](/source/Brumby), [donkeys](/source/Feral_donkeys_in_Australia) and occasionally [camels](/source/Australian_feral_camel), as well as introduced [upland birds](/source/Upland_bird) such as [quails](/source/Quail), [pheasants](/source/Pheasant) and [partridges](/source/Partridge).

### New Zealand

Main article: [Hunting in New Zealand](/source/Hunting_in_New_Zealand)

New Zealand has a strong hunting culture.[88] When humans arrived, the only mammals present on the islands making up New Zealand were bats, although seals and other marine mammals were present along the coasts. However, when humans arrived they brought other species with them. Polynesian voyagers introduced kuri (dogs), kiore (Polynesian rats), as well as a range of plant species. European explorers further added to New Zealand's biota, particularly pigs which were introduced by either Captain Cook or the French explorer De Surville in the 1700s.[89][90] During the nineteenth century, as European colonisation took place, [acclimatisation societies](/source/Acclimatisation_society) were established. The societies introduced a large number of species with no use other than as prey for hunting.[91] Species that adapted well to the New Zealand terrain include [deer](/source/Deer), [pigs](/source/Pigs), [goats](/source/Goats), [hare](/source/Hare), [tahr](/source/Tahr) and [chamois](/source/Chamois). With wilderness areas, suitable forage, and no natural predators, their populations exploded. Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the [natural environment](/source/Natural_environment) and on agricultural production, but hunters view them as a resource.

### Iran

Plate depicting [Khosrow I](/source/Khosrow_I) hunting animals

Iranian tradition regarded hunting as an essential part of a prince's education,[92] and hunting was well recorded for the education of the upper-class youths during [pre-Islamic Persia](/source/History_of_Iran#Classical_antiquity). As of October 2020, a hunting licensee costs $20,000. The Department of Environment although do not report the number of permits issued.[93]

### Japan

The numbers of licensed hunters in [Japan](/source/Japan), including those using [snares](/source/Snare_trap) and guns, is generally decreasing, while their average age is increasing. As of 2010[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hunting&action=edit), there were approximately 190,000 registered hunters, approximately 65% of whom were sixty years old or older.[94]

### Trinidad and Tobago

There is a very active tradition of hunting small to medium-sized wild game in [Trinidad and Tobago](/source/Trinidad_and_Tobago). Hunting is carried out with firearms, slingshots and cage traps, and sometimes aided by the use of hounds. The illegal use of trap guns and snare nets also occurs. With approximately 12,000 to 13,000 hunters applying for and being granted hunting permits in recent years, there is some concern that the practice might not be sustainable. In addition, there are at present no bag limits and the open season is comparatively very long (5 months – October to February inclusive). As such hunting pressure from legal hunters is very high. Added to that, there is a thriving and very lucrative black market for poached wild game (sold and enthusiastically purchased as expensive luxury delicacies) and the numbers of commercial poachers in operation is unknown but presumed to be fairly high. As a result, the populations of the five major mammalian game species ([red-rumped agouti](/source/Red-rumped_agouti), [lowland paca](/source/Lowland_paca), [nine-banded armadillo](/source/Nine-banded_armadillo), [collared peccary](/source/Collared_peccary) and [red brocket deer](/source/Red_brocket_deer)) are thought to be relatively low when compared to less-hunted regions in nearby mainland [South America](/source/South_America) (although scientifically conducted population studies are only just recently being conducted as of 2013[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hunting&action=edit)). It appears that the [red brocket deer](/source/Red_brocket_deer) population has been extirpated in [Tobago](/source/Tobago) as a result of over-hunting. By some time in the mid 20th century another extirpation due to over-hunting occurred in [Trinidad](/source/Trinidad) with its population of [horned screamer](/source/Horned_screamer) (a large game bird). Various herons, ducks, doves, the [green iguana](/source/Green_iguana), the [cryptic golden tegu](/source/Cryptic_golden_tegu), the [spectacled caiman](/source/Spectacled_caiman), the [common opossum](/source/Common_opossum) and the [capybara](/source/Capybara) are also commonly hunted and poached. There is also some poaching of 'fully protected species', including [red howler](/source/Guyanan_red_howler) monkey and [capuchin monkeys](/source/Capuchin_monkey), [southern tamandua](/source/Southern_tamandua), [Brazilian porcupine](/source/Brazilian_porcupine), [yellow-footed tortoise](/source/Yellow-footed_tortoise), the critically endangered island endemic [Trinidad piping guan](/source/Trinidad_piping_guan) and even one of the national birds, the [scarlet ibis](/source/Scarlet_ibis). Legal hunters pay relatively small fees to obtain hunting licenses and undergo no official basic [conservation biology](/source/Conservation_biology) or hunting-ethics/[fair chase](/source/Fair_chase) training and are not assessed regarding their knowledge and comprehension of the local wildlife conservation laws. There is presumed to be relatively little subsistence hunting in the country (with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit). The local wildlife management authorities are under-staffed and under-funded, and as such little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws, with hunting/poaching occurring both in and out of season and even in wildlife sanctuaries. There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously, with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015. It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments, and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management.

## Wildlife management

Control fence to assess the impact of [browsing](/source/Browsing_(herbivory)) by [ungulates](/source/Ungulate). Note the lack of natural forest regeneration outside the fencing.

Main article: [Wildlife management](/source/Wildlife_management)

Hunting is claimed to give [resource managers](/source/Wildlife_management) an important tool[95][96] in managing populations that might exceed the [carrying capacity](/source/Carrying_capacity) of their [habitat](/source/Habitat) and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety.[97]

In some cases, hunting actually can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population.[98] Hunting advocates[*[who?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions)*] assert that hunting reduces [intraspecific competition](/source/Intraspecific_competition) for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some [environmentalists](/source/Environmentalist) assert[*[who?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions)*] that (re)introducing [predators](/source/Predator) would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free [lead](/source/Lead) into the environment and [food chain](/source/Food_chain).

In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted.

Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the case with deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters, although others may include amateur hunters. Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunters each year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area, such as neighbourhood parks and [metropolitan](/source/Metropolitan_area) open spaces.

A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools that are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates in countries that rely on bag limits per hunter instead of per area.[99][100][101][102]

## Laws

Main articles: [Hunting legislation](/source/Hunting_legislation) and [Poaching](/source/Poaching)

Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international [conservation](/source/Conservation_(ethic)) and wildlife management laws is called poaching. [Game preservation](/source/Game_preservation) is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching. Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law.[103] Punishment can include [confiscation of equipment](/source/Confiscation), [fines](/source/Fine_(penalty)) or a [prison](/source/Prison) sentence.

### Right to hunt

The right to hunt—sometimes in combination with the right to fish—is protected implicitly, as a consequence of the [right of ownership](/source/Property_rights_(economics)),[104] or explicitly, as a [right](/source/Rights) on its own,[105][106] in a number of jurisdictions. For instance, as of 2019, a total of 22 U.S. states explicitly recognize a subjective right to hunt in their constitutions.[106][107]

### Bag limits

Main article: [Bag limits](/source/Bag_limits)

[Red-legged partridges](/source/Red-legged_partridge) on a game rack

Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed, although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also [jurisdictions](/source/Jurisdiction) where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. The phrase *bag limits* come from the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small basket, similar to a [fishing creel](/source/Fishing_creel).

Where bag limits are used, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits; for example, ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day.[108] Big game, like [moose](/source/Moose), most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex, or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases, bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protect animal populations, as protecting the population would necessitate regional density-dependent maximum bags.

### Closed and open season

A [closed season](/source/Closed_season) is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or to protect them during their [breeding season](/source/Breeding_season).[109] By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the [open season](/source/Open_season_(hunting)).

## Methods

Tswana hunting the [lion](/source/Lion), 1841

American [bison](/source/Bison) being chased off a cliff as seen and painted by [Alfred Jacob Miller](/source/Alfred_Jacob_Miller), c. 1860

Master or whipper-in and fox hounds drawing a wood. Hunting in [Yorkshire](/source/Yorkshire), Northern England, in 2005, on the last day of fully legal, proper, [fox hunting](/source/Fox_hunting).

Main article: [Hunting strategy](/source/Hunting_strategy)

Historical, subsistence, and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when, and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, hunting equipment, and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique. Laws may forbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily in poaching and wildlife management.

## Statistics

### Table

Number of hunters in various European and North American countries Sources: Europe (2016/17),[110] Ireland (2007),[111] Canada (2012),[112] Russia (2012),[113] United States (2016);[114] Country Hunters Population (millions) Hunters as percentage of the total population Relation hunters/inhabitants Area (km2) Hunters per km2 Canada 2,482,678 34.7 7.15 1:14 9,984,670 0.25 Finland 308,000 5.2 5.92 1:17 338,448 0.91 Cyprus 45,000 0.8 5.63 1:18 5,896 7.63 Norway 190,000 4.7 4.04 1:25 385,207 0.49 Malta 15,000 0.4 3.75 1:27 316 47.47 United States 11,453,000 323.1 3.54 1:28 9,826,675 1.17 Sweden 290,000 9.0 3.22 1:31 447,435 0.65 Denmark 165,000 5.5 3.00 1:33 42,921 3.84 Ireland 104,000 4.2 2.48 1:46 70,273 1.48 Greece 235,000 10.7 2.20 1:46 131,957 1.78 Spain 980,000 45.0 2.18 1:46 505,970 1.94 Portugal 230,000 10.7 2.15 1:47 92,212 2.49 France 1,331,000 64.1 2.08 1:48 543,965 2.45 Russia 2,800,000 143.2 1.96 1:51 17,125,200 0.16 Bulgaria 110,000 7.7 1.43 1:70 110,994 0.99 Austria 118,000 8.3 1.42 1:70 83,879 1.41 United Kingdom 800,000 61.1 1.31 1:76 242,495 3.30 Italy 750,000 58.1 1.29 1:77 301,338 2.49 Estonia 16,600 1.3 1.28 1:78 45,339 0.37 Croatia 55,000 4.5 1.22 1:82 56,594 0.97 Slovenia 22,000 2.0 1.10 1:91 20,273 1.09 Latvia 25,000 2.3 1.09 1:92 64,589 0.39 Czech Republic 110,000 10.2 1.08 1:93 78,866 1.39 Slovakia 55,000 5.4 1.02 1:98 49,034 1.12 Lithuania 32,000 3.6 0.89 1:113 65,300 0.49 Hungary 55,000 9.9 0.56 1:180 93,036 0.59 Germany 351,000 82.5 0.43 1:235 357,578 0.98 Luxembourg 2,000 0.5 0.40 1:250 2,586 0.77 Switzerland 30,000 7.6 0.39 1:253 41,285 0.73 Poland 106,000 38.5 0.28 1:363 312,696 0.34 Romania 60,000 22.2 0.27 1:370 238,391 0.25 Belgium 23,000 10.4 0.22 1:452 30,688 0.75 Netherlands 28,170 16.7 0.17 1:593 41,543 0.68

### Graph

## Trophy hunting

Main article: [Trophy hunting](/source/Trophy_hunting)

Trophy collection of the [Liechtenstein family](/source/House_of_Liechtenstein) at [Úsov](/source/%C3%9Asov) Castle, the Czech Republic

A hunter and local guides with an [elephant](/source/Elephant) they shot, 1970

Trophy hunting is the selective seeking and killing of wild game animals to take [trophies](/source/Trophies) for [personal collection](/source/Private_collection), [bragging rights](/source/Boasting) or as a [status symbol](/source/Status_symbol). It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics; this is sometimes known as [canned hunts](/source/Canned_hunt).[115]

### History

In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a [trophy](/source/Trophy), usually the head or [pelt](/source/Fur) of an animal, which was then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typically discarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In [Nordic countries](/source/Nordic_countries), hunting for trophies was—and still is—frowned upon. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] The [safari](#East_Africa) method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, [trophy hunting](/source/Trophy_hunting) persists and is a significant industry in some areas.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Conservation tool

According to the [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service](/source/U.S._Fish_and_Wildlife_Service), hunting "provides an economic incentive" for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting "reduces the threat of the species' extinction."[116][117]

A scientific study in the journal, *Biological Conservation*, states that trophy hunting is of "major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism."[118] However, another study states that less than 3% of a trophy hunters' expenditures reach the local level, meaning that the economic incentive and benefit is "minimal, particularly when we consider the vast areas of land that hunting concessions occupy."[119]

Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation, relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone according to *Biological Conservation*,[118] although local communities usually derive no more than 18 cents per hectare from trophy hunting.[119]

[Trophy hunting](/source/Trophy_hunting) has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to research studies in *Conservation Biology*,[120] *Journal of Sustainable Tourism*,[121] *Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use*,[122] and *Animal Conservation*.[120][123] Studies by the Centre for Responsible Tourism[124] and the IUCN state that ecotourism, which includes more than hunting, is a superior economic incentive, generating twice the revenue per acre and 39 times more permanent employment.[125] At the cross-section of trophy hunting, ecotourism and conservation is [green hunting](/source/Green_hunting), a trophy hunting alternative where hunters pay to dart animals that need to be tranquilized for conservation projects.[126]

The [U.S. House Committee on Natural Resources](/source/U.S._House_Committee_on_Natural_Resources) in 2016 concluded that trophy hunting may be contributing to the extinction of certain animals.[127] Animal welfare organizations, including the [International Fund for Animal Welfare](/source/IFAW), claim that trophy hunting is a key factor in the "silent extinction" of [giraffes](/source/Giraffes).[128]

According to a national survey that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts every five years, fewer people are hunting, even as population rises. National Public Radio reported, a graph shows 2016 statistics, that only about 5 per cent of Americans, 16 years old and older, actually hunt, which is half of what it was 50 years ago. The decline in popularity of hunting is expected to accelerate over the next decade, which threatens how US will pay for conservation. [129]

### Controversy

See also: [Killing of Cecil the lion](/source/Killing_of_Cecil_the_lion)

Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or [endangered](/source/Endangered) animals.[130] Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of [morality](/source/Morality)[131] or [animal cruelty](/source/Cruelty_to_animals), criticising the killing of living creatures for [recreation](/source/Recreation). [Victorian era](/source/Victorian_era) dramatist [W. S. Gilbert](/source/W._S._Gilbert) remarked, "[Deer-stalking](/source/Deer-stalking) would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns."[132]

There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the [local economy](/source/Local_economy). Hunters pay substantial fees to the game outfitters and hunting guides which contributes to the local economy and provides value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops.[133] However, the argument is disputed by animal welfare organizations and other opponents of trophy hunting.[134][135] It is argued that the animals are worth more to the community for [ecotourism](/source/Ecotourism) than hunting.[136][137]

## Economics

[Chatelherault](/source/Chatelherault_Country_Park), built by [William Adam](/source/William_Adam_(architect)) in 1743 as the [Duke of Hamilton's](/source/James_Douglas-Hamilton%2C_5th_Duke_of_Hamilton) hunting lodge

[Marshal's Cabin](/source/Marshal's_Cabin), a former hunting lodge in [Loppi](/source/Loppi), Finland

A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds. In [Tanzania](/source/Tanzania), it is estimated that a safari hunter spends fifty to one hundred times that of the average [ecotourist](/source/Ecotourist). While the average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation, the average safari hunter generally stays in tented camps. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the typical ecotourist. Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy. The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around £700 million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over a billion pounds less than ten years later.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specialising in hunting [equipment](/source/Sports_equipment) or speciality tourism. Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting, and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport.[138] In the US, proceeds from hunting licenses contribute to state game management programs, including preservation of wildlife habitat.

Hunting contributes to a portion of caloric intake of people and may have positive impacts on greenhouse gas emissions by avoidance of utilization of meat raised under industrial methods.[139]

## Environmental problems

Right: [.40 S&W](/source/.40_S%26W) round with [hollow-point bullet](/source/Hollow-point_bullet)  Left: Expanded bullet of the same calibre with exposed lead core

Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass could become a [toxicant](/source/Toxicant) in the environment but lead in ammunition because of its metallic form has a lower solubility and higher resistance to corrosion than other forms of lead making it hardly available to biological systems.[140] Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant, but studies have demonstrated that effects of lead in ammunition are negligible on animal population size and growth.[141][142] Since 1991, US federal law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states have some type of restriction.[143]

In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the [EPA](/source/EPA) must use the [Toxic Substances Control Act](/source/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act) to regulate lead in shells and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulate "spent lead", yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.[144]

## Conservation

Main articles: [Conservation (ethic)](/source/Conservation_(ethic)) and [Conservation movement](/source/Conservation_movement)

This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please help improve it by adding information on neglected viewpoints. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (May 2012)

The changing distribution of the world's land mammals in tonnes of carbon. The [biomass](/source/Biomass_(ecology)) of wild land mammals has declined by 85% since the emergence of humans, with hunting and agriculture being primary drivers of this decline.[145]

Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of [wildlife habitats](/source/Habitat_(ecology)) and [wildlife](/source/Wildlife) for further hunting.[146] However, excessive hunting and poachers have also contributed heavily to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals, such as the [quagga](/source/Quagga), the [great auk](/source/Great_auk), [Steller's sea cow](/source/Steller's_sea_cow), the [thylacine](/source/Thylacine), the [bluebuck](/source/Bluebuck), the [Arabian oryx](/source/Arabian_oryx), the [Caspian](/source/Caspian_tiger) and [Javan tigers](/source/Javan_tiger), the [markhor](/source/Markhor), the [Sumatran rhinoceros](/source/Sumatran_rhinoceros), the bison, the [North American cougar](/source/North_American_cougar), the [Altai argali](/source/Altai_argali) sheep, the [Asian elephant](/source/Asian_elephant) and many more, primarily for commercial sale or sport. All these animals have been hunted to [endangerment](/source/Endangered_species) or extinction.[158] Poaching currently threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world.[159][160][161] The 2019 *[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services](/source/Global_Assessment_Report_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services)* lists the direct exploitation of organisms, including hunting, as the second leading cause of [biodiversity loss](/source/Biodiversity_loss), after land use for [agriculture](/source/Agriculture).[162] In 2022, [IPBES](/source/IPBES) released another report which stated that unsustainable hunting, along with unsustainable logging and fishing, are primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.[163] A 2023 study published in *[BioScience](/source/BioScience)* posited that the prioritizing of hunting by state agencies in the United States over the rewinding of key species is "reinforcing" the loss of biodiversity.[164]

### Legislation

*Punishment of a Hunter* (c. 1647) by [Paulus Potter](/source/Paulus_Potter)

#### Pittman–Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937

In 1937, American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the [Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act](/source/Pittman%E2%80%93Robertson_Federal_Aid_in_Wildlife_Restoration_Act), which placed an eleven per cent tax on all hunting equipment. This self-imposed tax now generates over $700 million each year and is used exclusively to establish, restore and protect wildlife habitats.[165] The act is named for Nevada Senator [Key Pittman](/source/Key_Pittman) and Virginia Congressman [Absalom Willis Robertson](/source/Absalom_Willis_Robertson).

#### Federal Duck Stamp program

On 16 March 1934, [President Franklin D. Roosevelt](/source/Franklin_D._Roosevelt) signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, which requires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen. The stamps are created on behalf of the program by the [US Postal Service](/source/US_Postal_Service) and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They play an important role in [habitat conservation](/source/Habitat_conservation) because ninety-eight per cent of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of [wetland](/source/Wetland) habitat for protection in the [National Wildlife Refuge System](/source/National_Wildlife_Refuge).[166] In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds.[167]

Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670 million, and helped to purchase or lease 5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km2) of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds, an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas, and are also considered collector's items often purchased for [aesthetic](/source/Aesthetic) reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps, eighty-seven per cent of their sales are contributed by hunters. Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission (MBCC).[168]

### Species

#### Arabian oryx

The [Arabian oryx](/source/Arabian_oryx), a species of large [antelope](/source/Antelope), once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East.[152] Native [Bedouin](/source/Bedouin) tribes had long hunted the oryx using camels and arrows. Oil exploration made the habitat increasingly accessible, and the species' striking appearance made it (along with the closely related scimitar-horned oryx and addax) a popular quarry for sport hunters, including foreign executives of oil companies.[169] The use of automobiles and high-powered rifles destroyed their only advantage: speed, and they became extinct in the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972. The scimitar-horned oryx followed suit, while the addax became critically endangered.[170] However, the Arabian oryx has now made a comeback and been upgraded from "extinct in the wild" to "vulnerable" due to conservation efforts like captive breeding.[171]

#### Markhor

The [markhor](/source/Markhor) is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia) and [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan). The [colonization](/source/Colonization) of these regions by [Britain](/source/British_Empire) gave British sport hunters access to the species, and they were hunted heavily, almost to the point of extinction. Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitability of their mountainous habitat prevented this. Despite these factors, the markhor is still endangered.[172]

#### American bison

The [American bison](/source/American_bison) is a large [bovid](/source/Bovid) which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s, living on the prairies in large herds. However, the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters, who killed dozens of bison for their hides only, leaving the rest to rot. Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds, bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s. Conservation efforts have allowed the population to increase, but the bison remains near-threatened due to lack of habitat.[173]

#### White rhino

The *Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy* cites that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, the country saw an increase in white rhinos from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000, even while a limited number were killed as trophies.[174]

However, the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for their horns is highly damaging to the population and is currently growing globally,[175] with 1004 being killed in South Africa alone according to the most recent estimate.[176] The White Rhino (along with the other 4 rhino species) are poached due to beliefs that the Rhinos horns can be used to cure Cancer, Arthritis and other diseases and illnesses, even though they are scientifically proven wrong.[177]

#### Other species

According to [Richard Conniff](/source/Richard_Conniff), Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting of various species. Namibia's mountain zebra population has increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which "are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory", have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995. Lions, which were on the brink of extinction "from Senegal to Kenya", are increasing in Namibia.[178]

In contrast, Botswana in 2012 banned trophy hunting following a precipitous wildlife decline.[179] The numbers of antelope plummeted across Botswana, with a resultant decline in predator numbers, while elephant numbers remained stable and hippopotamus numbers rose. According to the government of Botswana, trophy hunting is at least partly to blame for this, but many other factors, such as poaching, drought and habitat loss are also to blame.[180] Uganda recently did the same, arguing that "the share of benefits of sport hunting were lopsided and unlikely to deter poaching or improve [Uganda's] capacity to manage the wildlife reserves."[181] In 2020, Botswana reopened trophy hunting on public lands.[182]

### Studies

Cage [trap](/source/Trapping#Trap_types) ([live trap](/source/Trapping#Cage_traps_(live_traps))) for [cheetahs](/source/Cheetah) on a farm in [Namibia](/source/Namibia)

A study published by the [Wildlife Society](/source/Wildlife_Society) concluded that hunting and trapping are cost effective tools that reduce wildlife damage by reducing a population below the capacity of the environment to carry it and changing the behaviors of animals to stop them from causing damage. The study furthermore states that the cessation of hunting could cause wildlife to be severely harmed, rural property values to fall, and the incentive of landowners to maintain natural habitats to diminish.[183]

Although deforestation and forest degradation have long been considered the most significant threats to tropical biodiversity, across Southeast Asia (Northeast India, Indochina, Sundaland, Philippines) substantial areas of natural habitat have few wild animals (>1 kg), bar a few hunting‐tolerant species.[184][185][186]

## Opposition

Main article: [Opposition to hunting](/source/Opposition_to_hunting)

Animal rights activists argue that killing animals for sport is unethical, cruel, and unnecessary.[16] They note the suffering and cruelty inflicted on animals hunted for sport: "Many animals endure prolonged, painful deaths when they are injured but not killed by hunters. Hunting disrupts migration and hibernation patterns and destroys families."[16] Animal rights activists also comment that hunting is not needed to maintain an [ecological balance](/source/Ecological_balance), and that "nature takes care of its own".[16] They say that hunting can be combated on public lands by "spread[ing] deer repellent or human hair (from barber shops) near hunting areas".[16] Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is [speciesist](/source/Speciesism):[17]

Whether hunters try to justify their killing by citing human deaths caused by wild animals, by making conservationist claims, by claiming that it's acceptable to hunt as long as the animals' bodies are eaten, or simply because of the pleasure it brings them, the fact remains that hunting is morally unacceptable if we consider the interests of nonhuman animals. Hunted animals endure fear and pain, and then are deprived of their lives. Understanding the injustices of speciesism and the interests of nonhuman animals makes it clear that human pleasure cannot justify nonhuman animals' pain.[17]

In Vietnam, Singapore, China, Brunei, hunting is almost entirely illegal. Except for aquatic and marine products, insects and rodents, amphibians, and some reptiles such as snakes and lizards. In China, after 2020, hunting as a livelihood for ethnic minorities almost disappeared due to the ban on consuming bushmeat. In Vietnam, although nominally some non-endangered species in group IIIA can be hunted with permits and forest owners, in reality no permits are issued. Some destructive species like sparrows and squirrels were previously overlooked by the government, but recently, regulations have been tightened. Although hunting some reptiles like sand lizards is illegal, the government considers it legal. A similar situation previously occurred with wild birds; many Vietnamese people consider wild birds as a resource to be exploited rather than a priority for conservation. In one survey, although many people claimed they rarely or never consumed wild animals, when asked if they had eaten egrets or herons, they were surprised. In Singapore, even frogs are considered wild animals.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## In the arts

[Limbourg Brothers](/source/Limbourg_Brothers), Boar hunt with hounds, [illumination](/source/Illuminated_manuscript) from the *[Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry](/source/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry)*, c. 1445

[Gustave Courbet](/source/Gustave_Courbet), *[The Kill – Deer Hunting in the Grand Jura Forests](/source/The_Kill_%E2%80%93_Deer_Hunting_in_the_Grand_Jura_Forests)*, 1857

[Albert Gleizes](/source/Albert_Gleizes), *[La Chasse (The Hunt)](/source/La_Chasse%2C_The_Hunt_(Gleizes))*, 1911, oil on canvas depicting a scene in the [Cubist](/source/Cubism) style of hunting by horseback in France

		- Hunting of deer and [ibex](/source/Ibex), [Minoan](/source/Minoan_civilization) [larnax](/source/Larnax), prepalatial period

		- Hunting in the papyrus thicket, mural from a tomb in [Thebes, Egypt](/source/Thebes%2C_Egypt), before 1350 BC

		- The [Stag hunt mosaic](/source/Stag_hunt_mosaic), c. 300 BC, [Pella](/source/Pella), Greece

		- Man hunting a boar, Roman mosaic, 4th century AD

		- Illustration from the falconry book *[De arte venandi cum avibus](/source/De_arte_venandi_cum_avibus)* written by [Emperor Frederick II](/source/Frederick_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor), c. 1245

		- [Giovanni di Francesco](/source/Giovanni_di_Francesco) (?), *La caccia*, c. 1455, tempera on wood, detail

		- [Paolo Uccello](/source/Paolo_Uccello), *[Caccia notturna (The Hunt in the Forest)](/source/The_Hunt_in_the_Forest)*, c. 1475

		- [Vittore Carpaccio](/source/Vittore_Carpaccio), *Caccia in laguna (Hunt in the Lagoon)*, c. 1490

		- [Piero di Cosimo](/source/Piero_di_Cosimo), *A Hunting Scene*, 1508

		- [Lucas Cranach the Elder](/source/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder), *A Stag Hunt with the Elector Friedrich the Wise*, 1529

		- [Peter Paul Rubens](/source/Peter_Paul_Rubens), *Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt*, c. 1615

		- Peter Paul Rubens, *Tiger and Lion Hunt*, 1618

		- [Charles André van Loo](/source/Charles_Andr%C3%A9_van_Loo), *Halte de chasse (Halt During the Hunt)*, 1737

		- [Francisco Goya](/source/Francisco_Goya), *The Quail Shoot*, 1775

		- Edward Walhouse Mark, *Caimán del Magadalena*, 1843 - 1856

		- Gustave Courbet, *The Hunt Breakfast*, 1858

		- [Eugène Delacroix](/source/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix), *Chasse au lion (Lion Hunt)*, 1858

		- [Édouard Manet](/source/%C3%89douard_Manet), *[Portrait of Monsieur Pertuiset the Lion-Hunter](/source/Portrait_of_Monsieur_Pertuiset_the_Lion-Hunter)*, 1881

## See also

- [Poaching](/source/Poaching)

- [Anti-hunting](/source/Anti-hunting)

- [Bambi effect](/source/Bambi_effect)

- [Big five game](/source/Big_five_game)

- [Big-game hunting](/source/Big-game_hunting)

- [Blood sport](/source/Blood_sport)

- [Bowhunting](/source/Bowhunting)

- [Chase](/source/Chase_(land))

- [Defaunation](/source/Defaunation)

- [Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU](/source/Federation_of_Associations_for_Hunting_and_Conservation_of_the_EU)

- [Game (hunting)](/source/Game_(hunting))

- [Human hunting](/source/Human_hunting)

- [Hunt Saboteurs Association](/source/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association) (HSA)

- [Hunting horn](/source/Hunting_horn)

- [Hunting weapon](/source/Hunting_weapon)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** *Oxford Dictionary of English*. Stevenson, Angus (3 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2010. p. 856. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-957112-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957112-3). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [729551189](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/729551189). 'hunt [...] pursue and kill (a wild animal) for sport or food [...]'; 'hunting [...] the activity of hunting wild animals or game.'{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: others ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Peterson, M. Nils (2019), "Hunting", in Fath, Brian D. (ed.), *Encyclopedia of Ecology*, vol. 3 (2 ed.), Elsevier, pp. 438–440, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.11168-6](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.11168-6), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-444-64130-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-64130-4), Hunting is the practice of pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Park, Chris; Allaby, Michael (2013). *A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation* (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 208. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-964166-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964166-6). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [993020467](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/993020467). hunting The activity of finding and killing or capturing wild animals for food, pelts, or as a field sport.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Neves-Garca, Katja (2007). "Hunting". In Robbins, Paul (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Environment and Society*. Vol. 3. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. pp. 894–896. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4129-5627-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5627-7). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [228071686](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/228071686). In very general terms, hunting refers to the activity of pursuing and killing free-roaming animals.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Collin, P. H. (Peter Hodgson) (2009). *Dictionary of Environment and Ecology: Over 7,000 terms clearly defined*. Bloomsbury Reference (5 ed.). London: Bloomsbury. p. 108. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4081-0222-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-0222-0). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [191700369](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/191700369). hunting [...] the activity of following and killing wild animals for sport

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** ["HUNTING | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary"](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hunting). *Cambridge English Dictionary*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191210013935/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hunting) from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019. hunting [...] chasing and killing an animal or bird for food, sport, or profit

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Hunting definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary"](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/hunting). *Collins English Dictionary*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191210034245/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/hunting) from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019. Hunting is the chasing and killing of wild animals by people or other animals, for food or as a sport.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["hunting | History, Methods, & Management"](https://www.britannica.com/sports/hunting-sport). *Encyclopedia Britannica*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191210013333/https://www.britannica.com/sports/hunting-sport) from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019. Hunting, sport that involves the seeking, pursuing, and killing of wild animals and birds, called game and game birds, [...]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Cartmill, Matt (1996). *A View to a Death in the Morning: Hunting and Nature Through History* (1 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-674-02925-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02925-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [298105066](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/298105066).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:4_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:4_11-1) Williams, Ted. "Wanted: More Hunters," *Audubon* magazine, March 2002, [copy](https://web.archive.org/web/20071013120158/http://magazine.audubon.org/incite/incite0203.html) retrieved 26 October 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Recreational Hunting Areas"](https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/things-to-do/hunting/hunting-basics/recreational-hunting-areas/). *[Department of Conservation](/source/Department_of_Conservation_(New_Zealand))*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190813035300/https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/things-to-do/hunting/hunting-basics/recreational-hunting-areas/) from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Harper, Craig A. ["Quality Deer Management Guidelines for Implementation"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060912032507/http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1643.pdf) (PDF). Agricultural Extension Service, The University of Tennessee. Archived from [the original](http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1643.pdf) (PDF) on 12 September 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Nugent, Graham; Choquenot, David (2004). "Comparing Cost-Effectiveness of Commercial Harvesting, State-Funded Culling, and Recreational Deer Hunting in New Zealand". *Wildlife Society Bulletin*. **32** (2): 481–492. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2193/0091-7648(2004)32\[481:CCOCHS\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.2193%2F0091-7648%282004%2932%5B481%3ACCOCHS%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0091-7648](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0091-7648). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3784988](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3784988). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [86110872](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86110872).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-IUCN_Red_List_2010_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-IUCN_Red_List_2010_15-1) "Red List Overview". IUCN Red List. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 8 September 2010.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_16-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_16-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:1_16-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:1_16-4) ["Why Sport Hunting Is Cruel and Unnecessary"](https://www.peta.org/issues/wildlife/wildlife-factsheets/sport-hunting-cruel-unnecessary/). *PETA*. 15 December 2003. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131123065425/https://www.peta.org/issues/wildlife/wildlife-factsheets/sport-hunting-cruel-unnecessary/) from the original on 23 November 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_17-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:2_17-2) Ethics, Animal (29 March 2016). ["Hunting"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170909161316/https://www.animal-ethics.org/animal-exploitation-section/animals-used-for-entertainment-and-as-companions-introduction/hunting/). *Animal Ethics*. Archived from [the original](https://www.animal-ethics.org/animal-exploitation-section/animals-used-for-entertainment-and-as-companions-introduction/hunting/) on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["10 Hunting - Hunting Equipment Reviews And Buying Guide"](https://10hunting.com/). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230220150713/https://10hunting.com/) from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** ["Definition of HUNT"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hunt). *www.merriam-webster.com*. 24 May 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230220144709/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hunt) from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:5_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:5_20-1) ["hunt | Etymology, origin and meaning of hunt by etymonline"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/hunt). *www.etymonline.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230604144210/https://www.etymonline.com/word/hunt) from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Harper, Douglas. ["Hunt"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=hunt). *Online Etymology Dictionary*. Retrieved 24 December 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Gaudzinski, S (2004). "Subsistence patterns of Early Pleistocene hominids in the Levant – Taphonomic evidence from the 'Ubeidiya Formation (Israel)". *Journal of Archaeological Science*. **31** (1): 65–75. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2004JArSc..31...65G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JArSc..31...65G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/s0305-4403(03)00100-6](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0305-4403%2803%2900100-6). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0305-4403](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-4403).. Rabinovich, R.; Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S.; Goren-Inbar, N. (2008). "Systematic butchering of fallow deer (Dama) at the early Middle Pleistocene Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (Israel)". *Journal of Human Evolution*. **54** (1): 134–49. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008JHumE..54..134R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JHumE..54..134R). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.07.007](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2007.07.007). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17868780](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17868780).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** 1992 [trace element](/source/Trace_element) studies of the strontium/calcium ratios in [robust australopithecine](/source/Paranthropus) fossils suggested the possibility of animal consumption, as did a 1994 using stable carbon isotopic analysis. Billings, Tom. ["Comparative Anatomy and Physiology Brought Up to Date—continued, Part 3B"](http://www.beyondveg.com/billings-t/comp-anat/comp-anat-3b.shtml). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20061215105652/http://beyondveg.com/billings-t/comp-anat/comp-anat-3b.shtml) from the original on 15 December 2006. Retrieved 6 January 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** ["Bonobos Hunt Other Primates"](http://www.livescience.com/9601-bonobos-hunt-primates.html). *livescience.com*. 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211115002501/https://www.livescience.com/9601-bonobos-hunt-primates.html) from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Courtney Laird. ["Bonobo social spacing"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080123151613/http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm). *Davidson College*. Archived from [the original](http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm) on 23 January 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Plummer, T.W., Bishop, L., Ditchfield, P., Kingston, J., Ferraro, J., Hertel, F. & D. Braun (2009). "The environmental context of Oldowan hominin activities at Kanjera South, Kenya". In: Hovers, E. & D. Braun (eds.), *Interdisciplinary Approaches to Understanding the Oldowan*, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 149–60. Tom Plummer, ["The Hard Stuff of Culture: Oldowan Archaeology at Kanjera South, Kenya"](https://popular-archaeology.com/article/the-hard-stuff-of-culture-oldowan-archaeology-at-kanjera-south-kenya/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211114233205/https://popular-archaeology.com/article/the-hard-stuff-of-culture-oldowan-archaeology-at-kanjera-south-kenya/) 14 November 2021 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *Popular Archaeology*, June 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Binford, Louis (1986). "Human ancestors: Changing views of their behavior". *Journal of Anthropological Archaeology*. **4** (4): 292–327. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0278-4165(85)90009-1](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0278-4165%2885%2990009-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Blumenschine, Robert J. (1986) *Early hominid scavenging opportunities: Implications of carcass availability in the Serengeti and Ngorongoro ecosystems*. Oxford, England: B.A.R.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Monte Morin, ["Stone-tipped spear may have much earlier origin"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121118111851/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/nov/16/science/la-sci-hafting-spears-20121116), *[Los Angeles Times](/source/Los_Angeles_Times)*, 16 November 2012

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Rick Weiss, ["Chimps Observed Making Their Own Weapons"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/22/AR2007022201007.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211115000701/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/22/AR2007022201007.html) 15 November 2021 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *[The Washington Post](/source/The_Washington_Post)*, 22 February 2007

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Thieme, Hartmut (1997). "Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany". *Nature*. **385** (6619): 807–810. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1997Natur.385..807T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Natur.385..807T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/385807a0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F385807a0). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [9039910](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9039910). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4283393](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4283393). [\[1\]](http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170721162135/http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html) 21 July 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Nibert, David (2013). [*Animal Oppression and Human Violence: Domesecration, Capitalism, and Global Conflict*](https://cup.columbia.edu/book/animal-oppression-and-human-violence/9780231151894). [Columbia University Press](/source/Columbia_University_Press). p. 10. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-15189-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15189-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230326110123/https://cup.columbia.edu/book/animal-oppression-and-human-violence/9780231151894) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Randall Haas; et al. (2020). "Female hunters of the early Americas". Vol. 6, no. 45. Science Advances. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/sciadv.abd0310](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abd0310).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Branigan, Keith (1996). [*Stone age people - p 29*](https://archive.org/details/stoneagepeople0000bran/page/29/mode/1up?q=%2215%2C000+BC%22). London : Two-can in assoc. with Franklin Watts. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-85434-365-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85434-365-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Surovell, Todd; Nicole Waguespack; P. Jeffrey Brantingham (13 April 2005). ["Global archaeological evidence for proboscidean overkill"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1087946). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. **102** (17): 6231–36. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2005PNAS..102.6231S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..102.6231S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.0501947102](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0501947102). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1087946](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1087946). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15829581](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15829581).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Dembitzer, Jacob; Barkai, Ran; Ben-Dor, Miki; Meiri, Shai (2022). ["Levantine overkill: 1.5 million years of hunting down the body size distribution"](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379121005230). *[Quaternary Science Reviews](/source/Quaternary_Science_Reviews)*. **276** 107316. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2022QSRv..27607316D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022QSRv..27607316D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107316](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2021.107316). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [245236379](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245236379). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211222145949/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379121005230) from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Miller, G.H. (2005). ["Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction"](http://doc.rero.ch/record/14709/files/PAL_E1537.pdf) (PDF). *[Science](/source/Science_(journal))*. **309** (5732): 287–90. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2005Sci...309..287M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sci...309..287M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1111288](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1111288). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16002615](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16002615). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [22761857](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22761857). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230107032837/https://doc.rero.ch/record/14709/files/PAL_E1537.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Prideaux, G.J.; et al. (2007). "An arid-adapted middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from south-central Australia". *Nature*. **445** (7126): 422–25. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007Natur.445..422P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.445..422P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/nature05471](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05471). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17251978](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17251978). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4429899](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4429899).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Saltré, F.; Chadoeuf, J.; Peters, K.J.; McDowell, M.C.; Friedrich, T.; Timmermann, A.; Ulm, S.; Bradshaw, C.J. (2019). ["Climate-human interaction associated with southeast Australian megafauna extinction patterns"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6876570). *Nature Communications*. **10** (1): 5311. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2019NatCo..10.5311S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatCo..10.5311S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s41467-019-13277-0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-019-13277-0). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6876570](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6876570). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [31757942](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31757942).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Zenin, Vasiliy N.; Evgeny N. Mashenko; Sergey V. Leshchinskiy; Aleksandr F. Pavlov; Pieter M. Grootes; Marie-Josée Nadeau (24–29 May 2003). ["The First Direct Evidence of Mammoth Hunting in Asia (Lugovskoye Site, Western Siberia) (L)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061117111346/http://www.yukonmuseums.ca/mammoth/abstrt-z.htm). *3rd International Mammoth Conference*. Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada: Government of Yukon. Archived from [the original](http://www.yukonmuseums.ca/mammoth/abstrt-z.htm) on 17 November 2006. Retrieved 1 January 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Burch_41-0)** "In North America and Eurasia the species has long been an important resource—in many areas *the* most important resource—for peoples inhabiting the northern [boreal forest](/source/Taiga) and tundra regions. Known human dependence on caribou/wild reindeer has a long history, beginning in the Middle Pleistocene (Banfield 1961:170; Kurtén 1968:170) and continuing to the present. […] The caribou/wild reindeer is thus an animal that has been a major resource for humans throughout a tremendous geographic area and across a time span of tens of thousands of years." Burch, Ernest S. Jr. (1972). "The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource". *American Antiquity*. **37** (3): 339–68. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1972AmAnt..37..339B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972AmAnt..37..339B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/278435](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F278435). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [278435](https://www.jstor.org/stable/278435). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [161921691](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161921691).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** ["The Nature Conservancy"](http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/africa/wherewework/the-hadza-helping-hunter-gatherers-protect-their-homeland.xml). *The Nature Conservancy*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180703050952/https://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/africa/wherewework/the-hadza-helping-hunter-gatherers-protect-their-homeland.xml) from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Porter, V.I. (2018). *Mystique Melodies*. Pittsburgh, PA: Dorrance Publishing. p. 48. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4809-5591-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4809-5591-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** [Allsen, Thomas T.](/source/Thomas_T._Allsen) (2011) [2006]. [*The Royal Hunt in Eurasian History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WFls6zdc40QC). Encounters with Asia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8122-0107-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0107-9). Retrieved 27 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** [Connor, Steven](/source/Steven_Connor) (15 November 2011). "Winning". [*A Philosophy of Sport*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3jWZ-3pkILMC). London: Reaktion Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86189-973-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-973-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230327050352/https://books.google.com/books?id=3jWZ-3pkILMC) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 27 March 2023. From classical times onwards, games and sports were thought of as training for actual combat. The most important and sustained mediator between battle and sport was hunting, one of several sports regularly designated the 'Sport of Kings'.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Machiavelli provides a rationale, if not the origin, of noble hunting: [Machiavelli, Niccolò](/source/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli) (1531). ["Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius, Book 3"](https://books.google.com/books?id=r6lROQffJ7cC). In Gilbert, Allan (ed.). *Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others*. Vol. 1. Duke University Press (published 1989). p. 516. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8223-8157-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8157-0). Retrieved 27 December 2013. [...] hunting expeditions, as Xenophon makes plain, are images of war; therefore to men of rank such activity is honorable and necessary. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Dunlap, Thomas R. (1999). ["Remaking Worlds: European models in New Lands"](https://books.google.com/books?id=UDaEZnZ093EC). [*Nature and the English Diaspora: Environment and History in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand*](https://archive.org/details/natureenglishdia0000dunl/page/61). Studies in Environment and History. Cambridge University Press. p. [61](https://archive.org/details/natureenglishdia0000dunl/page/61). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-65700-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65700-6). Retrieved 24 December 2013. The settlers adopted sport hunting, as they did other elements of British culture, but they had to adapt it. Social circumstances and biological realities reshaped it and gave it new meaning. There was no elite monopolizing access to land. Indeed, the great attraction and boast of these nations were of land for all.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** In his commentary on Martianus Capella's early 5th-century work, *The Marriage of Philology and Mercury*, one of the main sources for medieval reflection on the liberal arts.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** ["The Hunting Guide >> Read Before Hunt"](https://huntingguide.info/). *Hunting Guide*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211114234714/https://huntingguide.info/) from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** ["Hunting with dogs « Defra"](http://www.defra.gov.uk/rural/countryside/hunting/). Defra.gov.uk. 18 February 2005. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130222025403/http://www.defra.gov.uk/rural/countryside/hunting/) from the original on 22 February 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** ["Why we must continue to campaign for repeal of the Hunting Act 2004"](https://www.vote-ok.co.uk/hunting). *www.vote-ok.co.uk*. Retrieved 12 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** ["Misguided and futile: time to repeal the Hunting Act"](https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2018/05/09/misguided-and-futile-time-to-repeal-the-hunting-act/). *www.oxfordstudent.com*. 9 May 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** ["English votes for English laws could end hunting ban"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/11323563/English-votes-for-English-laws-plan-could-end-hunting-ban.html). *The Telegraph*. 4 January 2015. Retrieved 12 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Fomin, Maxim (1 January 2018). ["Hunting the deer in Celtic and Indo-European Mythological Contexts"](https://www.academia.edu/77811180). *University of Wales Press*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** ["Diana - Roman Religion"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Diana-Roman-religion). *Encyclopædia Britannica.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220108130800/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Diana-Roman-religion) from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 21 December 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Cappeller, Carl (1891). [*A Sanskrit-English dictionary, based upon the St. Petersburg lexicons;*](https://archive.org/details/sanskritenglishd00capprich/page/418/mode/2up). Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. p. 418.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** ["Jainism - Nonviolence, Jiva, Ajiva, Three Jewels, Kalpa | Britannica"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism/Important-figures-of-Jain-legend). *www.britannica.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221119211505/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism/Important-figures-of-Jain-legend) from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** ["The Buddha Taught Nonviolence, Not Pacifism"](https://www.buddhistinquiry.org/article/the-buddha-taught-nonviolence-not-pacifism/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CAll%20fear%20death.,of%20what%20the%20Buddha%20taught.). *www.buddhistinquiry.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230323103006/https://www.buddhistinquiry.org/article/the-buddha-taught-nonviolence-not-pacifism/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CAll%20fear%20death.,of%20what%20the%20Buddha%20taught.) from the original on 23 March 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_59-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:3_59-2) ["CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hunting"](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07563c.htm). *www.newadvent.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211229180338/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07563c.htm) from the original on 29 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** ["Canons On Hunting"](https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/canons-on-hunting). *Catholic Answers*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150906191059/http://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/canons-on-hunting) from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Cardinal [Peter Turkson](/source/Peter_Turkson), [Laudato Si and the Vocation to Agriculture: A Prince of the Church explains the connection](https://s3.amazonaws.com/catholicrurallife/wp-content/uploads/20150827184825/10-13.pdf), published in Catholic Rural Life Magazine, Summer 2015, accessed 29 January 2024

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** ["The Jewish Ethicist: Judaism and Hunting"](http://www.aish.com/ci/be/The_Jewish_Ethicist_Judaism_and_Hunting.html). *aish.com*. 13 February 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160312075553/http://www.aish.com/ci/be/The_Jewish_Ethicist_Judaism_and_Hunting.html) from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** ["The Jewish View on Hunting for Sport"](http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1589324/jewish/The-Jewish-View-on-Hunting-for-Sport.htm). *chabad.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160212024839/http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1589324/jewish/The-Jewish-View-on-Hunting-for-Sport.htm) from the original on 12 February 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** New Muslim Guide. ["Hunting according to Islamic Law"](http://www.newmuslimguide.com/en/your-food-and-drink/66). *newmuslimguide.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160416015829/http://www.newmuslimguide.com/en/your-food-and-drink/66) from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** ["safari | Etymology, origin and meaning of safari by etymonline"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/safari). *www.etymonline.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221130033501/https://www.etymonline.com/word/safari) from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** ["Definition of "safari""](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/safari). *Collins Dictionary*. 4 June 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230305220536/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/safari) from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Brennan, Claire (3 July 2015). ""An Africa on your own front door step": the development of an Australian safari". *Journal of Australian Studies*. **39** (3): 396–410. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/14443058.2015.1052833](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14443058.2015.1052833). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1444-3058](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1444-3058). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [142998322](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142998322).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** ["Definition of SAFARI"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/safari). *www.merriam-webster.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221028002145/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/safari) from the original on 28 October 2022. Retrieved 28 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Holland, Mary (31 January 2019). ["Yes, A Solo Safari Is Possible"](https://www.cntraveler.com/story/how-to-plan-a-solo-safari). *Condé Nast Traveler*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230604144204/https://www.cntraveler.com/story/how-to-plan-a-solo-safari) from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** Helplinelaw. ["Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972"](https://web.archive.org/web/20031222151616/http://www.helplinelaw.com/docs/wildlife/01.php). Helplinelaw.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.helplinelaw.com/docs/wildlife/01.php) on 22 December 2003. Retrieved 20 April 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:10_71-0)** Pegler, Martin (2004). *Out of nowhere: a history of the military sniper*. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 16. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-84176-854-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-854-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [56654780](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56654780).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-etymology_72-0)** ["Snipe"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=snipe). *Online Etymology Dictionary*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170704125526/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=snipe) from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Blast_73-0)** Ratcliffe, Roger (6 October 2006). ["Blast from the past"](http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/main-topics/local-stories/blast-from-the-past-1-2393138). *The Yorkshire Post*. Johnston Publishing Ltd. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150402143449/http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/main-topics/local-stories/blast-from-the-past-1-2393138) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** ["Hunting"](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hunting). *Cambridge Dictionary*. 4 June 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191210013935/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hunting) from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** ["Shooting | Animal Charity"](https://www.league.org.uk/what-we-do/shooting/). *www.league.org.uk*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230527015259/https://www.league.org.uk/what-we-do/shooting/) from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:6_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:6_76-1) ["Deer Stalking Code of Practice"](https://basc.org.uk/codes-of-practice/deer-stalking/). *BASC*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230419162207/https://basc.org.uk/codes-of-practice/deer-stalking/) from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Ward, Euan (12 February 2023). ["The Fight Over Fox Hunting: A Cold War on England's Muddy Fields"](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/12/world/europe/fox-hunting-warwickshire-england.html). *The New York Times*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0362-4331](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230604144210/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/12/world/europe/fox-hunting-warwickshire-england.html) from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Orendi, Dagmar (4 June 2023). ["The Debate About Fox Hunting: A Social and Political Analysis"](https://www.gbz.hu-berlin.de/ma-british-studies/distinguished-ma-theses/downloads/pdf/DagmarOrendi_MasterThesis.pdf) (PDF). *Humboldt Universität zu Berlin*. pp. 8–10. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220811090521/https://www.gbz.hu-berlin.de/ma-british-studies/distinguished-ma-theses/downloads/pdf/DagmarOrendi_MasterThesis.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** ["BASC site"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140209030216/http://basc.org.uk/media-centre/basc-appeals/basc-youth-appeal/). Archived from [the original](http://basc.org.uk/media-centre/basc-appeals/basc-youth-appeal) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Coggins, George Cameron; Modrcin, William (1979). "Native American Indians and Federal Wildlife Law". *Stanford Law Review*. **31** (3): 375–423. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1228367](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1228367). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0038-9765](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-9765). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1228367](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228367).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** [Results](http://www.responsivemanagement.com/download/news/newsrls_09_06.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070615231714/http://www.responsivemanagement.com/download/news/newsrls_09_06.pdf) 15 June 2007 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) from a 2006 poll (813 people were polled) done by Responsive Management

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** National statistics from [US Department of the Interior](/source/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior), Fish and Wildlife Service and [US Department of Commerce](/source/United_States_Department_of_Commerce), [US Census Bureau](/source/United_States_Census_Bureau), 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation, 27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** Jackson, Patrick. [*Number of hunters is dwindling—Urbanization and cultural changes discourage newcomers to the sport*](http://www.trailcamerareviews.net/number-hunters-dwindling/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150722081508/http://www.trailcamerareviews.net/number-hunters-dwindling/) 22 July 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** Interpretations of the Fair Chase can be found on the web sites of various hunter's organizations, such as the [Boone and Crockett Club](http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthics) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20051210081513/http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthics) 10 December 2005 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) and [Hunt Fair Chase](http://www.huntfairchase.com/) [Deprecated link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Archive.today_guidance) archived 25 January 2013 at [archive.today](/source/Archive.today).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** Posewitz, Jim (1 August 1994). [*Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dkkmL8TuiMkC&pg=PA57). [Globe Pequot Press](/source/Globe_Pequot_Press). p. 57. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-56044-283-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56044-283-7).[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HSUS-FactSheet_86-0)** Humane Society Wildlife Abuse Campaign, [Fact Sheet on Internet Hunting](http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/internet_hunting/facts/internet_hunting_fact_sheet.html#.UzjiW61dW9Y) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150722083944/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/internet_hunting/facts/internet_hunting_fact_sheet.html#.UzjiW61dW9Y) 22 July 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** Ferguson, Wes (20 January 2021). ["How Texas Hunting Went Exotic"](https://www.texasmonthly.com/travel/how-texas-hunting-went-exotic/). *texasmonthly.com*. Texas Monthly. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230414221006/https://www.texasmonthly.com/travel/how-texas-hunting-went-exotic/) from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 14 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Hunter, Kathryn M (2009). [*Hunting: a New Zealand history*](https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/46606862). Auckland : Random House New Zealand. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86979-154-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86979-154-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801195119/https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/46606862) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 13 August 2019.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. ["5. – Introduced animal pests – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand"](https://teara.govt.nz/en/9303). *teara.govt.nz*. Retrieved 13 August 2019.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** Clarke, C. M. H.; Dzieciolowski, R. M. (September 1991). ["Feral pigs in the northern South Island, New Zealand: I. Origin, distribution, and density"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03036758.1991.10418181). *Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand*. **21** (3): 237–247. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1991JRSNZ..21..237C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991JRSNZ..21..237C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/03036758.1991.10418181](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03036758.1991.10418181). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0303-6758](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0303-6758).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-91)** McDowall, R. M. (1994). [*Gamekeepers for the nation: the story of New Zealand's acclimatisation societies, 1861-1990*](https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/38285949). Christchurch, N.Z. : Canterbury University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-908812-41-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-908812-41-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801215957/https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/38285949) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 13 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** ["HUNTING IN IRAN i. In the pre-Islamic Period – Encyclopaedia Iranica"](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/hunting-in-iran). *iranicaonline.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201118175527/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/hunting-in-iran) from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** ["مجوز شکار در ایران ۲۰ دلار یا ۲۰ هزار دلار؟ | پاسخ محیط زیست به انتقادات: صدور پروانه شکار کاملا فنی و کارشناسی شده است"](https://www.hamshahrionline.ir/news/556550/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2-%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%DB%B2%DB%B0-%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1-%DB%8C%D8%A7-%DB%B2%DB%B0-%D9%87%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AE-%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7-%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA). *همشهری آنلاین* (in Persian). 11 October 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210612164722/https://www.hamshahrionline.ir/news/556550/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B2-%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%DB%B2%DB%B0-%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1-%DB%8C%D8%A7-%DB%B2%DB%B0-%D9%87%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AE-%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7-%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA) from the original on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** [*Nenreibetsu shuryō menkyo shojishasū* 年齢別狩猟免許所持者数](https://www.env.go.jp/nature/choju/docs/docs4/menkyo.pdf) [*Number of hunting license holders by age*] (PDF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220724125201/https://www.env.go.jp/nature/choju/docs/docs4/menkyo.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 24 July 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** Chardonnet, P; Clers, B; Fischer, J; Gerhold, R; Jori, F; Lamarque, F (2002). ["The Value of Wildlife"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061219121043/http://www.uga.edu/scwds/documents/chardonnet2002.pdf) (PDF). *Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz*. **21** (1): 15–51. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.20506/rst.21.1.1323](https://doi.org/10.20506%2Frst.21.1.1323). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11974626](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11974626). Archived from [the original](http://www.uga.edu/scwds/documents/chardonnet2002.pdf) (PDF) on 19 December 2006., posted by the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Accessed 12 December 2006

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** Herring, Hal. [*Today's sportsmen and sportswomen are a powerful force for conservation*](http://www.trailcamerareviews.net/hunters-conservation) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150722200346/http://www.trailcamerareviews.net/hunters-conservation/) 22 July 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** The [hunting section of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service](https://www.fws.gov/hunting/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20100630212314/http://www.fws.gov/hunting/) 30 June 2010 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) site includes articles and statistics relating to wildlife management.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** ["Hunting for Wildlife Population Control and Ethical Eating?"](https://freefromharm.org/common-justifications-for-eating-animals/hunting-wildlife-population-control-ethical-eating/). *Free From Harm*. 14 January 2015. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171107035932/https://freefromharm.org/common-justifications-for-eating-animals/hunting-wildlife-population-control-ethical-eating/) from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** [*2012 Canadian Nature Survey: Awareness, participation and expenditures in nature-based recreation, conservation, and subsistence activities*](https://biodivcanada.chm-cbd.net/sites/biodivcanada/files/2017-12/2012_Canadian_Nature_Survey_Report%28accessible_opt%29.pdf) (PDF), Ottawa, ON, Canada: Federal, Provincial, and Territorial Governments of Canada, 2014, p. 52, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-100-23241-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-100-23241-6), [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190829013219/https://biodivcanada.chm-cbd.net/sites/biodivcanada/files/2017-12/2012_Canadian_Nature_Survey_Report%28accessible_opt%29.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2019, retrieved 29 August 2019

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** [Motivations of International Trophy Hunters Choosing to Hunt in South Africa](http://dspace.nmmu.ac.za:8080/jspui/bitstream/10948/1328/1/Examination%20Copy%20Final%20Document%20Dissertation.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150503213609/http://dspace.nmmu.ac.za:8080/jspui/bitstream/10948/1328/1/Examination%20Copy%20Final%20Document%20Dissertation.pdf) 3 May 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-africanwildlifeconservationfund.org_118-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-africanwildlifeconservationfund.org_118-1) ["Archived copy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20151117050938/http://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Economic-and-conservation-significance.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Economic-and-conservation-significance.pdf) (PDF) on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015.{{[cite web](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web)}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-economistsatlarge_119-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-economistsatlarge_119-1) ["International Fund for Animal Welfare"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150119134720/http://www.ifaw.org/sites/default/files/Ecolarge-2013-200m-question.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://www.ifaw.org/sites/default/files/Ecolarge-2013-200m-question.pdf) (PDF) on 19 January 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-cbs.umn.edu_120-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-cbs.umn.edu_120-1) ["Archived copy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140714160036/http://www.cbs.umn.edu/sites/default/files/public/downloads/Effects%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20on%20populations%20of%20lions%20and%20leopards%20in%20TZ.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://www.cbs.umn.edu/sites/default/files/public/downloads/Effects%20of%20trophy%20hunting%20on%20populations%20of%20lions%20and%20leopards%20in%20TZ.pdf) (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.{{[cite web](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web)}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title))

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** ["Bear watching more profitable than bear hunting, says study"](http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bear-watching-more-profitable-than-bear-hunting-says-study-1.2488311). *cbc.ca*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140703032651/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bear-watching-more-profitable-than-bear-hunting-says-study-1.2488311) from the original on 3 July 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2014.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** see, for example, [this internet page](http://flaflooga.com/trophy_hunting.php) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150710234644/http://flaflooga.com/trophy_hunting.php) 10 July 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** ["and Hunting"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070317025223/http://www.endangeredspecieshandbook.org/persecution_trophyecotourism.php). *endangeredspecieshandbook.org*. Archived from [the original](http://www.endangeredspecieshandbook.org/persecution_trophyecotourism.php) on 17 March 2007.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-161)** Benítez-López, A.; Alkemade, R.; Schipper, A.M.; Ingram, D. J.; Verweij, P.A.; Eikelboom, J.A.J.; Huijbregts, M.A.J. (14 April 2017). ["The impact of hunting on tropical mammal and bird populations"](http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10058583/7/Ingram%20aaj1891_ArticleContent_v3.pdf) (PDF). *[Science](/source/Science_(journal))*. **356** (6334): 180–83. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2017Sci...356..180B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Sci...356..180B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.aaj1891](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaj1891). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1874/349694](https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F349694). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28408600](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28408600). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [19603093](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19603093). [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10058583/7/Ingram%20aaj1891_ArticleContent_v3.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-162)** Stokstad E (5 May 2019). ["Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature"](https://www.science.org/content/article/landmark-analysis-documents-alarming-global-decline-nature). *[Science](/source/Science_(journal))*. [AAAS](/source/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211026232451/https://www.science.org/content/article/landmark-analysis-documents-alarming-global-decline-nature) from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021. For the first time at a global scale, the report has ranked the causes of damage. Topping the list, changes in land use—principally agriculture—that have destroyed habitat. Second, hunting and other kinds of exploitation. These are followed by climate change, pollution, and invasive species, which are being spread by trade and other activities. Climate change will likely overtake the other threats in the next decades, the authors note. Driving these threats are the growing human population, which has doubled since 1970 to 7.6 billion, and consumption. (Per capita of use of materials is up 15% over the past 5 decades.)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-174)** ["Can trophy hunting actually help conservation?"](http://conservationmagazine.org/2014/01/can-trophy-hunting-reconciled-conservation/). *conservationmagazine.org*. Conservation. 15 January 2014. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140715000632/http://conservationmagazine.org/2014/01/can-trophy-hunting-reconciled-conservation/) from the original on 15 July 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2014.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-177)** ["Why Are Rhinos Poached?"](https://www.iapf.org/news/rhinos). *[International Anti-Poaching Foundation](/source/International_Anti-Poaching_Foundation) (IAPF)*. 4 February 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220304190618/https://www.iapf.org/news/rhinos) from the original on 4 March 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-178)** Conniff, Richard (20 January 2014). ["Opinion – A Trophy Hunt That's Good for Rhinos"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/21/opinion/a-trophy-hunt-thats-good-for-rhinos.html). *The New York Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170709075518/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/21/opinion/a-trophy-hunt-thats-good-for-rhinos.html) from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-179)** ["Botswana to ban wildlife hunting"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20544251). *BBC News*. 29 November 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180919171716/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20544251) from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-180)** Smith, David (17 June 2011). ["Drought and poachers take Botswana's natural wonder to brink of catastrophe"](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jun/18/botswana-natural-wonder-brink-of-catastrophe). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190227100649/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jun/18/botswana-natural-wonder-brink-of-catastrophe) from the original on 27 February 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-181)** ["National Geographic Society Newsroom"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140313012029/http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2010/11/23/uganda_ends_sport_hunting/). Archived from [the original](http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2010/11/23/uganda_ends_sport_hunting/) on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-182)** ["Botswana to Kickstart Elephant Hunting With Auction This Week"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-03/botswana-to-kickstart-elephant-hunting-with-auction-this-week). Bloomberg. 3 February 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201126210517/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-03/botswana-to-kickstart-elephant-hunting-with-auction-this-week) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-183)** Conover, Michael R. ["Effect of Hunting and Trapping on Wildlife Damage"](http://www.njfishandwildlife.com/pdf/bear/policy_lit/conover01.pdf) (PDF). *[Wildlife Society Bulletin](/source/Wildlife_Society_Bulletin)*. 29. No. 2 (Summer. 2001). Allen Press: 521–32. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.njfishandwildlife.com/pdf/bear/policy_lit/conover01.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 19 August 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-184)** Harrison, Rhett D.; Sreekar, Rachakonda; Brodie, Jedediah F.; Brook, Sarah; Luskin, Matthew; O'Kelly, Hannah; Rao, Madhu; Scheffers, Brett; Velho, Nandini (12 October 2016). ["Impacts of hunting on tropical forests in Southeast Asia: Hunting in Tropical Forests"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12785). *Conservation Biology*. **30** (5): 972–981. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/cobi.12785](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcobi.12785). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [27341537](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27341537). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [3793259](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3793259).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-185)** Sreekar, Rachakonda; Huang, Guohualing; Zhao, Jiang-Bo; Pasion, Bonifacio O.; Yasuda, Mika; Zhang, Kai; Peabotuwage, Indika; Wang, Ximin; Quan, Rui-Chang; Ferry Slik, J. W.; Corlett, Richard T.; Goodale, Eben; Harrison, Rhett D. (2015). ["The use of species-area relationships to partition the effects of hunting and deforestation on bird extirpations in a fragmented landscape"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.12292). *Diversity and Distributions*. **21** (4): 441–450. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015DivDi..21..441S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015DivDi..21..441S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/ddi.12292](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.12292). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [55972282](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55972282).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-186)** Huang, G.; Sreekar, R.; Velho, N.; Corlett, R. T.; Quan, R.-C.; Tomlinson, K. W. (2020). "Combining camera-trap surveys and hunter interviews to determine the status of mammals in protected rainforests and rubber plantations of Menglun, Xishuangbanna, SW China". *Animal Conservation*. **23** (6): 689–699. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020AnCon..23..689H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020AnCon..23..689H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/acv.12588](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Facv.12588). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [218779515](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218779515).

## Further reading

- [International Journal of Environmental Studies (2013) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America. IJES v 70.](http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/genv20/70/3) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200808074012/https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/genv20/70/3) 8 August 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

- [International Journal of Environmental Studies (2015) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America II. IJES v72.](http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/genv20/72/5) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200809023426/https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/genv20/72/5) 9 August 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

- [IUCN (2016) Briefing Paper: Informing Decisions on Trophy Hunting.](http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_informingdecisionsontrophyhuntingv1.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161004000306/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_informingdecisionsontrophyhuntingv1.pdf) 4 October 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

- [IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012) Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives.](https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_ssc_guiding_principles_on_trophy_hunting_ver1_09aug2012.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180113114730/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_ssc_guiding_principles_on_trophy_hunting_ver1_09aug2012.pdf) 13 January 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

- Dickson D. Bruce Jr., Mississippi Quarterly (Spring 1977).

- Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Pro-Slavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (1996).

- Steven Hahn, Radical History Review (1982).

- Charles H. Hudson Jr., in Indians, Animals, and the Fur Trade, ed., Shephard Krech III (1981).

- Stuart A. Marks, Southern Hunting in Black and White: Nature, History, and Ritual in a Carolina Community (1991).

- Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865–1920 (1990).

- Wiley C. Prewitt, "The Best of All Breathing: Hunting and Environmental Change in Mississippi, 1900–1980" M.A. thesis, (1991).

- Nicolas W. Proctor, Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South (2002).

- Jacob F. Rivers III, Cultural Values in the Southern Sporting Narrative (2002).

- [Salem, D.J., and A.N. Rowan, eds. 2003. *The State of the Animals II: 2003*](http://www.humanesociety.org/assets/pdfs/hsp/soa_ii_chap01.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120324052934/http://www.humanesociety.org/assets/pdfs/hsp/soa_ii_chap01.pdf) 24 March 2012 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). Washington, D.C.: Humane Society Press. ([ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-9658942-7-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9658942-7-4))

- Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800 (1990).

- Richard C. Stedman and Thomas A. Heberlein, Rural Sociology (2001). Hunting and rural socialization: Contingent effects of the rural setting on hunting participation.

- Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (1996).

- [Marek Zukow-Karczewski](/source/Marek_Zukow-Karczewski), *Polowania w dawnej Polsce* (Hunting in the old Poland), "AURA" (A Monthly for the protection and shaping of human environment) 12 (1990).

## External links

Look up ***[hunting](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/hunting)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Hunting](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Hunting)***.

- Media related to [Hunting](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hunting) at Wikimedia Commons

- [The Theodore Roosevelt Hunting Library](https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/208.html) at the [Library of Congress](/source/Library_of_Congress) has 254 items on this topic.

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Amos Bob Barker Diana Belais Ernest Bell Anna Briggs William Brown Edith Carrington Frances Power Cobbe Joseph Collinson Joan Court Karen Davis Savitri Devi Royal Dixon Muriel Dowding Elizabeth Farians Peter Freeman Emarel Freshel André Géraud Lewis Gompertz James Granger Joseph Morse Greene Lizzy Lind af Hageby Florence Henniker Barry Horne Marie Huot R. H. Jude Flora Kibbe Jessie Mackay Malvina Mehrn Alfred Mansfield Mitchell Philip G. Peabody J. Isaac Pengelly Norm Phelps Jill Phipps Maud Ingersoll Probasco Hans Ruesch Magnus Schwantje Nell Shipman Henry Spira Joseph Stratton Andrew Tyler Gretchen Wyler Movement (groups, parties) Groups Contemporary American Anti-Vivisection Society Animal Aid Animal Ethics Animal Justice Animal Justice Project Animal Legal Defense Fund Animal Liberation Animal Liberation Front Animal Liberation Press Office Animal Liberation Victoria Animal Rights Militia Animal Rising AnimaNaturalis Anonymous for the Voiceless Anti-Vivisection Coalition Beauty Without Cruelty Born Free Foundation Centre for Animals and Social Justice Chinese Animal Protection Network Cruelty Free International Direct Action Everywhere Doctors Against Animal Experiments Equanimal Every Animal Farm Animal Rights Movement Faunalytics Great Ape Project Hunt Saboteurs Association In Defense of Animals Korea Animal Rights Advocates L214 Last Chance for Animals Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition Mercy for Animals Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals Revolutionary Cells – Animal Liberation Brigade Rise for Animals Sentience Politics Uncaged Campaigns United Activists for Animal Rights United Poultry Concerns UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics Viva! Voice for Animals Humane Society Voiceless Historical Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society Church Anti-Vivisection League Humanitarian League (1891–1919) Millennium Guild Oxford Group Parties Animal Justice Party (Australia) Animal Justice Party of Finland (Finland) Animal Politics EU (Europe) Animal Protection Party of Canada (Canada) Animalist Movement (Italy) Animalist Party with the Environment (Spain) Animals' Party (Sweden) DierAnimal (Belgium) Human Environment Animal Protection Party (Germany) Italian Animalist Party (Italy) Party for the Animals (Netherlands) Peace for Animals (Netherlands) People Animals Nature (Portugal) V-Partei³ (Germany) Activism Animal Rights National Conference Media (books, films, periodicals, albums) Books On Abstinence from Eating Animals (3rd century) The Way to Health, Long Life and Happiness (1683) A Reasonable Plea for the Animal Creation (1746) A System of Moral Philosophy, in Three Books (1755) The Cry of Nature; or, An Appeal to Mercy and to Justice, on Behalf of the Persecuted Animals (1791) An Essay on Humanity to Animals (1798) An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty (1802) Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes (1824) The Rights of Animals (1838) The Ethics of Diet (1883) A Plea for Vegetarianism and Other Essays (1886) Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress (1892) Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology (1897) Better-World Philosophy (1899) The Logic of Vegetarianism (1899) The Universal Kinship (1906) The New Ethics (1907) The Humanities of Diet (1914) Animals, Men and Morals (1971) Animal Liberation (1975) The Case for Animal Rights (1983) Morals, Reason, and Animals (1987) Zoos and Animal Rights (1993) Animals, Property, and the Law (1995) The Lives of Animals (1999) Eternal Treblinka (2001) Do Animals Have Rights? (2005) Striking at the Roots (2008) An American Trilogy (2009) An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory (2010) Animal Rights Without Liberation (2012) Political Animals and Animal Politics (2014) Animal (De)liberation (2016) Beating Hearts: Abortion and Animal Rights (2016) Sentientist Politics (2018) Wild Animal Ethics (2020) Animal Ethics in the Wild (2022) Making a Stand for Animals (2022) Animal Rights Law (2023) The Moral Circle (2025) Films The Animals Film (1981) A Cow at My Table (1998) Shores of Silence (2000) The Witness (2000) Meet Your Meat (2002) Legally Blonde 2 (2003) The Meatrix (2003) Peaceable Kingdom (2004) Earthlings (2005) Behind the Mask (2006) Your Mommy Kills Animals (2007) Food, Inc. (2009) The Cove (2009) Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home (2009) Forks Over Knives (2011) Vegucated (2011) An Apology to Elephants (2013) Speciesism: The Movie (2013) The Ghosts in Our Machine (2013) Unlocking the Cage (2016) Land of Hope and Glory (2017) Carnage (2017) Okja (2017) Dominion (2018) Seaspiracy (2021) Periodicals Journals Animal Sentience Between the Species Cahiers antispécistes Etica & Animali Journal of Animal Ethics Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism Magazines Arkangel Bite Back Muutoksen kevät No Compromise Satya Albums Animal Liberation (1987) Tame Yourself (1991) Manifesto (2008) Onward to Freedom (2014) Salvation of Innocents (2014) Fairs and exhibitions Holocaust on your Plate (2003) Category ( 139 )

v t e Mammals in culture Topics Animal husbandry Animal testing Animal-assisted therapy Animals in space Animals in sport Equestrianism Fur farming Hunting Livestock Monkeys and apes in space Pack animal Pet Service animal Working animal Types Bats Bears Bear-baiting Bear hunting Teddy bear Cats Coyotes Dogs Deer Elephants Foxes Donkeys Onolatry Horses Horses in art Horse worship Horse sacrifice Ashvamedha Jaguars Jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures Maya jaguar gods Kangaroos Lions Pigs Seal hunting Simians in Chinese culture Spotted hyenas Tigers Weasels Whales Whaling Whale watching Whale worship Orcas Wolves Werewolf

v t e Hunting topics History Ancient Egypt Hunter-gatherer Medieval hunting Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty North American hunting technologies Forms Bat-fowling Beagling Bowhunting Big-game hunting Coursing Game stalkering Gigging Green hunting Falconry Eagles Field sports Fowling Handgun hunting Internet hunting Layout hunting Montería Muttonbirding Persistence hunting Pest control Plume hunting Spotlighting Trophy hunting Trapping Trail hunting Treeing Upland hunting Varmint hunting Venatio Waterfowl hunting Equipment Camouflage Game call Duck call Ghillie suit Hunting bag Hunting weapon Air gun Assegai Bow and arrow Bear spear Boar spear Boomerang Blowgun Crossbow Pistol Punt gun Rifle Spear-thrower Shotgun Sword Throwing stick Silencer Shooting brake Shooting sticks Game Alligator Bear Big five Bison Boar Raccoon Deer Stalking Fox Hare Human Headhunting Jackal Mink Plains game Rabbit Rook Tiger Turkey Turtle Lion Quail Wolf With dogs Seal Squirrel Poaching Whale Aboriginal Dolphin drive hunting Subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale Infrastructure Buffalo jump Buffalo pound Chase (land) Deer park (England) Deer forest Desert kite Game larder Game reserve Game farm Guest ranch Hunting blind Bird hide Salter Sporting lodge Jagdschloss Wolf trap By location Australia Dugong Kangaroo Azerbaijan Tiger Cambodia Chad Elephant Greenland Reindeer India Tiger poaching Rhino poaching in Assam Kenya Elephant New Zealand Helicopter-based hunting in Fiordland Russia Romania Spain Switzerland Federal hunting reserves Taiwan Tonga Pigeon United States Alaska United Kingdom Driven grouse shooting Regulation and conservation Bag Bag limits Conservation officer Deer management Game Act 1831 Game law Game preservation Hunting license Hunting Act 2004 Hunting season Poaching Sustainable hunting Culture Bambi effect Blooding Canned hunt Car hawking Duck ague Falconry training and technique Fair chase Field dressing Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom Gillie Hunting dog Gun dog Hunting magic List of hunting deities List of big-game hunters Opposition to hunting Parahawking Professional hunter Killing of Cecil the lion Raptor persecution Safety orange Safari Take Tracking Wild Hunt White hunter Organizations Boone and Crockett Club Countryside Alliance Ducks Unlimited Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU Finnish Hunters' Association Hunt Saboteurs Association Humane Society of the United States League Against Cruel Sports North American Falconers Association People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals Safari Club International Other Bowfishing Bounty hunter Blood sport Drag hunting Field trial Fur trade Ghost hunting Hunting hypothesis Hunting strategy Honey hunting Insect collecting Mushroom hunting Orchid hunting Overview of gun laws by nation Pearl hunting Spearfishing Wildlife farming

v t e Animal welfare Issues Abandoned pets Animal husbandry Animal testing Animals in sport Antibiotic use in livestock Artificial insemination Barn fire Battery cage Beak trimming Bile bear Blood sports Bullfighting Captivity Calf hutch Cannibalism in poultry Chick culling Culling Cockfighting Concentrated animal feeding operation Cow-calf separation Cribbing (horse) Cruelty to animals Dairy farming Docking Dog fighting Discretionary invasive procedures on animals Eating live animals Eating live seafood Eyestalk ablation Feather-plucking Feedback (pork industry) Fire Bull festival Toro de fuego Toro embolado Foam depopulation Foie gras controversy Forced molting Force-feeding Fur farming Gestation crate Hunting Hock burns Horse pain caused by the bit Intensive animal farming Intensive pig farming Lameness (equine) Livestock branding Livestock dehorning Livestock transportation Pet rental Poultry farming Puppy mill Roadkill Sentience Stable vices Stereotypy (non-human) Testing cosmetics on animals Ventilation shutdown Vivisection Weaving (horse) Welfare of farmed insects Wild animal welfare Wildlife farming Zoos Concepts Abnormal behaviours in animals Animal psychopathology Animal shelter Animal welfare science Anthrozoology Behavioral enrichment Better Chicken Commitment Bioethics Compassionate conservation Conservation welfare Ethics of uncertain sentience Ethical omnivorism Five Domains model Five Freedoms Humane law enforcement Intrinsic value in animal ethics Rescue group RSPCA Assured Three Rs principles Welfare biology Pain Pain in amphibians Pain in cephalopods Pain in crustaceans Pain in fish Pain in invertebrates Grimace scale Organisations ASPCA American Humane Education Society American Humane Society Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society Animal Defenders International Animal Welfare Committee Animal Welfare Party Animals' Friend Society Animal Aid Unlimited Animal Welfare Board of India Animal Welfare Institute Animal Welfare Investigations Project Badger Trust Band of Mercy Battersea Best Friends Animal Society Blue Cross Blue Cross of India Care for the Wild International Cats Protection Compassion in World Farming CAWF Cinnamon Trust Dogs Trust DSPA DSPCA Eurogroup for Animals Four Paws FRAME Humane Canada Humane Farm Animal Care HSUS Humane Society International Humane Slaughter Association Humanitarian League International Animal Rescue IFAW International Society for Applied Ethology ISPCA League Against Cruel Sports Legal Impact for Chickens Mercy For Animals National Society for the Abolition of Cruel Sports Network for Animals Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research MSPCA-Angell National Animal Welfare Trust National Anti-Vivisection Society OneKind Order of the Golden Age Party for Animal Welfare People for Animals People's Dispensary for Sick Animals RNZSPCA RSPCA RSPCA Australia Save Me Scottish Animal Welfare Commission SSPCA The Humane League Tiggywinkles UFAW Wildlife Aid Foundation World Animal Protection World Horse Welfare Publications Animal Welfare Cruel Sports Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science Our Dumb Animals Books Remarks on Cruelty to Animals (1795) A Few Notes on Cruelty to Animals (1846) Some Remarks on Cruelty to Animals, and the Principles in Human Nature from which That Vice Proceeds (1865) Black Beauty (1877) An Essay on Humanity to Animals (1878) The Cost of a Skin (1907) Animal Machines (1964) Animal Liberation (1975) Diet for a New America (1987) Striking at the Roots (2007) The Edge of Sentience (2024) Categories Animal advocacy parties Animal killing Animal rights Animal welfare and rights legislation Animal welfare in sports Animal sacrifice Animal sanctuaries Animal testing Animal welfare and rights by country Cruelty to animals Dishes involving the consumption of live animals Ethically disputed business practices towards animals Fur trade Pain in animals People associated with animal welfare Vivisection Whaling Religious considerations Dhabihah Jhatka Kutha Shechita Tza'ar ba'alei chayim Rituals and festivals Blessing of animals Bous al carrer Cock throwing Combat de Reines Eid al-Adha Gadhimai festival Goat throwing Goose pulling International Primate Day Kapparot Dog Meat Festival Monkey Buffet Festival Monkey Day October Horse Pushkar Camel Fair Rapa das Bestas of Sabucedo Running of the bulls Surin Elephant Round-up Toro embolado World Animal Day World Wildlife Day Legislation Animal testing regulations Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 (UK) Animal Welfare Act 1999 (NZ) Animal Welfare Act 2006 (UK) Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (US) Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022 (UK) Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 (UK) EU Directive 2010/63/EU (EU) EU Directive 1999/74/EC (EU) Horse Protection Act of 1970 (US) Hunting Act 2004 (UK) Philippine Animal Welfare Act 1998 (Philippines) Related Animal–industrial complex Humanitarian movement List of animal rights advocates List of animal sanctuaries People in animal welfare Category

Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic 2 Israel Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Hunting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.