# Homophobia

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Negative attitudes towards homosexual people

This article is about negative attitudes and discrimination toward homosexuality and LGBTQ people. For other uses, see [Homophobia (disambiguation)](/source/Homophobia_(disambiguation)).

"Anti-homosexuality" redirects here. For the two Ugandan acts of parliament, see [Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014](/source/Anti-Homosexuality_Act%2C_2014) and [Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2023](/source/Anti-Homosexuality_Act%2C_2023).

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Brochure used by [Save Our Children](/source/Save_Our_Children), a political coalition formed in 1977 in Miami, Florida, U.S., to overturn a recently legislated county ordinance that banned discrimination in areas of housing, employment, and public accommodation based on sexual orientation

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**Homophobia** encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward [homosexuality](/source/Homosexuality) or people who identify or are perceived as being [lesbian](/source/Lesbian), [gay](/source/Gay_men) or [bisexual](/source/Bisexual).[1][2][3] It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, or [antipathy](/source/Antipathy), may be based on irrational fear, and may sometimes be attributed to religious beliefs.[4][5] Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination and [violence](/source/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people) on the basis of [sexual orientations](/source/Sexual_orientation) that are [non-heterosexual](/source/Non-heterosexual).[1][2][6]

Recognized types of homophobia include *institutionalized* homophobia, e.g. religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia, and *internalized* homophobia, experienced by people who have same-sex attractions, regardless of how they identify.[7][8] According to 2010 Hate Crimes Statistics released by the [FBI](/source/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation) National Press Office, 19.3 percent of [hate crimes](/source/Hate_crime) across the United States "were motivated by a sexual orientation bias."[9] Moreover, a [Southern Poverty Law Center](/source/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center) 2010 *Intelligence Report* extrapolating data from FBI national hate crime statistics from 1995 to 2008, found that LGBTQ people were "far more likely than any other [minority group](/source/Minority_group) in the United States to be victimized by violent hate crime."[10]

## Etymology

Although prejudice against homosexuality and homosexuals has been recorded since [antiquity](/source/Classical_antiquity)—first appearing in [Ancient Greece](/source/Ancient_Greece) and growing notably during the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages), especially by adherents of [Islam](/source/Islam) and [Christianity](/source/Christianity)—the term "homophobia" itself is relatively new.[11][12] Scholars have used it to describe intolerance towards homosexuality throughout history despite the term's [anachronism](/source/Anachronism).

Coined by psychologist [George Weinberg](/source/George_Weinberg_(psychologist)) in the 1960s,[13] the term *homophobia* is a [portmanteau](/source/Portmanteau) of (1) the word ***homo**sexual*, itself a mix of neo-classical [morphemes](/source/Morpheme), and (2) *[**phobia**](/source/Phobia)* from the Greek φόβος *phóbos*, meaning "fear", "morbid fear" or "aversion".[14][15][16] Weinberg is credited as the first person to have used the term in speech.[11] The word *homophobia* first appeared in print in an article written for the 23 May 1969 edition of the American pornographic magazine *[Screw](/source/Screw_(magazine))*, in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.[11]

Conceptualizing homophobic prejudice as a [social problem](/source/Social_issues) worthy of scholarly attention was not new. An October 1969 article in *[Time](/source/Time_(magazine))* described examples of negative attitudes toward homosexuality as "homophobia", including "a mixture of revulsion and apprehension" which some called *[homosexual panic](/source/Homosexual_panic)*.[17] In 1971, Kenneth Smith used *homophobia* as a personality profile to describe the psychological aversion to homosexuality.[18] Weinberg also used it this way in his 1972 book *Society and the Healthy Homosexual*,[19] published one year before the [American Psychiatric Association](/source/American_Psychiatric_Association) voted to remove homosexuality from its list of [mental disorders](/source/Mental_disorder).[20][21] Weinberg's term became an important tool for [gay and lesbian activists](/source/LGBTQ_movements), advocates, and their allies.[11] He describes the concept as a medical [phobia](/source/Phobia):[19]

[A] phobia about homosexuals.... It was a fear of homosexuals which seemed to be associated with a fear of contagion, a fear of reducing the things one fought for — home and family. It was a religious fear and it had led to great brutality as fear always does.[11]

In 1981, *homophobia* was used for the first time in *[The Times](/source/The_Times)* (of London) to report that the [General Synod of the Church of England](/source/General_Synod_of_the_Church_of_England) voted to refuse to condemn homosexuality.[22]

However, when taken literally, *homophobia* may be a problematic term. Professor David A. F. Haaga says that contemporary usage includes "a wide range of [negative emotions](/source/Negative_emotion), attitudes and behaviours toward homosexual people," which are characteristics that are not consistent with accepted definitions of phobias, that of "an intense, illogical, or abnormal fear of a specified thing."[23]

## Types

Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.[24] There were also ideas to classify homophobia and other types of bigotry as *intolerant [personality disorder](/source/Personality_disorder)*.[25]

In 1992, the [American Psychiatric Association](/source/American_Psychiatric_Association), recognizing the power of the stigma against homosexuality, issued the following statement, reaffirmed by the Board of Trustees in July 2011:[26]

Whereas homosexuality *per se* implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) calls on all international health organizations, psychiatric organizations, and individual psychiatrists in other countries to urge the repeal in their own countries of legislation that penalizes homosexual acts by consenting adults in private. Further, APA calls on these organizations and individuals to do all that is possible to decrease the stigma related to homosexuality wherever and whenever it may occur.

### Institutional

#### Religious attitudes

Main article: [Religion and homosexuality](/source/Religion_and_homosexuality)

Religious protestors at a pride parade in [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem), with a sign that reads, "Homo sex is immoral ([Lev. 18/22](/source/Leviticus_18))". The association of homosexual sex with immorality or sinfulness is seen by many as a homophobic act.

Homophobic [Westboro Baptist Church](/source/Westboro_Baptist_Church) protesters in [Washington, D.C.](/source/Washington%2C_D.C.), 2019

Some world religions contain anti-homosexual teachings, while other religions have varying degrees of ambivalence, neutrality, or incorporate teachings that regard homosexuals as [third gender](/source/Third_gender). Even within some religions which generally discourage homosexuality, there may also be people who view homosexuality positively, and some [religious denominations](/source/Religious_denomination) bless or conduct [same-sex marriages](/source/Same-sex_marriages). There also exist so-called [Queer religions](/source/Queer_religion), dedicated to serving the spiritual needs of [LGBTQ](/source/LGBTQ) people. [Queer theology](/source/Queer_theology) seeks to provide a counterpoint to religious homophobia.[27] In 2015, attorney and author [Roberta Kaplan](/source/Roberta_Kaplan) stated that [Kim Davis](/source/Kim_Davis) "is the clearest example of someone who wants to use a religious liberty argument to discriminate [against same-sex couples]."[28]

#### Christianity and the Bible

Main articles: [Christianity and homosexuality](/source/Christianity_and_homosexuality) and [The Bible and homosexuality](/source/The_Bible_and_homosexuality)

Passages commonly interpreted as condemning homosexuality or same-gender sexual relations are found in both [Old](/source/Old_Testament) and [New](/source/New_Testament) Testaments of the Bible. [Leviticus](/source/Leviticus) 18:22 says "Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is abomination." A similar verse, Leviticus 20:13 says "If a man also lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them." The destruction of [Sodom and Gomorrah](/source/Sodom_and_Gomorrah) is also commonly seen as a condemnation of homosexuality. Though [lesbian](/source/Lesbian) sex is not specifically mentioned, Romans 1:26-27 could be interpreted as condemnation of it. Christians and Jews who oppose homosexuality may often cite such passages; the historical context and interpretation of which is more complicated. Scholarly debate over the interpretation of these passages has tended to focus on placing them in proper historical context, for instance pointing out that Sodom's sins are historically interpreted as being other than homosexuality,[29] and on the translation of rare or unusual words in the passages in question. In *[Religion Dispatches](/source/Religion_Dispatches)* magazine, Candace Chellew-Hodge argues that the six or so verses that are often cited to condemn LGBTQ people are referring instead to "abusive sex". She states that the Bible has no condemnation for "loving, committed, gay and lesbian relationships" and that Jesus was silent on the subject.[30] This view is opposed by a number of conservative evangelicals,[31] including [Robert A. J. Gagnon](/source/Robert_A._J._Gagnon).[32]

The official teaching of the [Catholic Church regarding homosexuality](/source/Homosexuality_and_Roman_Catholicism) is that same-sex behavior should not be expressed.[33] In the United States, a February 2025 [Pew Research Center](/source/Pew_Research_Center) poll shows that 70% of American Catholics support [gay marriage](/source/Gay_marriage).[34] That is a significant shift upwards from 2010, when 46% of Catholics favored gay marriage.[35] The [Catechism of the Catholic Church](/source/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church) states that, "'homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered.'...They are contrary to the natural law.... Under no circumstances can they be approved."[33]

#### Islam and Sharia

Main article: [Homosexuality and Islam](/source/Homosexuality_and_Islam)

In some cases, the distinction between religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia is not clear, a key example being territories under [Islamic](/source/Islamic) authority. All major [Islamic sects](/source/Islamic_sects) [forbid homosexuality](/source/Homosexuality_and_Islam), which is a crime under [Sharia Law](/source/Sharia_Law) and treated as such in most [Muslim](/source/Muslim) countries. In Afghanistan, for instance, homosexuality carries the death penalty under [Taliban](/source/Taliban) rule.[36][37][38] During the [Islamic Republic](/source/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan) period, it was instead punishable by fine or prison sentence. After the revolution of 1979 in Iran and the establishment of a new government based on Islamic Sharia, the pressure and punishment against LGBTQ people has expanded in this country.[39][40][41][42] The legal situation in the United Arab Emirates, however, is unclear.

In 2009, the [International Lesbian and Gay Association](/source/International_Lesbian_and_Gay_Association) (ILGA) published a report entitled *State Sponsored Homophobia 2009*,[43] which is based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal:[44]

- Seven carry the death penalty for homosexual activity: Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen, Afghanistan and Brunei.[45][41] Since the 1979 [Islamic revolution](/source/Iranian_Revolution) in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts.[46][47] In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments – e.g., fines, jail time, [whipping](/source/Flagellation) – as alternatives, unless it feels that people engaging in homosexual activity are challenging state authority by engaging in [LGBTQ social movements](/source/LGBTQ_social_movements).[48] On the other hand, due to the traditional and religious structure of Islamic societies, people also refuse to accept the identity of homosexuals and have a conservative attitude towards them.[49][50][51][52]

- Two carry the death penalty in certain regions: Nigeria and Somalia.[45]

In some regions, gay people have been [persecuted](/source/Persecution_of_gay_and_bisexual_men_by_ISIL) and murdered by [Islamist](/source/Islamist) militias,[53] such as [Al-Nusra Front](/source/Al-Nusra_Front) and [ISIL](/source/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant) in parts of Iraq and Syria.[54]

See also: [Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni](/source/Mahmoud_Asgari_and_Ayaz_Marhoni), [Arsham Parsi](/source/Arsham_Parsi), and [Irshad Manji](/source/Irshad_Manji)

#### State-sponsored

- [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:World_laws_pertaining_to_homosexual_relationships_and_expression)
- [t](/source/Template_talk%3AWorld_laws_pertaining_to_homosexual_relationships_and_expression)
- [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_laws_pertaining_to_homosexual_relationships_and_expression)

**Worldwide laws regarding same-sex intercourse, unions and expression.**

Same-sex intercourse legal. Recognition of unions: Marriage Extraterritorial marriage2 Civil unions Limited domestic Limited foreign Optional certification Same-sex intercourse illegal. Penalties: Death Prison; death not enforced Death under militias Prison, with arrests or detention Prison, not enforced1 Ambiguous. None Restriction of expression, not enforced Restriction of association with arrests or detention

 1No imprisonment in the past three years[*[timeframe?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Relative_time_references)*] or [moratorium](/source/Moratorium_(law)) on law.
2Marriage not available locally. Some jurisdictions may perform other types of partnerships.

State-sponsored homophobia includes the criminalization and penalization of homosexuality, hate speech from government figures, and other forms of discrimination, violence, persecution of LGBTQ people.[55]

#### Past governments

Main article: [History of Christianity and homosexuality](/source/History_of_Christianity_and_homosexuality)

In [medieval Europe](/source/Middle_Ages), homosexuality was considered [sodomy](/source/Sodomy) and was punishable by death. Persecutions reached their height during the [Medieval Inquisitions](/source/Medieval_Inquisition), when the sects of [Cathars](/source/Cathars) and [Waldensians](/source/Waldensians) were accused of [fornication](/source/Fornication) and sodomy, alongside accusations of [Satanism](/source/Satanism). In 1307, accusations of sodomy and homosexuality were major charges leveled during the [Trial of the Knights Templar](/source/Trial_of_the_Knights_Templar).[56] The theologian [Thomas Aquinas](/source/Thomas_Aquinas) was influential in linking condemnation of homosexuality with the idea of [natural law](/source/Natural_law), arguing that "special sins are against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the intercourse of male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly qualified as unnatural vices."[57]

Although bisexuality was accepted as normal human behavior in Ancient China,[58] homophobia became ingrained in the late [Qing dynasty](/source/Qing_dynasty) and the [Republic of China](/source/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)) due to interactions with the Christian West,[59] and homosexual behavior was outlawed in 1740.[60] During the [Cultural Revolution](/source/Cultural_Revolution), homosexuality was treated by the government as a "social disgrace or a form of mental illness", and individuals who were homosexual widely faced persecution. Although there were no laws specifically against homosexuality, other laws were used to prosecute homosexual people and they were "charged with hooliganism or disturbing public order."[61][*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources)*]

The [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) under [Vladimir Lenin](/source/Vladimir_Lenin) decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The [Soviet Communist Party](/source/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old [Tsarist](/source/Russian_Empire) laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place.[62] Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later by [Joseph Stalin](/source/Joseph_Stalin) and homosexuality remained illegal under Article 121 until the [Yeltsin](/source/Boris_Yeltsin) era.

In [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany), [gay men](/source/Gay_men) were [persecuted](/source/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany) and approximately five to fifteen thousand were imprisoned in [Nazi concentration camps](/source/Nazi_concentration_camps).[63]

#### Current governments

Main articles: [LGBTQ rights in Iran](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Iran), [LGBTQ rights in Jamaica](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Jamaica), [LGBTQ rights in North Korea](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_North_Korea), [LGBTQ rights in Saudi Arabia](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Saudi_Arabia), [LGBTQ rights in Uganda](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Uganda), [LGBTQ rights in Zimbabwe](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Zimbabwe), and [LGBTQ rights in Russia](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Russia)

See also: [Sodomy law](/source/Sodomy_law) and [Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill](/source/Uganda_Anti-Homosexuality_Bill)

Protests in [New York City](/source/LGBTQ_culture_in_New_York_City) against Uganda's [Anti-Homosexuality Bill](/source/Uganda_Anti-Homosexuality_Bill)

As of May 2016, homosexuality is illegal in 74 countries.[64] The North Korean government condemns Western [gay culture](/source/Gay_culture) as a vice caused by the decadence of a [capitalist society](/source/Capitalism), and it denounces it as promoting [consumerism](/source/Consumerism), [classism](/source/Classism), and promiscuity.[65] In North Korea, "violating the rules of collective socialist life" can be punished with up to two years' imprisonment.[66] Park Jeong-Won, a law professor at [Kookmin University](/source/Kookmin_University), said that, while he was not aware of any North Korean laws explicitly prohibiting homosexual relationships, laws against extramarital affairs and breaking moral customs would likely be used to prosecute homosexual acts.[67]

[LGBT-free zone](/source/LGBT-free_zone) stickers distributed by the *[Gazeta Polska](/source/Gazeta_Polska)* newspaper

[Robert Mugabe](/source/Robert_Mugabe), the former president of Zimbabwe, waged a violent campaign against [LGBTQ people](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Zimbabwe), arguing that before colonisation, Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.[68] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995, during the [Zimbabwe International Book Fair](/source/Zimbabwe_International_Book_Fair).[69] He told an audience: "If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"[70] In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.[69] In 1997, a court found [Canaan Banana](/source/Canaan_Banana), Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and [indecent assault](/source/Indecent_assault).[71][72]

In Poland, local towns, cities,[73][74] and [Voivodeship sejmiks](/source/Voivodeship_sejmik)[75] have declared their respective regions as [LGBTQ ideology free zone](/source/LGBTQ-free_zone) with the encouragement of the ruling [Law and Justice](/source/Law_and_Justice_(Poland)) party.[73]

Since 2006, under [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin), regions in Russia have enacted varying laws restricting the distribution of materials promoting LGBTQ relationships to minors. In June 2013, a [federal law criminalizing the distribution of materials among minors](/source/Russian_anti-LGBT_law) in support of non-traditional sexual relationships was enacted as an amendment to an [existing child protection law](/source/On_Protecting_Children_from_Information_Harmful_to_Their_Health_and_Development). The law resulted in the numerous arrests of Russian LGBTQ citizens.[76] In 2023 the [Supreme Court of Russia](/source/Supreme_Court_of_Russia) declared that the international LGBTQ rights movement is an extremist organization.[77]

### Internalized

**Internalized homophobia** encompasses negative stereotypes, beliefs, stigma, and prejudice about homosexuality and [LGBTQ](/source/LGBTQ) people that a person with same-sex attraction turns inward on themselves, whether or not they identify as LGBTQ.[11][78][7]

Some studies have shown that people who are homophobic are more likely to have repressed homosexual desires. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half said they were homophobic by experience, with self-reported orientation) at the [University of Georgia](/source/University_of_Georgia) found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia) were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.[79][80] Weinstein and colleagues[81] arrived at similar results when researchers found that students who came from controlling and homophobic homes were most likely to reveal repressed homosexual attraction. The researchers said that this explained why some religious leaders who denounce homosexuality are later revealed to have secret homosexual relations. One co-author said, "In many cases these are people who are at war with themselves and they are turning this internal conflict outward."[82] A 2016 eye-tracking study showed that heterosexual men with high negative impulse reactions toward homosexuals gazed for longer periods at homosexual imagery than other heterosexual men.[83] According to Cheval et al. (2016), these findings reinforce the necessity to consider that homophobia might reflect concerns about sexuality in general and not homosexuality in particular.[84] In contrast, Jesse Marczyk argued in *[Psychology Today](/source/Psychology_Today)* that homophobia is not necessarily repressed homosexuality.[85]

The effect of these ideas depends on how much and which they have consciously and subconsciously internalized.[86] These negative beliefs can be mitigated with education, life experience, and therapy,[7][87] especially with [gay-friendly](/source/Gay-friendly) psychotherapy/analysis.[88] Internalized homophobia also applies to conscious or unconscious behaviors which a person feels the need to promote or conform to cultural expectations of [heteronormativity](/source/Heteronormativity) or [heterosexism](/source/Heterosexism). This can include repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted". Other expressions of internalized homophobia can also be subtle. Some less overt behaviors may include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles.[11] Some researchers also apply this label to LGBTQ people who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find [civil unions](/source/Civil_union) acceptable in place of [same-sex marriage](/source/Same-sex_marriage).[89]

Researcher Iain R. Williamson finds the term *homophobia* to be "highly problematic", but for reasons of continuity and consistency with the majority of other publications on the issue retains its use rather than using more accurate but obscure terminology.[7] The phrase *internalized sexual stigma* is sometimes used in place to represent internalized homophobia.[80] An internalized stigma arises when a person believes negative stereotypes about themselves, regardless of where the stereotypes come from. It can also refer to many stereotypes beyond sexuality and [gender roles](/source/Gender_role). Internalized homophobia can cause discomfort with and disapproval of one's own [sexual orientation](/source/Sexual_orientation). [Ego-dystonic sexual orientation](/source/Ego-dystonic_sexual_orientation) or [egodystonic](/source/Egodystonic) homophobia, for instance, is a condition characterized by having a sexual orientation or an attraction that is at odds with one's idealized [self-image](/source/Self-image), causing [anxiety](/source/Anxiety) and a desire to change one's orientation or become more comfortable with one's sexual orientation. Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires.[79] In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance can cause clinical depression, and a higher rate of [suicide among LGBTQ youth](/source/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_youth) (up to 30 percent of [non-heterosexual](/source/Non-heterosexual) youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.[86] Psychotherapy, such as [gay affirmative psychotherapy](/source/Gay_affirmative_psychotherapy), and participation in a sexual-minority affirming group can help resolve the internal conflicts, such as between religious beliefs and sexual identity.[80] Even informal therapies that address understanding and accepting of non-heterosexual orientations can prove effective.[86] Many diagnostic "Internalized Homophobia Scales" can be used to measure a person's discomfort with their sexuality and some can be used by people regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Critics of the scales note that they presume a discomfort with non-heterosexuality which in itself enforces heteronormativity.[79][90]

### Social

The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of social homophobia. Theorists including [Calvin Thomas](/source/Calvin_Thomas_(critical_theorist)) and [Judith Butler](/source/Judith_Butler) have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay. Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity.[91][92] For this reason, homophobia is allegedly rampant in sports, and in the [subculture](/source/Subculture) of its supporters that is considered [stereotypically](/source/Stereotype) male, such as association football and [rugby](/source/Rugby_football).[93]

Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity.[94] Various [psychoanalytic](/source/Psychoanalysis) theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or [reaction formation](/source/Reaction_formation).[95]

## Distribution of attitude

Further information: [Societal attitudes toward homosexuality](/source/Societal_attitudes_toward_homosexuality)

*[Boys Beware](/source/Boys_Beware)*, a 1961 US [social guidance film](/source/Social_guidance_film) warning boys to beware the "predatory" dangers of homosexual men. The film pushes the common homophobic tropes that homosexuality is a mental illness, and that [gay men](/source/Gay_men) are [pedophiles](/source/Pedophilia).[96]

Between January 2010 and November 2014, 47 individuals have been killed due to their real or perceived sexual orientation or gender identity in Turkey according to online news sources.

Homophobia is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced [according to ethnicity](/source/Homophobia_in_ethnic_minority_communities), age, geographic location, race, sex, social class, education, partisan identification and religion.[11] According to UK HIV/AIDS charity [AVERT](/source/AVERT), religious views, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, and lack of interaction with gay people are strongly associated with such views.[97]

The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay[98][99] has also been identified by [Michael Kimmel](/source/Michael_Kimmel) as an example of homophobia.[100] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is said to be endemic in rural and suburban [American schools](/source/Education_in_the_United_States), and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of [school shootings](/source/School_shooting)) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.[101] Homophobic bullying is also very common in schools in the United Kingdom.[102] At least 445 [LGBTQ Brazilians](/source/LGBTQ_rights_in_Brazil) were either murdered or died of suicide in 2017.[103]

In some cases, the works of authors who merely have the word "Gay" in their name ([Gay Talese](/source/Gay_Talese), [Peter Gay](/source/Peter_Gay)) or works about things also contain the name (*[Enola Gay](/source/Enola_Gay)*) have been destroyed because of a perceived pro-homosexual bias.[104]

In the United States, attitudes vary on the basis of partisan identification. [Republicans](/source/U.S._Republican_Party) are far more likely than [Democrats](/source/U.S._Democratic_Party) to have negative attitudes about gays and lesbians, according to surveys conducted by the [National Election Studies](/source/National_Election_Studies) from 2000 through 2004.[105] Homophobia also varies by region; statistics show that the Southern United States has more reports of anti-gay prejudice than any other region in the US.[106]

In a 1998 address, [civil rights](/source/Civil_rights) leader [Coretta Scott King](/source/Coretta_Scott_King) stated, "Homophobia is like racism and anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood."[107] One study of white adolescent males conducted at the [University of Cincinnati](/source/University_of_Cincinnati) by Janet Baker[*[which?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words)*] has been used to argue that negative feelings towards gay people are also associated with other [discriminatory](/source/Discriminatory) behaviors.[108] According to the study, hatred of gay people, [antisemitism](/source/Antisemitism), and racism are "likely companions".[108] Baker hypothesized "maybe it's a matter of power and looking down on all you think are at the bottom."[108] A study performed in 2007 in the UK for the charity Stonewall reports that up to 90 percent of the population support [anti-discrimination laws](/source/Anti-discrimination_laws) protecting gay and lesbian people.[109]

## Economic cost

There are at least two studies which indicate that homophobia may have a negative economic impact for the countries where it is widespread. In these countries there is a [flight](/source/Queer_migration) of their LGBTQ populations—with the consequent loss of talent—as well as an avoidance of [LGBTQ tourism](/source/LGBTQ_tourism), that leaves the [pink money](/source/Pink_money) in LGBTQ-friendlier countries. As an example, LGBTQ tourists contribute 6.8 billion dollars every year to the [Spanish economy](/source/Spanish_economy).[110]

As soon as 2005, an editorial from the *[New York Times](/source/New_York_Times)* related the politics of *[don't ask, don't tell](/source/Don't_ask%2C_don't_tell)* in the [US Army](/source/US_Army) with the lack of translators from Arabic, and with the delay in the translation of Arabic documents, calculated to be about 120,000 hours at the time. Since 1998, with the introduction of the new policy, about 20 Arabic translators had been expelled from the Army, specifically during the years the US was involved in wars in [Iraq](/source/Iraq_War) and [Afghanistan](/source/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)).[111]

M. V. Lee Badgett, an economist at the [University of Massachusetts Amherst](/source/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst), presented in March 2014 in a meeting of the [World Bank](/source/World_Bank) the results of a study about the economic impact of homophobia in India. Only in health expenses, caused by depression, suicide, and HIV treatment, India would have spent additional 23,100 million dollars due to homophobia. On top, there would be costs caused by violence, workplace loss, rejection of the family, and bullying at school, that would result in a lower education level, lower productivity, lower wages, worse health, and a lower life expectancy among the LGBTQ population.[112] In total, she estimated for 2014 in India a loss of up to 30,800 million dollars, or 1.7% of the Indian GDP.[110][113][114]

The LGBTQ activist Adebisi Alimi, in a preliminary estimation, has calculated that the economic loss due to homophobia in Nigeria is about 1% of its GDP. Taking into account that in 2015 homosexuality is still illegal in 36 of the 54 African countries, the money loss due to homophobia in the continent could amount to hundreds of millions of dollars every year.[110]

Another study regarding socioecological measurement of homophobia and its public health impact for 158 countries was conducted in 2018. It found that the prejudice against gay people has a worldwide economic cost of $119.1 billion. Economical loss in Asia was 88.29 billion dollars due to homophobia, and in Latin America & the Caribbean it was 8.04 billion dollars. Economical cost in East Asia and Middle Asia was 10.85 billion dollars. Economical cost in Middle East and North Africa was 16.92 billion dollars. The researcher suggested that a 1% decrease in the level of homophobia is correlated with a 10% increase in the gross domestic product per capita – though this does not imply causation.[115]

A 2018 study by [The Williams Institute](/source/Williams_Institute_on_Sexual_Orientation_and_Gender_Identity_Law_and_Public_Policy) ([UCLA](/source/UCLA) School of Law) concludes that there is a positive correlation between LGBTQ inclusion and [GDP per capita](/source/GDP_per_capita). According to this study, the legal rights of LGBTQ people have a bigger influence than the degree of acceptance in the society, but both effects reinforce each other.[116] A one-point increase in their LGBT Global Acceptance Index (GAI) showed an increase of $1,506 in GDP per capita, and one additional legal right was correlated with an increase of $1,694 in GDP per capita.[117]

## Countermeasures

The [NYC Pride March](/source/NYC_Pride_March) is the [world's largest LGBTQ event](/source/List_of_largest_LGBTQ_events). Regional variation exists with respect to [tolerance](/source/Toleration), the [antithesis](/source/Antithesis) of homophobic discrimination, in different parts of the world.

Most international human rights organizations, such as [Human Rights Watch](/source/Human_Rights_Watch) and [Amnesty International](/source/Amnesty_International), condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations [Human Rights Committee](/source/Human_Rights_Committee) has also ruled that such laws violated the [right to privacy](/source/Right_to_privacy) guaranteed in the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](/source/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights) and the [International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights](/source/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights). In 2008, the [Roman Catholic Church](/source/Roman_Catholic_Church) issued a statement which "urges States to do away with criminal penalties against [homosexual persons]." The statement, however, was addressed to reject a resolution by the UN Assembly that would have precisely called for an end of penalties against homosexuals in the world.[118] In March 2010, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a recommendation on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity, described by CoE Secretary General as the first legal instrument in the world dealing specifically with one of the most long-lasting and difficult forms of discrimination to combat.[119]

LGBTQ activists at [Cologne Pride](/source/Cologne_Pride) carrying a banner with the flags of over 70 countries where [homosexuality is illegal](/source/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory)

To combat homophobia, the LGBTQ community uses events such as [gay pride parades](/source/Gay_pride_parade) and political activism (*See [gay pride](/source/Gay_pride)).* Cities across the word use crossings repainted in rainbow colors for their annual pride parades. The first permanent crossings have been put on roads in [Lambeth, England](/source/Lambeth%2C_England).[120]

One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the [International Day Against Homophobia](/source/International_Day_Against_Homophobia) (or IDAHO),[121] first celebrated 17 May 2005, in related activities in more than 40 countries.[122] The four largest countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia) developed mass media campaigns against homophobia since 2002.[123]

In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in [hate speech](/source/Hate_speech), [hate crime](/source/Hate_crime), and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Successful preventative strategies against homophobic prejudice and bullying in schools have included teaching pupils about historical figures who were gay, or who suffered discrimination because of their sexuality.[124]

Some argue that anti-LGBTQ prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.[125] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular stated:

"Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behavior earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias prevents the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs ([sexually transmitted diseases](/source/Sexually_transmitted_diseases))."[125]

Drawing upon research by [Arizona State University](/source/Arizona_State_University) Professor Elizabeth Segal, [University of Memphis](/source/University_of_Memphis) professors Robin Lennon-Dearing and [Elena Delavega](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elena_Delavega&action=edit&redlink=1) argued in a 2016 article published in the *[Journal of Homosexuality](/source/Journal_of_Homosexuality)* that homophobia could be reduced through exposure (learning about LGBTQ experiences), explanation (understanding the different challenges faced by LGBTQ people), and experience (putting themselves in situations experienced by LGBTQ people by working alongside LGBTQ co-workers or volunteering at an LGBTQ community center).[126]

## Criticism of meaning and purpose

### Distinctions and proposed alternatives

Researchers have proposed alternative terms to describe prejudice and discrimination against [LGBTQ](/source/LGBTQ) people. Some of these alternatives show more [semantic transparency](/source/Transparency_(linguistic)#Descriptive) while others do not include -*[phobia](/source/Phobia)*:

- *Homoerotophobia*, being a possible precursor term to *homophobia*, was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in *Homosexual Behavior Among Males* in 1967.

- The etymology of *homophobia* citing the union of *homos* and *phobos* is the basis for [LGBTQ historian](/source/LGBTQ_history) [John Boswell](/source/John_Boswell)'s criticism of the term and for his suggestion in 1980 of the alternative *homosexophobia*.[127]

- *Homonegativity* is based on the term *homonegativism* used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they coined the term for their research to avoid *homophobia*, which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of motivation.[128]

- *[Heterosexism](/source/Heterosexism)* refers to a system of negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favour of opposite-sex sexual orientation and relationships.[129] It can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only [norm](/source/Norm_(sociology))[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] and therefore superior.

- *Sexual prejudice* – Researcher at the [University of California, Davis](/source/University_of_California%2C_Davis), [Gregory M. Herek](/source/Gregory_M._Herek) preferred *sexual prejudice* as being descriptive, free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled.[130][131] He compared *homophobia*, *heterosexism*, and *sexual prejudice*, and, in preferring the third term, noted that *homophobia* was "probably more widely used and more often criticized." He also observed that "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual [psychopathology](/source/Psychopathology) rather than a socially reinforced prejudice."

### Other names

Negative attitudes toward identifiable LGBTQ groups have similar yet specific names: [lesbophobia](/source/Lesbophobia) is the [intersection](/source/Intersectionality) of homophobia and [sexism](/source/Sexism) directed against lesbians, [gayphobia](/source/Gayphobia) is the dislike or hatred of [gay men](/source/Gay_men), [biphobia](/source/Biphobia) targets bisexuality and [bisexual](/source/Bisexuality) people, and [transphobia](/source/Transphobia) targets [transgender](/source/Transgender) and [transsexual](/source/Transsexual) people and [gender variance](/source/Gender_variance) or [gender role](/source/Gender_role) nonconformity.[132][1][3][133]

#### Non-neutral phrasing

Use of *homophobia*, *homophobic*, and *homophobe* has been criticized as [pejorative](/source/Pejorative) against [LGBTQ rights opponents](/source/LGBTQ_rights_opponents). [Behavioral scientists](/source/Behavioral_science) [William O'Donohue](/source/William_O'Donohue) and Christine Caselles stated in 1993 that "as [*homophobia*] is usually used, [it] makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality" itself, arguing that the term may be used as an *ad hominem* argument against those who advocate values or positions of which the user does not approve.[134]

Psychologists [Gregory M. Herek](/source/Gregory_M._Herek) and [Beverly A. Greene](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beverly_A._Greene&action=edit&redlink=1) also find fault with the term "homophobia:" "Technically, homophobia means fear of sameness, yet its usage implies a fear of homosexuals....the –phobia suffix implies a specific kind of fear... Fear or aversion may comprise one component of beliefs about homosexuality, but other factors are unquestionably important. Several alternative terms have been offered ...These include homonegativism (Hudson & Ricketts, 1980), homosexism (Hansen, 1982), and heterosexism (Herek, 1986a). Unfortunately, none has gained widespread acceptance."[135]

However, neutral use of the term has gained acceptance and usage over time since the 1990s. In 2017, the [Associated Press Stylebook](/source/Associated_Press_Stylebook) added an entry for "homophobia" and "homophobic" for the first time,[136] after having excluded it in 2012.[137] The entry says the terms are "acceptable in broad references or in quotations to the concept of fear or hatred of gays, lesbians and bisexuals."

#### *Heterophobia*

"Heterophobia" redirects here; not to be confused with [Heterophoria](/source/Heterophoria) or [Herpetophobia](/source/Herpetophobia).

*We hate white, rich, heterosexual men* – protest slogan of [radical feminists](/source/Radical_feminists) at the [Stockholm Pride](/source/Stockholm_Pride) parade (2009)

**Heterophobia** is defined as the fear, aversion, avoidance, or [discrimination](/source/Discrimination) against [heterosexual](/source/Heterosexuality) individuals. In psychological research, particularly among [gay men](/source/Gay_men), heterophobia has been operationalized to include social disconnectedness, expectations of rejection, and unease or avoidance of heterosexual individuals. It has been linked to [behavioral health](/source/Mental_health) outcomes and may contribute to [social isolation](/source/Social_isolation), intergroup conflict, and difficulties in forming social or [romantic relationships](/source/Romance_(love)).[138][139][140][141][142][143][144]

The scientific use of *heterophobia* in [sexology](/source/Sexology) remains limited and contested, being restricted to researchers who question [Alfred Kinsey](/source/Alfred_Kinsey)'s sex research.[145][146] To date, the existence or extent of heterophobia is mostly unrecognized by sexologists.[139] Beyond sexology, there is no consensus as to the meaning of the term because it is also used to mean "fear of the opposite", such as in [Pierre-André Taguieff](/source/Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Taguieff)'s *The Force of Prejudice: On Racism and Its Doubles* (2001).

Stephen M. White and Louis R. Franzini introduced the related term *heteronegativism* to refer to the range of negative feelings that some gay individuals may hold toward heterosexuals. This term is preferred to *heterophobia* because it does not imply extreme or irrational fear.[147]

## See also

- [LGBTQ portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:LGBTQ)

- [Corrective rape](/source/Corrective_rape)

- [Discrimination against non-binary people](/source/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people)

- [Faggot (slang)](/source/Faggot_(slang))

- [Gay panic defense](/source/Gay_panic_defense)

- [Homosexual agenda](/source/Homosexual_agenda)

- [Heteropatriarchy](/source/Heteropatriarchy)

- [Homophobia in ethnic minority communities](/source/Homophobia_in_ethnic_minority_communities)

- *[Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida](/source/Homosexuality_and_Citizenship_in_Florida)* (pamphlet)

- [Lavender scare](/source/Lavender_scare)

- [Liberal homophobia](/source/Liberal_homophobia)

- [Minority stress](/source/Minority_stress)

- [Riddle scale](/source/Riddle_scale)

- [Sexual repression](/source/Sexual_repression)

- [Stop Murder Music](/source/Stop_Murder_Music)

- [Yogyakarta Principles](/source/Yogyakarta_Principles)

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_33-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_33-1) ["The sixth commandment"](https://web.archive.org/web/20020910104753/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm). *Catechism of the Catholic Church*. Archived from [the original](https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm) on 10 September 2002.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_41-1) Ahmady, Kameel (2020). *[Forbidden tale: A comprehensive study on lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) in Iran](/source/Forbidden_Tale)*. London: Mehri Publication. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-64945-722-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64945-722-6). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1232824514](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1232824514).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ZIB_69-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ZIB_69-1) Epprecht, Marc (2004). *Hungochani: The history of a dissident sexuality in southern Africa*. [Montreal](/source/Montreal). p. 180. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7735-2751-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2751-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [54905608](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54905608).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wapo20190719_73-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wapo20190719_73-1) Noack, Rick (21 July 2019). ["Polish towns advocate 'LGBT-free' zones while the ruling party cheers them on"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/polands-right-wing-ruling-party-has-found-a-new-targetlgbt-ideology/2019/07/19/775f25c6-a4ad-11e9-a767-d7ab84aef3e9_story.html). *Washington Post*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0190-8286](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286). Retrieved 2 January 2023.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Adams96_79-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Adams96_79-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Adams96_79-2) Adams, Henry E.; Wright, Lester W.; Lohr, Bethany A. (August 1996). "Is homophobia associated with homosexual arousal?". *Journal of Abnormal Psychology*. **105** (3): 440–445. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.440](https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-843X.105.3.440). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8772014](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8772014). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [8349682](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8349682). - American Psychological Association (August 1996). ["New study links homophobia with homosexual arousal"](https://web.archive.org/web/20040202035152/http://www.apa.org/releases/homophob.html) (Press release). Archived from [the original](http://www.apa.org/releases/homophob.html) on 2 February 2004.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-apa_80-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-apa_80-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-apa_80-2) [*Report of the American Psychological Association task force on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation*](https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/therapeutic-response.pdf) (PDF). American Psychological Association. August 2009.[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-ScienceDaily_2012_e053_82-0)** University of Rochester (12 April 2012). ["Is some homophobia self-phobia?"](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120406234458.htm). *[ScienceDaily](/source/ScienceDaily)* (Press release). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230813065421/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120406234458.htm) from the original on 13 August 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** Cheval, Boris; Radel, Remi; Grob, Emmanuelle; Ghisletta, Paolo; Bianchi-Demicheli, Francesco; Chanal, Julien (May 2016). ["Homophobia: An impulsive attraction to the same sex? Evidence from eye-tracking data in a picture-viewing task"](https://hal.science/hal-05016751). *The Journal of Sexual Medicine*. **13** (5): 825–834. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.02.165](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jsxm.2016.02.165). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [27006197](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27006197).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** Cheval, Boris; Grob, Emmanuelle; Chanal, Julien; Ghisletta, Paolo; Bianchi-Demicheli, Francesco; Radel, Remi (October 2016). ["Homophobia is related to a low interest in sexuality in general: An analysis of pupillometric evoked responses"](https://hal.science/hal-05016767). *The Journal of Sexual Medicine*. **13** (10): 1539–1545. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.07.013](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jsxm.2016.07.013). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [27528498](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27528498).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** Marczyk, Jesse. ["Homophobia isn't repressed homosexuality and there's no good reason to suspect it would be, either"](https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/pop-psych/201608/homophobia-isnt-repressed-homosexuality). *Psychology Today*. Sussex Publishers, LLC. Retrieved 16 August 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Gonsiorek_86-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Gonsiorek_86-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Gonsiorek_86-2) Gonsiorek, John C. (March 1988). "Mental health issues of gay and lesbian adolescents". *Journal of Adolescent Health Care*. **9** (2): 114–122. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0197-0070(88)90057-5](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0197-0070%2888%2990057-5). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [3283088](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3283088).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** Martino, Wayne (1 January 2000). "Policing masculinities: Investigating the role of homophobia and heteronormativity in the lives of adolescent school boys". *The Journal of Men's Studies*. **8** (2): 213–236. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3149/jms.0802.213](https://doi.org/10.3149%2Fjms.0802.213). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145712607](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145712607).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Dreyer, Yolanda (5 May 2007). ["Hegemony and the internalisation of homophobia caused by heteronormativity"](https://doi.org/10.4102%2Fhts.v63i1.197). *HTS Teologiese Studies*. **63** (1): 1–18. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4102/hts.v63i1.197](https://doi.org/10.4102%2Fhts.v63i1.197). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2263/2741](https://hdl.handle.net/2263%2F2741).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Rostosky, Sharon Scales; Riggle, Ellen D. B.; Horne, Sharon G.; Miller, Angela D. (January 2009). "Marriage amendments and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults". *Journal of Counseling Psychology*. **56** (1): 56–66. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/a0013609](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0013609). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [43455275](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43455275).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** Shidlo, Ariel (1994). "Internalized Homophobia: Conceptual and Empirical Issues in Measurement". *Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications*. pp. 176–205. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4135/9781483326757.n10](https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781483326757.n10). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8039-5312-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-5312-3).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-PBS_92-0)** ["Homophobia and hip-hop"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181013025115/http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/hiphop/gender.htm). *[Independent Lens](/source/Independent_Lens)*. PBS. Archived from [the original](https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/hiphop/gender.htm) on 13 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** Dykes, John. ["Fans' culture hard to change"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110611062618/http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/sports/34787/fans-culture-hard-to-change). *[Bangkok Post](/source/Bangkok_Post)*. Archived from [the original](http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/sports/34787/fans-culture-hard-to-change) on 11 June 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** Chodorow, Nancy J. (18 December 1998). [*Homophobia: Analysis of a 'permissible' prejudice*](https://www.cyberpsych.org/homophobia/chodorow.htm) (Speech). New York City: [American Psychoanalytic Foundation](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Psychoanalytic_Foundation&action=edit&redlink=1). Retrieved 2 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** West, Donald James (1977). *Homosexuality re-examined*. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8166-0812-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-0812-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** McCarty, J. ["Teaching (hetero)sexuality: 1960s sexual education films in the United States"](https://web.archive.org/web/20231111231539/https://kimon.hosting.nyu.edu/sites/queering-the-web/2017/05/14/teaching-heterosexuality-1960s-sexual-education-films-in-the-united-states/). *Queering the web: A practical, digital inquiry into the history of sexuality and gender*. Archived from [the original](https://kimon.hosting.nyu.edu/sites/queering-the-web/2017/05/14/teaching-heterosexuality-1960s-sexual-education-films-in-the-united-states/) on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** ["Prejudice & attitudes to gay men & lesbians"](https://www.avert.org/hsexu3.htm). *avert.org*. 23 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** Epstein, Debbie (1996). "Keeping them in their Place: Hetero/Sexist Harassment, Gender and the Enforcement of Heterosexuality". *Sex, sensibility and the gendered body*. pp. 202–221. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-24536-9_11](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-24536-9_11). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-333-65002-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-65002-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Herek1998b_99-0)** Herek, Gregory M., ed. (1998). *Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals*. Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues. Vol. 4. Sage Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8039-5385-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-5385-7). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [37721264](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37721264).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** Kimmel, Michael Scott (13 June 1994). "Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity". In Brod, Harry; Kaufman, Michael (eds.). *Theorizing masculinities*. Newbury Park, California: SAGE Publications. pp. 119–141. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5063-1964-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5063-1964-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kimmel2003_101-0)** Kimmel, Michael Scott; Mahler, Matthew (2003). "Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence: Random school shootings, 1982–2001". *[American Behavioral Scientist](/source/American_Behavioral_Scientist)*. **46** (10): 1439–58. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0002764203046010010](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002764203046010010). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [437621566](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/437621566). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [141177806](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141177806).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-102)** ["How fair is Britain? the first Triennial Review"](https://web.archive.org/web/20101015143526/http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/key-projects/triennial-review/online-summary/education/). [Equality and Human Rights Commission](/source/Equality_and_Human_Rights_Commission). Archived from [the original](http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/key-projects/triennial-review/online-summary/education/) on 15 October 2010. Retrieved 8 November 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-103)** Cowie, Sam (22 January 2018). ["Violent deaths of LGBT people in Brazil hit all-time high"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/22/brazil-lgbt-violence-deaths-all-time-high-new-research). *The Guardian*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-104)** Petras, Kathryn; Petras, Ross (2003). [*Unusually stupid Americans (A compendium of all American stupidity)*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965806879). New York: Villard Books. p. [103](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965806879/page/103). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9658068-7-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9658068-7-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** Fried, Joseph (2008). *Democrats and Republicans—rhetoric and reality: Comparing the voters in statistics and anecdotes*. [Algora Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algora_Publishing&action=edit&redlink=1). p. 185. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-87586-605-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-605-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [183179592](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/183179592).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-APCJ2005_106-0)** Lyons, P. M. Jr.; Anthony, C. M.; Davis, K. M.; Fernandez, K.; Torres, A. N.; Marcus, D. K. (2005). ["Police judgments of culpability and homophobia"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200103123507/http://www.apcj.org/journal/index.php?mode=view&item=0). *Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice*. **1** (1): 1–14. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1550-3550](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1550-3550). Archived from [the original](http://www.apcj.org/journal/index.php?mode=view&item=0) on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-107)** ["The Legacy of & Memorial to Dr. King, MLK – Wesleyan University"](https://www.wesleyan.edu/mlk/posters/legacy.html). *www.wesleyan.edu*. Retrieved 18 June 2024.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-jetstudy_108-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-jetstudy_108-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-jetstudy_108-2) ["Homophobia, racism likely companions, study shows"](https://books.google.com/books?id=0rkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA12). *[Jet](/source/Jet_(magazine))*. Johnson Publishing Company. 10 January 1994. p. 12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-109)** Muir, Hugh (23 May 2007). ["Majority support gay equality rights, poll finds"](https://www.theguardian.com/gayrights/story/0,,2086335,00.html). *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*. London. Retrieved 4 May 2010.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Smith_110-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Smith_110-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Smith_110-2) Smith, David (16 October 2015). "The hidden cost of homophobia in Africa". *EconomyWatch.com*. republished as Smith, David (16 October 2015). ["The hidden cost of homophobia in Africa"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190626200006/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/press/in-the-news/the-hidden-cost-of-homophobia-in-africa/). *[Williams Institute](/source/Williams_Institute)*. Archived from [the original](https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/press/in-the-news/the-hidden-cost-of-homophobia-in-africa/) on 26 June 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-111)** ["The price of homophobia"](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/20/opinion/the-price-of-homophobia.html). *The New York Times* (Editorial). 20 January 2005. Retrieved 10 December 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Alimi_112-0)** Alimi, Adebisi (19 June 2014). ["The development costs of homophobia"](https://www.euractiv.com/sections/development-policy/development-costs-homophobia-302899). *EurActiv | EU News & policy debates, across languages*. Retrieved 10 December 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** Badgett, M. V. Lee. [Sexual minorities and development](https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/SAR/economic-costs-homophobia-lgbt-exlusion-india.pdf) (PDF) (Report). The World Bank. Retrieved 10 December 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-114)** Westcott, Lucy (12 March 2014). ["What homophobia costs a country's economy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190626200004/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/03/what-homophobia-costs-countrys-economy/359109/). *[The Atlantic](/source/The_Atlantic)*. Archived from [the original](https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/03/what-homophobia-costs-countrys-economy/359109/) on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** Lamontagne, Erik; d'Elbée, Marc; Ross, Michael W; Carroll, Aengus; Plessis, André du; Loures, Luiz (3 March 2018). ["A socioecological measurement of homophobia for all countries and its public health impact"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fcky023). *European Journal of Public Health*. **28** (5): 967–972. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/eurpub/cky023](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fcky023). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29514190](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29514190).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-116)** Badgett, M.V. Lee; Park, Andrew; Flores, Andrew (March 2018). [Links between economic development and new measures of LGBT inclusion](https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/GDP-and-LGBT-Inclusion-April-2018.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Los Angeles: [Williams Institute](/source/Williams_Institute). Retrieved 10 February 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-117)** ["Global Acceptance Index"](https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/uncategorized/lgbt-acceptance-around-the-world/). *[Williams Institute](/source/Williams_Institute)*. UCLA School of Law. Retrieved 10 February 2020.[*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-vatican.va_118-0)** ["Statement of the Holy See Delegation at the 63rd Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations on the Declaration on Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity"](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/2008/documents/rc_seg-st_20081218_statement-sexual-orientation_en.html). vatican.va. 18 December 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** ["Council of Europe to advance human rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons"](https://rm.coe.int/168071fd86) (Press release) (in English and French). Council of Europe. 1 April 2010. Retrieved 16 October 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** ["The UK's first rainbow crossing"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/49394056). BBC. 20 August 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** ["Towards an international Day against Homophobia"](https://web.archive.org/web/20051217063659/http://ilga.org/news_results_b.asp?FileID=329). [International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association](/source/International_Lesbian%2C_Gay%2C_Bisexual%2C_Trans_and_Intersex_Association). 10 April 2004. Archived from [the original](http://ilga.org/news_results_b.asp?FileID=329) on 17 December 2005.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** ["1st annual International Day Against Homophobia to be celebrated in over 40 countries on May 17"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070211224159/http://www.emediawire.com/releases/2005/5/emw239185.htm) (Press release). 12 May 2005. Archived from [the original](http://www.emediawire.com/releases/2005/5/emw239185.htm) on 11 February 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Lyra, Paulo; et al. (2008). ["PAHO/WHO | Campaigns against homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico"](https://www3.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=346:2008-campaigns-against-homophobia-argentina-brazil-colombia-mexico&Itemid=0&lang=en#gsc.tab=0). *Pan American Health Organization / World Health Organization*. Retrieved 2 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** Shepherd, Jessica (26 October 2010). ["Lessons on gay history cut homophobic bullying in north London school"](https://www.theguardian.com/education/2010/oct/26/gay-history-lessons-bullying-schools). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 9 November 2010.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Blumenfeld1992_125-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Blumenfeld1992_125-1) Blumenfeld, Warren J. (1992). [*Homophobia: How we all pay the price*](https://archive.org/details/homophobia00warr). Beacon Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8070-7919-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-7919-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [24544734](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24544734).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-journaldosocialworkersapply_126-0)** Delavega, Elena; Lennon-Dearing, Robin (2016). "Do social workers apply 'love thy neighbor as thyself' to gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transpersons in the south?". *Journal of Homosexuality*. **63** (9): 1171–1193. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00918369.2016.1150058](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00918369.2016.1150058). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [26849856](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26849856). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [205471075](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205471075).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BOS1980_127-0)** Boswell, John (1980). [*Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century*](https://archive.org/details/christianitysoci00bosw). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hudson1980_128-0)** Hudson, WW; Ricketts, WA (1980). "A strategy for the measurement of homophobia". *[Journal of Homosexuality](/source/Journal_of_Homosexuality)*. **5** (4): 357–72. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1300/J082v05n04_02](https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ082v05n04_02). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [115532547](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/115532547). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [7204951](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7204951).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** Jung, Patricia Beattie; Smith, Ralph F. (1993). [*Heterosexism: An ethical challenge*](https://archive.org/details/heterosexismethi0000jung/page/13). State University of New York Press. p. 13. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7914-1696-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1696-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-130)** Herek, Gregory M. (1990). "The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism". *J Interpers Violence*. **5** (3): 316–333. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/088626090005003006](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F088626090005003006). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145678459](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145678459).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** Herek, Gregory M. (February 2000). "The psychology of sexual prejudice". *Current Directions in Psychological Science*. **9** (1): 19–22. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/1467-8721.00051](https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.00051). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [36963920](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36963920).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-132)** Clauss-Ehlers, Caroline S. (2010). [*Encyclopedia of cross-cultural school psychology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PaO3jsaGkeYC) (2 ed.). Springer. p. 524. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-387-71798-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-71798-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Spijkerboer_133-0)** Spijkerboer, Thomas (2013). [*Fleeing homophobia: Sexual orientation, gender identity and asylum*](https://books.google.com/books?id=oOxBtViD0KcC&pg=PA122). [Routledge](/source/Routledge). p. 122. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-09835-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-09835-4). Transgender people subjected to violence, in a range of cultural contexts, frequently report that transphobic violence is expressed in homophobic terms. The tendency to translate violence against a trans person to homophobia reflects the role of gender in attribution of homosexuality as well as the fact that hostility connected to homosexuality is often associated with the perpetrators' prejudices about particular gender practices and their visibility.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-134)** O'Donohue, William; Caselles, Christine (September 1993). "Homophobia: Conceptual, definitional, and value issues". *J Psychopathol Behav Assess*. **15** (3): 177–195. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/BF01371377](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01371377). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144801673](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144801673).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-135)** Greene, Beverly; Herek, Gregory M. (5 January 1994). [*Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications*](https://books.google.com/books?id=m4I5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA27). Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian & Gay Issues. New York: [SAGE Publications](/source/SAGE_Publications). pp. 27, 28. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8039-5312-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-5312-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** Sopelsa, Brooke (27 March 2017). ["AP stylebook embraces 'they' as a singular, gender-neutral pronoun"](https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/ap-stylebook-embraces-they-singular-gender-neutral-pronoun-n739076). *NBC News*. Retrieved 22 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-137)** Byers, Dylan (26 November 2012). ["AP nixes 'homophobia', 'ethnic cleansing'"](https://www.politico.com/blogs/media/2012/11/ap-nixes-homophobia-ethnic-cleansing-150315). *[Politico](/source/Politico)*. Retrieved 16 December 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:2_138-0)** ["heterophobia"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/heterophobia). *Merriam-Webster* (Online ed.). Retrieved 15 March 2022.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-noonan1999_139-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-noonan1999_139-1) Noonan, Raymond J. (6 November 1999). ["Heterophobia: The evolution of an idea"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121219052723/http://home.bway.net/rjnoonan/Conf1999.html). Dr. Ray Noonan's 1999 Conference Presentations. Archived from [the original](http://home.bway.net/rjnoonan/Conf1999.html) on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** Provence, Markus M.; Parent, Mike C.; Rochlen, Aaron B.; Chester, Matthew R. (2019). ["Development of the Gay Male Heterophobia Scale"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11086697). *Psychology of Men & Masculinities*. **20** (1): 44–54. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/men0000158](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fmen0000158). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1939-151X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-151X). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [11086697](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11086697). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [38736432](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38736432).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** Parent, Mike C.; Rochlen, Aaron B.; Wille, Lexie (2019). ["Precursors to heterophobia: An examination of temporal sequence among a sample of gay men"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10817716). *Psychology of Men & Masculinities*. **20** (4): 647–653. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/men0000200](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fmen0000200). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1939-151X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-151X). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [10817716](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10817716). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [38283320](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38283320).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** Haldeman, Douglas C. (2006), Englar-Carlson, Matt; Stevens, Mark A. (eds.), ["Queer eye on the straight guy: A case of gay male heterophobia."](https://content.apa.org/books/11411-016), *In the room with men: A casebook of therapeutic change.*, Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 301–317, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/11411-016](https://doi.org/10.1037%2F11411-016), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59147-332-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59147-332-9), retrieved 16 October 2025{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** Code, Lorraine (2003). [*Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories*](https://books.google.com/books?id=EvDUSt-msIEC&q=heterophobia). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-30885-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30885-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** Ruiz, Enrique (7 February 2009). [*Discriminate Or Diversify*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VZ_uPnC6kTIC&q=heterophobia). PositivePsyche.Biz Corp. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-578-01734-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-578-01734-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-145)** Reisman, Judith A.; Eichel, Edward W.; Muir, J. Gordon; Court, John Hugh (1990). *Kinsey, sex and fraud: The indoctrination of a people, an investigation into the human sexuality research of Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, and Paul H. Gebhard*. Lochinvar-Huntington House. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-910311-20-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-910311-20-5).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** *The Complete Dictionary of Sexuality* by Robert T. Francoeur[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** White, Stephen M.; Franzini, Louis R. (24 February 1999). ["Heteronegativism: The Attitudes of Gay Men and Lesbians Toward Heterosexuals"](https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v37n01_05). *Journal of Homosexuality*. **37** (1): 65–79. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1300/J082v37n01_05](https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ082v37n01_05). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0091-8369](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0091-8369). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10203070](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10203070).

## Further reading

- Herek, Gregory M. (2001). ["Sexual prejudice: Understanding homophobia and heterosexism"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071108223210/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/sexual_prejudice.html). *psychology.ucdavis.edu*. Archived from [the original](http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/sexual_prejudice.html) on 8 November 2007.

- Fone, Byrne (2000). *[Homophobia: A History](/source/Homophobia%3A_A_History)*. New York: Metropolitan Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0805045597](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805045597).

- [Social Psychological and Personality Science](/source/Social_Psychological_and_Personality_Science) (26 December 2019). ["Gender norms affect attitudes towards gay men and lesbian women globally"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191226084753/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-12/sfpa-gna122419.php) (Press release). Washington, DC: [EurekAlert!](/source/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science#EurekAlert!). Archived from [the original](https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-12/sfpa-gna122419.php) on 26 December 2019.

- Norton, Rictor; Crew, Louie (November 1974). ["The homophobic imagination: An editorial"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060413090420/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lcrew/pubd/homophobicimagination.html). *[College English](/source/College_English)*. **36** (3). [The National Council of Teachers of English](/source/The_National_Council_of_Teachers_of_English): 272–290. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.58680/ce197417314](https://doi.org/10.58680%2Fce197417314). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0010-0994](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-0994). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [374839](https://www.jstor.org/stable/374839). Archived from [the original](http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lcrew/pubd/homophobicimagination.html) on 13 April 2006.

- [Boteach, Shmuley](/source/Shmuley_Boteach) (16 October 2010). ["Homophobia is itself an abomination"](https://www.huffingtonpost.com/rabbi-shmuley-boteach/homophobia-is-itself-an-a_b_765012.html). *[The Huffington Post](/source/The_Huffington_Post)*.

- Echarry, Irina (19 May 2009). ["Homophobia is the problem, not gays"](https://www.havanatimes.org/?p=8922). *[Havana Times](/source/Havana_Times)*.

- Ahmady, Kameel (2020). *[Forbidden tale: A comprehensive study on lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) in Iran](/source/Forbidden_Tale)*. London: Mehri Publication. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-64945-722-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64945-722-6). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1232824514](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1232824514).

## External links

Look up ***[Homophobia](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Homophobia)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Look up ***[heterophobia](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heterophobia)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Homophobia](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Homophobia).

Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Homophobia](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Homophobia)***.

- [Rockway Institute](http://rockway.alliant.edu/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080517230040/http://rockway.alliant.edu/) 17 May 2008 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) at [Alliant International University](/source/Alliant_International_University) (LGBT research in the public interest)

- [European Parliament resolution on homophobia in Europe](https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2006-0018+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN), [European Parliament](/source/European_Parliament), 2006

- [*Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico*](https://www.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2008/homophobia_eng_2.pdf), [Pan American Health Organization](/source/Pan_American_Health_Organization), 2008

- [*Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity*](https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/19session/A.HRC.19.41_English.pdf), [United Nations Human Rights Council](/source/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council), 2011

- [*Living Free and Equal: What States Are Doing to Tackle Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex People*](http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/LivingFreeAndEqual.pdf), United Nations, 2016

- [*Breaking the Silence: Criminalisation of Lesbians and Bisexual Women and its Impacts*](https://www.humandignitytrust.org/wp-content/uploads/resources/Breaking-the-Silence-Criminalisation-of-LB-Women-and-its-Impacts-FINAL.pdf). Human Dignity Trust, May 2016.

- [*In Some Countries, Being Gay Or Lesbian Can Land You In Prison...Or Worse*](https://www.rferl.org/a/in-some-countries-being-gay-or-lesbian/30612062.html). [Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty](/source/Radio_Free_Europe%2FRadio_Liberty), 2020

v t e LGBTQ people (topic outline) Academic fields Discourse LGBTQ topics in education Gender studies Lesbian feminism Linguistics Literature gay lesbian transgender Psychology Queer studies Queer theory Transfeminism Community Culture Anthems Awards literary Bars gay lesbian Bisexual community Businesses Coming out Community centers Cross-dressing drag king drag queen Events awareness periods Film festivals Gay village Gay-friendly Icons Literature Music Media bury your gays films new queer cinema periodicals portrayal Organizations People Pets Pride Pride Month pride parade Queerplatonic relationships Religious groups Rodeos Same-sex relationships Slang Slogans Sports Pride Night Takatāpui Theatre companies Tourism Symbols Black triangle Gaysper Labrys Lambda Pink triangle Rainbow plaque Pride flags Aromantic Asexual Bear Bisexual Gay flag of South Africa Gay men Intersex Leather Lesbian Non-binary Pansexual Rainbow Progress rainbow crossing Transgender Gender identities Sexual identities Sexual diversities Gender identity Agender Androgyny Boi Cisgender Gender bender Genderfluid Gender nonconformity Khanith Man Non-binary / genderqueer Theyby Transgender Akava'ine Trans man Transsexual Trans woman mak nyah Woman Womxn Womyn Xenogender Third sex / Third gender Bakla Balkan sworn virgins Bissu Faʻafafine Fakaleitī Femminiello Hijra Kathoey Köçek Māhū Mukhannath Muxe Travesti Two-spirit Winkte Sexual identities Sexual orientations Asexual Bisexual Homosexual Aromanticism Asexuality Gray asexuality Demisexuality Aegosexuality Attraction to transgender people Banjee Bi-curious Fictosexuality Gay Gay men Heteroflexible Lesbian Monosexual Non-heterosexual Pansexual Queer Questioning Romantic orientation Same gender loving Sexual minority Tom / Dee Related Acronyms LGBTQ Detransition Effeminacy Erotic target location error Ex-gay Ex-ex-gay Female Gender and sexual diversity Gender assignment Gender binary Gender essentialism Gender expression Gender neutrality Gender roles Gender transition Health organizations Hermaphrodite Human female sexuality Human male sexuality Intersex Androgynos Tumtum Legal status of transgender people Male Men who have sex with men / Sexual practices between men Sex–gender distinction Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures Social construction of gender Straight ally Tomboy Transgender health care misinformation Women who have sex with women / Sexual practices between women History LGBTQ history History of homosexuality History of gay men in the United States History of lesbianism Transgender history timeline Timeline of asexual history LGBTQ history timeline Migration Social movements students History of Christianity and homosexuality History of same-sex unions Pederasty Category:LGBTQ history Pre-modern era Adelphopoiesis Ancient Egypt Ancient Greece pre-Columbian Peru Ancient Rome Medieval Europe 16th to 19th century Molly house Section 377 First homosexual movement 20th century Dance of the Forty-One Institut für Sexualwissenschaft Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany Transgender people in Nazi Germany Cadet scandal Florida Legislative Investigation Committee Sea queens Compton's Cafeteria riot Stonewall riots Gay Liberation Front Handkerchief code Festival of Light action White Night riots Front homosexuel d'action révolutionnaire Florida orange juice boycott Operation Soap Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS ACT UP Section 28 Tasty nightclub raid Bar Abanicos police raid 21st century Timeline of same-sex marriage Lawrence v. 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v t e Discrimination Forms Institutional Reverse Structural Statistical Systemic Taste-based Attributes Physical Age Anti-left handedness Color / Chroma Anti-albinism Skin color Disability Genetic disorder Looks Hair texture Mental disorder Anti-autism Race / Ethnicity Reverse Scientific racism Sex Anti-intersex Reverse Sexual orientation Species Size Height Social Caste Class Economic Language Dialect Nationality or citizenship Rank Viewpoint Social Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Against men Anti-altruistic Anti-drug addicts Anti-homelessness Anti-intellectualism Anti-Masonry Anti-Otaku Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Elitism Endophobia Ephebiphobia Health mental in poverty Fatphobia Gayphobia Gerontophobia Heterosexism Discrimination against lesbians HIV/AIDS stigma Hypergamy Homophobia In-group Leprosy stigma Misandry Misogyny Misogynoir Nepotism Outgroup Perpetual foreigner Pregnancy Regional Sectarianism Supremacism Anglo-Saxonism Aryanism Black Hutu Chauvinism Han Hoklo Taiwanese 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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Homophobia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophobia) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophobia?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.