# History of Denmark

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Part of a series on the History of Denmark Prehistoric Denmark c. 6000 BC–700 AD Kongemose culture c. 6000 BC–5200 BC Ertebølle culture c. 5,300 BC – 3,950 BC Funnelbeaker culture c. c. 4300–2800 BC Corded Ware culture c. 3000 BC – 2350 BC Nordic Bronze Age c. 2000/1750–500 BC. Pre-Roman Iron Age c. 5th/4th–1st centuries BC Roman Iron Age c. 1–400 AD Germanic Iron Age c. 5th to 8th centuries AD Viking Age c. 793–1066 AD House of Sigfred c. 770–c.870 AD House of Olaf late 9th century and early 10th AD House of Knýtlinga 916–1042 Reunification c. 916-973 Christianization c. 960 North Sea Empire 1013-1042 House of Fairhair 1042-1047 Medieval Times 1047–1536 Estridsen era 1047–1412 Reign of Sweyn II and his sons 1047–1134 Civil War era 1131–1157 Danish Baltic Empire 1168–1319 Kingless times 1319–1340 Solidification of Denmark 1340–1360 Kalmar Union 1397–1523 House of Griffin 1397–1442 House of Palatinate-Neumarkt 1440–1448 House of Oldenburg 1448–1523 Union Wars 1497–1523 Reformation 1520s–1536 Count's Feud 1534–1536 Denmark-Norway 1536–1814 Rise 1536-1626 Baltic Trade monopoly 16th and 17th centuries Dano-Norwegian Colonial Empire 1620–1814 Fall 1626–1814 Thirty Years' War 1625-1645 Little Northern War 1657-1660 Great Northern War 1700-1720 Dano-Norwegian neutrality 1720–1801 Napoleonic wars 1801–1814 Danish unitary state 1814–1864 Danish Golden Age c. 1800–1870 Rise of National-liberalism 1830s–1864 Revolutions of 1848 1848 March Revolution 1848 First Schleswig War 1848 Constitutional Monarchy 1849-present House of Glücksburg 1863-present November Constitution 1863 Loss of The Duchies 1864 Danish national state 1864-present Reign of Christian IX 1863-1906 Industrialisation 19th century-20th century Revised Constitution 19th century-20th century Reign of Christian X 1912-1947 World War I 1914-1918 Schleswig Reunification 1920 Easter Crisis 1920 Dano-Icelandic Union 1918-1944 World War II 1940-1945 Occupation 1940-1945 Protectorate 1940-1943 Liberation 1940-1943 Reign of Frederik IX 1947-1972 Post-war 1947-1953 Constitution of 1953 1953-present Cold war 1947-1991 Creation of NATO 1949 Cold War (1953–1962) 1953–1962 Reign of Margrethe II 1972-2024 Joining the EC 1979-1985 The New Cold war 1979-1985 Post-Cold War 1991-present War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) 2001–2021 Iraq War 2003-2011 Reign of Frederik X 2024-present Greenland crisis 2025-2026 List of monarchs 8th century–present Military history List of Prime Ministers 1849–present Main category Denmark portal v t e

Homann's map of the [Scandinavian Peninsula](/source/Scandinavian_Peninsula) and [Fennoscandia](/source/Fennoscandia) with their surrounding territories: northern [Germany](/source/Germany), northern [Poland](/source/Poland), the [Baltic region](/source/Baltic_region), [Livonia](/source/Livonia), [Belarus](/source/Belarus), and parts of [Northwest Russia](/source/Northwest_Russia). [Johann Baptist Homann](/source/Johann_Homann) (1664–1724) was a German geographer and cartographer; map dated around 1730.

The **history of Denmark** as a [unified kingdom](/source/Kingdom_of_Denmark) began in the 8th century, but prehistoric cultures populated the area for about 12,000 years, since the end of the [last ice age](/source/Paleolithic). Historic descriptions of the area and people from around 500 AD include writings by [Jordanes](/source/Jordanes) and [Procopius](/source/Procopius). The kingdom arose before the [Christianization of the Danes](/source/Christianization_of_Scandinavia#Denmark) c. 960 AD. The [Viking](/source/Viking) kings [Gorm the Old](/source/Gorm_the_Old) and [Harald Bluetooth](/source/Harald_Bluetooth) from that time are predecessors of today's king, [Frederik X](/source/Frederik_X), thus the [monarchy of Denmark](/source/Monarchy_of_Denmark) is the oldest in Europe.[1]

Denmark's history was shaped by its location between the [North](/source/North_Sea) and [Baltic](/source/Baltic_Sea) seas and between [Sweden](/source/Sweden) and [Germany](/source/Germany). This location provided economic benefits and mutual struggles for control of the Baltic Sea (*[dominium maris baltici](/source/Dominium_maris_baltici)*). For example, it had long disputes with Sweden over [Skånelandene](/source/Sk%C3%A5nelandene) and with Germany over [Schleswig](/source/Schleswig) (a Danish [fief](/source/Fief)) and [Holstein](/source/Holstein) (a German fief). Eventually, Denmark lost these conflicts and ceded [Skåneland](/source/Sk%C3%A5neland) to Sweden and later [Schleswig-Holstein](/source/Schleswig-Holstein) to the [German Empire](/source/German_Empire). After [Norway seceded in 1814](/source/Norway_in_1814), Denmark retained control of the old Norwegian colonies of the [Faroe Islands](/source/Faroe_Islands), [Greenland](/source/Greenland) and [Iceland](/source/Iceland). During the 20th century, Iceland gained independence, Greenland and the Faroes became integral parts of the [Kingdom of Denmark](/source/Kingdom_of_Denmark) and [North Schleswig](/source/North_Schleswig) reunited with Denmark in 1920 after a referendum. During [World War II](/source/World_War_II), Denmark was [occupied](/source/Occupation_of_Denmark) by [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany), but was liberated by British forces of the [Allies](/source/Allies_of_World_War_II) in 1945[2] and soon joined the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations). With the emergence of the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War), Denmark was a founding member of the military alliance [NATO](/source/Member_states_of_NATO) in 1949.

## Prehistory

See also: [Scandinavian prehistory](/source/Scandinavian_prehistory)

The Scandinavian region has been populated by several prehistoric cultures and people for about 12,000 years, since the end of the [last ice age](/source/Weichselian_glaciation). During the ice age, all of Scandinavia was covered by [glaciers](/source/Glacier) most of the time, except for the southwestern parts of what we now know as Denmark. When the ice began retreating, the barren tundras were soon inhabited by reindeer and elk, and [Ahrenburg](/source/Ahrensburg_culture) and [Swiderian](/source/Swiderian_culture) hunters from the south followed them here to hunt occasionally. Due to lower sea levels, the area called [Doggerland](/source/Doggerland) between [Great Britain](/source/Great_Britain) and today's [Jutland](/source/Jutland) penninsula was inhabited by tribes of hunter-gatherers. As the climate warmed, meltwater shaped the land, the submerged Doggerland and more stable flora and fauna gradually emerged in Scandinavia. The first permanent human settlers in Scandinavia were the [Maglemosian people](/source/Maglemosian_culture), residing in seasonal camps and exploiting the land, sea, rivers and lakes. The approximate geography of today's Denmark had taken shape by around 6,000 BC.

Denmark has some unique natural conditions for preservation of artifacts, providing [a rich and diverse archeological record](/source/Archaeology_of_Denmark) from which to understand the prehistoric cultures of this area.

### Stone and Bronze Age

See also: [Neolithic](/source/Neolithic), [Nordic Stone Age](/source/Nordic_Stone_Age), and [Nordic Bronze Age](/source/Nordic_Bronze_Age)

Stone Dolmen near Vinstrup, Nørhald. Built in the 3rd millennium BC.

The [Weichsel glaciation](/source/Last_glacial_period) covered all of Denmark most of the time, except the western coasts of Jutland. It ended around 13,000 years ago, allowing humans to move back and settle there. Over a few thousand years, the vegetation changed from [tundra](/source/Tundra) to light forest, and various animal species appeared, including [megafauna](/source/Megafauna). Early prehistoric human cultures uncovered in modern Denmark include the [Maglemosian culture](/source/Maglemosian_culture) (9,500–6,000 BC); the [Kongemose culture](/source/Kongemose_culture) (6,000–5,200 BC), the [Ertebølle culture](/source/Erteb%C3%B8lle_culture) (5,300–3,950 BC), and the [Funnelbeaker culture](/source/Funnelbeaker_culture) (4,100–2,800 BC).

The famous [Trundholm sun chariot](/source/Trundholm_sun_chariot) (called *[Solvognen](/source/Solvognen)* in Danish), a sculpture of the sun pulled by a mare. Scholars have dated it to some time in the 15th century BC and believe that it illustrates an important concept expressed in [Nordic Bronze Age](/source/Nordic_Bronze_Age) mythology.

During this so-called [Boreal period](/source/Boreal_(period)), human groups here were very small and scattered living from hunting of [reindeer](/source/Reindeer) and other land mammals and gathering whatever fruits the climate was able to offer. Around 8,300 BC the temperature rose sharply, reaching around 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit) in summer; the vegetation changed into dense forests of [aspen](/source/Aspen), [birch](/source/Birch) and [pine](/source/Pine) and the reindeer moved north, while [aurochs](/source/Aurochs) and [elk](/source/Moose) arrived from the south. The oldest set of human bones found in [Denmark](/source/Denmark) and oldest [bog body](/source/Bog_body) found in the world is the [Koelbjerg Man](/source/Koelbjerg_Man),[3] dated to the time of the [Maglemosian culture](/source/Maglemosian_culture) around 8,000 BC.[4][5] With a continuing rise in temperature [oak](/source/Oak), [elm](/source/Elm) and [hazel](/source/Hazel) arrived in Denmark around 7,000 BC. B[oar](/source/Boar), [red deer](/source/Red_deer), and [roe deer](/source/Roe_deer) also began to abound.[6]

A burial from Bøgebakken at [Vedbæk](/source/Vedb%C3%A6k) dates to c. 6,000 BC and contains 22 persons – including four newborns and one toddler. Eight of the 22 had died before reaching 20 years of age – testifying to the hardness of hunter-gatherer life in the cold north.[7] Based on estimates of the amount of game animals, scholars estimate the population of Denmark to have been between 3,300 and 8,000 persons in the time around 7,000 BC.[8] It is believed that the early hunter-gatherers lived nomadically, exploiting different environments at different times of the year, gradually shifting to the use of semi permanent base camps.[9]

The rising temperatures caused a rise in sea levels so that during the [Atlantic period](/source/Atlantic_(period)) Denmark evolved from a contiguous landmass around 11,000 BC to a series of islands by 4,500 BC. The inhabitants then shifted to a seafood-based diet, which allowed the population to increase.

After [agriculture](/source/Agriculture) arrived in Central Europe, for 1,500 years Scandinavia remained [Mesolithic](/source/Mesolithic) in the Ertebølle culture. Around 4,000 BC it was replaced by [Funnelbeaker](/source/Early_European_Farmers) neolithic farmers which left many [dolmens](/source/Dolmen) and rock tombs (especially [passage graves](/source/Passage_grave)). After about 1,000 years, [Steppe herder](/source/Western_Steppe_Herders) descendents began to arrive from Eastern Europe.[10] They descended from peoples from the Pontic–Caspian steppe who flooded Europe and gave rise to [Corded Ware culture](/source/Corded_Ware_culture) and its local variant, the [Single Grave culture](/source/Single_Grave_culture). The [Nordic Bronze Age](/source/Nordic_Bronze_Age) period in Denmark, from about 1,500 BC, featured a culture that buried its dead, with their worldly goods, beneath [burial mounds](/source/Tumulus). The many finds of gold and bronze from this era include beautiful religious artifacts and musical instruments, and provide the earliest evidence of [social classes](/source/Social_class) and [stratification](/source/Social_stratification).

### Iron Age

See also: [Nordic Iron Age](/source/Nordic_Iron_Age)

The silver [Gundestrup Cauldron](/source/Gundestrup_Cauldron), with what some scholars interpret as Celtic depictions, exemplifies the trade relations of the period.

During the [Pre-Roman Iron Age](/source/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age) (from the [4th](/source/4th_century_BC) to the [1st century BC](/source/1st_century_BC)), the climate in southern [Scandinavia](/source/Scandinavia) became cooler and wetter, limiting agriculture. Humans migrated south to [Germania](/source/Germania). People also began to extract iron from [ore](/source/Bog_iron) in [peat bogs](/source/Peat_bog). [Celtic](/source/Celts) culture existed in the area as in much of northwest Europe, and survives in some place names.

The [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire) excluded Denmark but traded with people there, as attested by finds of Roman coins. Some Danish warrior-[aristocrats](/source/Aristocracy) served in the [Roman army](/source/Roman_army).[11] The earliest known [runic](/source/Runic) inscriptions date to c. 200 AD. In the last century BC, depletion of cultivated land apparently contributed to migrations in northern Europe and conflict between Teutonic tribes and Roman settlements in [Gaul](/source/Gaul). Roman artifacts are especially common in finds from the 1st century. Occasionally, animals and humans were [sacrificed](/source/Human_sacrifice) and bodies were immersed in [bogs](/source/Bog). Some [bog bodies](/source/Bog_body) such as [Tollund Man](/source/Tollund_Man) and [Grauballe Man](/source/Grauballe_Man) emerged very well-preserved in recent decades[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Denmark&action=edit), providing information about the cultures in Denmark during this period.

From around the 5th to the 7th century, [Northern Europe](/source/Northern_Europe) experienced mass migrations. This period and its [material culture](/source/Material_culture) are referred to as the [Germanic Iron Age](/source/Germanic_Iron_Age).

		- The face of Tollundmanden, one of the best preserved bog body finds.

		- The [Dejbjerg wagon](/source/Dejbjerg_wagon) from the Pre-Roman Iron Age, thought to be a ceremonial wagon.

		- The [Nydam oak boat](/source/Nydam_Mose), a [ship burial](/source/Ship_burial) from the Roman Iron Age. At [Gottorp Castle](/source/Gottorp), [Schleswig](/source/Schleswig%2C_Schleswig-Holstein), now in Germany.

		- Copies of the [Golden Horns of Gallehus](/source/Golden_Horns_of_Gallehus) from the Germanic Iron Age, thought to be ceremonial horns but of a raid purpose.

## Middle Ages

Kingdom of Denmark ᛏᚨᚾᛗᚨᚱᚴᚱ (Younger Futhark)[a] Danmǫrk konungrríki (Old Norse) Danmærk konungerīki (Old Danish) 8th century / 936–1397 State banner of Denmark (14th century) Harald's realm (red) with vassals and allies (yellow). Status Part of the North Sea Empire (1013–1035) Independent state until 1397 Capital Lejre in Zealand Jelling (until 10th cent.) Roskilde (since 10th cent.) Common languages Old Norse Old Danish Latin Estonian (Danish Estonia) Religion Norse paganism (before c. 960) Christianity (Catholic) (after c. 960) Other and non-Danish: goðlauss (lack of faith in any deity) Estonian paganism (Danish Estonia) Historical era Middle Ages • Formed 8th century • Incorporated into the Kalmar Union 17 June 1397 ISO 3166 code DK

### Earliest literary sources

Further information: [Etymology of Denmark](/source/Etymology_of_Denmark) and [Danes (tribe)](/source/Danes_(tribe))

In his description of [Scandza](/source/Scandza) (from the 6th-century work, *[Getica](/source/Getica_(Jordanes))*), the ancient writer [Jordanes](/source/Jordanes) says that the **Dani** were of the same stock as the *Suetidi* (Swedes, *[Suithiod](/source/Svitjod)*?) and expelled the [Heruli](/source/Heruli) and took their lands.[12]

The [Old English](/source/Old_English_language) poems *[Widsith](/source/Widsith)* and *[Beowulf](/source/Beowulf)*, as well as works by later Scandinavian writers — notably by [Saxo Grammaticus](/source/Saxo_Grammaticus) (c. 1200) — provide some of the earliest references to Danes.

### Viking Age

Main article: [Viking Age](/source/Viking_Age)

The extent of the Danish Realm before the expansion of the Viking Age. It is not known when, but the tribal Danes divided the realm into "[herreder](/source/Herred)" (marked by red lines).

With the beginning of the Viking Age in the 9th century, the prehistoric period in Denmark ends. The Danish people were among those known as [Vikings](/source/Viking), during the 8th–11th centuries. Viking explorers first discovered and settled in [Iceland](/source/Iceland) in the 9th century, on their way from the [Faroe Islands](/source/Faroe_Islands). From there, [Greenland](/source/Greenland) and [Vinland](/source/Vinland) (probably [Newfoundland](/source/Newfoundland_and_Labrador)) were also settled. Utilizing their great skills in shipbuilding and navigation they raided and conquered parts of [France](/source/France) and the [British Isles](/source/British_Isles).

The [Ladby ship](/source/Ladby_ship), the largest ship burial found in Denmark.

The fortified Viking town of [Aros](/source/Aarhus) ([Aarhus](/source/Aarhus)), 950 AD.

They also excelled in trading along the coasts and rivers of Europe, running trade routes from Greenland in the north to [Constantinople](/source/Constantinople) in the south via [Russian](/source/Russia) and [Ukrainian](/source/Ukraine) rivers, most notably along the River [Dnieper](/source/Dnieper) and via Kiev, then being the capital of [Kiev Rus](/source/Kiev_Rus), which was founded by Viking conquerors.[b] The Danish Vikings were most active in Britain, [Ireland](/source/Ireland), [France](/source/France), [Spain](/source/Spain), Portugal and Italy where they raided, conquered and settled (their earliest settlements included sites in the [Danelaw](/source/Danelaw), [Ireland](/source/Ireland) and [Normandy](/source/Normandy)). The Danelaw encompassed the Northeastern half of what now constitutes [England](/source/England), where Danes settled and Danish law and rule prevailed. Prior to this time, England consisted of approximately seven independent [Anglo-Saxon](/source/Anglo-Saxon) kingdoms. The Danes conquered (terminated) all of these except for the kingdom of [Wessex](/source/Wessex). [Alfred the Great](/source/Alfred_the_Great), king of Wessex, emerged from these trials as the sole remaining English king, and thereby as the first English [Monarch](/source/Monarch).

In the early 9th century, [Charlemagne](/source/Charlemagne)'s Christian empire had expanded to the southern border of the Danes, and Frankish sources (e.g. [Notker of St Gall](/source/Notker_the_Stammerer)) provide the earliest historical evidence of the Danes. These report a King [Gudfred](/source/Gudfred), who appeared in present-day [Holstein](/source/Holstein) with a navy in 804 where diplomacy took place with the [Franks](/source/Franks); In 808, King Gudfred attacked the [Obotrites](/source/Obotrites) and conquered the city of [Reric](/source/Reric) whose population was displaced or abducted to [Hedeby](/source/Hedeby). In 809, King Godfred and emissaries of Charlemagne failed to negotiate peace, despite the sister of Godfred being a concubine of Charlemagne, and the next year King Godfred attacked the [Frisians](/source/Frisians) with 200 ships.

Viking raids along the coast of France and the Netherlands were large-scale. Paris was besieged and the Loire Valley devastated during the 10th century. One group of Danes was granted permission to settle in northwestern France under the condition that they defend the place from future attacks. As a result, the region became known as "Normandy" and it was the descendants of these settlers who conquered England in 1066.

The oldest parts of the defensive works of Danevirke near [Hedeby](/source/Hedeby) at least date from the summer of 755 and were expanded with large works in the 10th century. The size and number of troops needed to man it indicates a quite powerful ruler in the area, which might be consistent with the kings of the Frankish sources. In 815 AD, Emperor [Louis the Pious](/source/Louis_the_Pious) attacked Jutland apparently in support of a contender to the throne, perhaps [Harald Klak](/source/Harald_Klak), but was turned back by the sons of Godfred, who most likely were the sons of the above-mentioned Godfred. At the same time [St. Ansgar](/source/Ansgar) travelled to Hedeby and started the Catholic [Christianisation of Scandinavia](/source/Christianisation_of_Scandinavia).

[Gorm the Old](/source/Gorm_the_Old) was the first [historically](/source/Historical) recognized [ruler of Denmark](/source/Monarchy_of_Denmark), reigning from c. 936 to his death c. 958.[14] He ruled from [Jelling](/source/Jelling), and made the oldest of the [Jelling Stones](/source/Jelling_Stones) in honour of his wife [Thyra](/source/Thyra). Gorm was born before 900 and died c. 958. His rule marks the start of the Danish monarchy and royal house (see [Danish monarchs' family tree](/source/Danish_monarchs'_family_tree#House_of_Gorm)).[14]

The Danes were united and officially Christianized in 965 AD by Gorm's son [Harald Bluetooth](/source/Harald_Bluetooth) (see below), the story of which is recorded on the [Jelling stones](/source/Jelling_stones). The extent of Harald's Danish Kingdom is unknown, although it is reasonable to believe that it stretched from the defensive line of Dannevirke, including the Viking city of Hedeby, across Jutland, the Danish isles and into southern present day [Sweden](/source/Sweden); [Scania](/source/Scania) and perhaps [Halland](/source/Halland) and [Blekinge](/source/Blekinge). Furthermore, the Jelling stones attest that Harald had also "won" [Norway](/source/Norway).[15]

In retaliation for the [St. Brice's Day massacre](/source/St._Brice's_Day_massacre) of Danes in England, the son of Harald, [Sweyn Forkbeard](/source/Sweyn_Forkbeard) mounted a series of wars of conquest against England. By 1014, England had completely submitted to the Danes. However, distance and a lack of common interests prevented a lasting union, and Sweyn's son [Cnut the Great](/source/Cnut_the_Great) barely maintained the link between the two countries, which completely broke up during the reign of his son [Hardecanute](/source/Hardecanute). A final attempt by the Norwegians under [Harald Hardrada](/source/Harald_Hardrada) to reconquer England failed, but did pave the way for William the Conqueror's takeover in 1066.[15]

### Christianity, expansion and the establishment of the Kingdom of Denmark

See also: [North Sea Empire](/source/North_Sea_Empire)

Often regarded as Denmark's "birth certificate", the large [Jelling Stone](/source/Jelling_stones) announces the unification and Christianization of Denmark by [Harald Bluetooth](/source/Harald_Bluetooth) c. 980

The history of [Christianity](/source/Christianity) in Denmark overlaps with that of the Viking Age. Various petty kingdoms existed throughout the area now known as Denmark for many years. Between c. 960 and the early 980s, [Harald Bluetooth](/source/Harald_Bluetooth) appears to have established a kingdom in the lands of the Danes which stretched from Jutland to Skåne. Around the same time, he received a visit from a German [missionary](/source/Missionary) who, according to legend,[16] survived an [ordeal by fire](/source/Trial_by_ordeal), which convinced Harald to convert to [Christianity](/source/Christianity).

[Sweyn Estridson](/source/Sweyn_II_of_Denmark) (1020–1074) re-established strong royal Danish authority and built a good relationship with [Archbishop](/source/Archbishop) [Adalbert of Hamburg](/source/Adalbert_of_Hamburg)-[Bremen](/source/Archbishopric_of_Bremen) – at that time the archbishop of all of [Scandinavia](/source/Scandinavia).

The new [religion](/source/Religion), which replaced the old [Norse religious practices](/source/Norse_mythology), had many advantages for the king. Christianity brought with it some support from the [Holy Roman Empire](/source/Holy_Roman_Empire). It also allowed the king to dismiss many of his opponents who adhered to the old mythology. At this early stage there is no evidence that the Danish Church was able to create a stable administration that Harald could use to exercise more effective control over his kingdom, but it may have contributed to the development of a centralising political and religious ideology among the social elite which sustained and enhanced an increasingly powerful kingship.

[England](/source/England) broke away from Danish control in 1035 and Denmark fell into disarray for some time. Sweyn Estridsen's son, [Canute IV](/source/Canute_IV_of_Denmark), raided England for the last time in 1085. He planned another invasion to take the [throne of England](/source/List_of_English_monarchs) from an aging [William I](/source/William_I_of_England). He called up a fleet of 1,000 Danish ships, 60 Norwegian [long boats](/source/Longship), with plans to meet with another 600 ships under [Duke Robert of Flanders](/source/Robert_I%2C_Count_of_Flanders) in the summer of 1086. Canute, however, was beginning to realise that the imposition of the tithe on Danish peasants and nobles to fund the expansion of monasteries and churches and a new [head tax](/source/Tax_per_head) ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *nefgjald*) had brought his people to the verge of rebellion. Canute took weeks to arrive where the fleet had assembled at Struer, but he found only the [Norwegians](/source/Norway) still there.

Ecclesiastical map of Denmark from the tenth to twelfth century

Canute thanked the Norwegians for their patience and then went from assembly to assembly ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *landsting*) outlawing any sailor, captain or soldier who refused to pay a fine, which amounted to more than a year's harvest for most farmers. Canute and his [housecarls](/source/Housecarl) fled south with a growing army of rebels on his heels. Canute fled to the royal property outside the town of Odense on Funen with his two brothers. After several attempts to break in and then bloody hand-to-hand fighting in the church, Benedict was cut down, and Canute was struck in the head by a large stone and then speared from the front. He died at the base of the main altar on 10 July 1086, where he was buried by the Benedictines. When Queen Edele came to take Canute's body to Flanders, a light allegedly shone around the church and it was taken as a sign that Canute should remain where he was.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The death of St. Canute marks the end of the Viking Age. Never again would massive flotillas of [Scandinavians](/source/Scandinavia) meet each year to ravage the rest of Christian Europe.

In the early 12th century, Denmark became the seat of an independent [church province](/source/Ecclesiastical_province) of Scandinavia. Not long after that, [Sweden](/source/Sweden) and [Norway](/source/Norway) established their own archbishoprics, free of Danish control. The mid-12th century proved a difficult time for the kingdom of Denmark. Violent [civil wars](/source/Civil_war) rocked the land. Eventually, [Valdemar the Great](/source/Valdemar_I_of_Denmark) (1131–82), gained control of the kingdom, stabilizing it and reorganizing the administration. King Valdemar and [Absalon](/source/Absalon) (*ca* 1128–1201), the [bishop of Roskilde](/source/Roskilde_(titular_see)), rebuilt the country.

Danish Empire and campaigns 1168-1227

During Valdemar's reign construction began of a castle in the village of Havn, leading eventually to the foundation of [Copenhagen](/source/Copenhagen), the modern capital of Denmark. Valdemar and Absalon built Denmark into a major power in the [Baltic Sea](/source/Baltic_Sea), a power which later competed with the [Hanseatic League](/source/Hanseatic_League), the counts of [Holstein](/source/Holstein), and the [Teutonic Knights](/source/Teutonic_Knights) for trade, territory, and influence throughout the Baltic. In 1168, Valdemar and Absalon gained a foothold on the southern shore of the Baltic, when they subdued the [Principality of Rügen](/source/Principality_of_R%C3%BCgen).

In the 1180s, [Mecklenburg](/source/Mecklenburg) and the [Duchy of Pomerania](/source/Duchy_of_Pomerania) came under Danish control, too. In the new southern provinces, the Danes promoted Christianity (mission of the [Rani](/source/Rani_(Slavic_tribe)), monasteries like [Eldena Abbey](/source/Eldena_Abbey)) and settlement (Danish participation in the *[Ostsiedlung](/source/Ostsiedlung)*). The Danes lost most of their southern gains after the [Battle of Bornhöved (1227)](/source/Battle_of_Bornh%C3%B6ved_(1227)), but the Rugian principality stayed with Denmark until 1325.

Northern countries in 1219

  [Norway](/source/Hereditary_Kingdom_of_Norway)

  [Sweden](/source/History_of_Sweden_(800%E2%80%931521))

  [Denmark](#Middle_Ages)

  Conquered by Denmark in 1219 (Pomerania conquered in 1219, lost in 1227. Ösel purchased in 1559, lost in 1645)

  [Livonia before 1343](/source/Terra_Mariana)

The flag of Denmark falling from the sky during the [Battle of Lyndanisse](/source/Battle_of_Lyndanisse) on 15 June, 1219. Painted by [C.A Lorentzen](/source/Christian_August_Lorentzen), 1809.

In 1202, [Valdemar II](/source/Valdemar_II_of_Denmark) became king and launched various "[crusades](/source/Crusades)" to claim territories, notably modern [Estonia](/source/Estonia). Once these efforts were successful, a period in history known as the [Danish Estonia](/source/Danish_Estonia) began. Legend has it that the Danish flag, the [Dannebrog](/source/Flag_of_Denmark) fell from the sky during the [Battle of Lindanise](/source/Battle_of_Lyndanisse) in Estonia in 1219. A series of Danish defeats culminating in the Battle of Bornhöved on 22 July 1227 cemented the loss of Denmark's north German territories. Valdemar himself was saved only by the courageous actions of a German knight who carried Valdemar to safety on his horse.

From that time on, Valdemar focused his efforts on domestic affairs. One of the changes he instituted was the feudal system where he gave properties to men with the understanding that they owed him service. This increased the power of the noble families ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *højadelen*) and gave rise to the lesser nobles ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *lavadelen*) who controlled most of Denmark. Free peasants lost the traditional rights and privileges they had enjoyed since Viking times.

The king of Denmark had difficulty maintaining control of the kingdom in the face of opposition from the [nobility](/source/Nobility) and from the Church. An extended period of strained relations between the crown and the [Popes](/source/Pope) of [Rome](/source/Rome) took place, known as the "archiepiscopal conflicts".

By the late 13th century, royal power had waned, and the nobility forced the king to grant a [charter](/source/Charter), considered Denmark's first [constitution](/source/Constitution). Following the [Battle of Bornhöved](/source/Battle_of_Bornh%C3%B6ved_(1227)) in 1227, a weakened Denmark provided windows of opportunity to both the Hanseatic League and the [Counts of Holstein](/source/Count_of_Holstein). The Holstein Counts gained control of large portions of Denmark because the king would grant them fiefs in exchange for money to finance royal operations.

Valdemar spent the remainder of his life putting together a code of laws for [Jutland](/source/Jutland), [Zealand](/source/Zealand) and [Skåne](/source/Sk%C3%A5ne). These codes were used as Denmark's legal code until 1683. This was a significant change from the local law making at the regional assemblies ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *landsting*), which had been the long-standing tradition. Several methods of determining guilt or innocence were outlawed including trial by ordeal and trial by combat. The [Code of Jutland](/source/Code_of_Jutland) ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *Jyske Lov*) was approved at meeting of the nobility at Vordingborg in 1241 just prior to Valdemar's death. Because of his position as "the king of Dannebrog" and as a legislator, Valdemar enjoys a central position in Danish history. To posterity the civil wars and dissolution that followed his death made him appear to be the last king of a golden age.

The [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages) saw a period of close cooperation between the [Crown](/source/The_Crown) and the [Roman Catholic Church](/source/Roman_Catholic_Church). Thousands of church buildings sprang up throughout the country during this time. The economy expanded during the 12th century, based mostly on the lucrative [herring](/source/Herring)-trade, but the 13th century turned into a period of difficulty and saw the temporary collapse of royal authority.

### Count rule

The kingless time 1332–1340. [Danish Estonia](/source/Danish_Estonia) not shown on the map was [under the protection](/source/Protectorate) of the [Livonian Order](/source/Livonian_Order).

During the disastrous reign of [Christopher II](/source/Christopher_II_of_Denmark) (1319–1332), most of the country was seized by the provincial counts (except Skåne, which was taken over by Sweden) after numerous peasant revolts and conflicts with the Church. For eight years after Christopher's death, Denmark had no king, and was instead controlled by the counts. After one of them, [Gerhard III of Holstein-Rendsburg](/source/Gerhard_III_of_Holstein-Rendsburg), was assassinated in 1340, Christopher's son [Valdemar](/source/Valdemar_IV_of_Denmark) was chosen as king, and gradually began to recover the territories, which was finally completed in 1360.

The [Black Death in Denmark](/source/Black_Death_in_Denmark), which came to Denmark during these years, also aided Valdemar's campaign. His continued efforts to expand the kingdom after 1360 brought him into open conflict with the Hanseatic League. He conquered [Gotland](/source/Gotland), much to the displeasure of the League, which lost [Visby](/source/Visby), an important trading town located there.

The Hanseatic alliance with Sweden to attack Denmark initially proved a fiasco since Danish forces captured a large Hanseatic fleet, and ransomed it back for an enormous sum. Luckily for the League, the Jutland nobles revolted against the heavy taxes levied to fight the expansionist war in the Baltic; the two forces worked against the king, forcing him into exile in 1370. For several years, the Hanseatic League controlled the fortresses on [the Sound](/source/%C3%96resund), the strait between Skåne and Zealand.

### Margaret and the Kalmar Union (1397–1523)

Main article: [Kalmar Union](/source/Kalmar_Union)

The Kalmar Union, c. 1400

[Margaret I](/source/Margaret_I_of_Denmark), the daughter of Valdemar Atterdag, found herself married off to [Håkon VI of Norway](/source/Haakon_VI_of_Norway) in an attempt to join the two kingdoms, along with Sweden, since Håkon had kinship ties to the Swedish royal family. The dynastic plans called for her son, [Olaf II](/source/Olaf_IV_of_Norway) to rule the three kingdoms, but after his early death in 1387 she took on the role herself (1387–1412). During her lifetime (1353–1412) the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (including the [Faroe Islands](/source/Faroe_Islands), as well as [Iceland](/source/Iceland), [Greenland](/source/Greenland), and present-day [Finland](/source/Finland)) became linked under her capable rule, in what became known as the [Kalmar Union](/source/Kalmar_Union), made official in 1397.

The tomb of [Margaret I](/source/Margaret_I_of_Denmark) in [Roskilde Cathedral](/source/Roskilde_Cathedral).

Her successor, [Eric of Pomerania](/source/Eric_VII_of_Denmark) (King of Denmark from 1412 to 1439), lacked Margaret's skill and thus directly caused the breakup of the Kalmar Union. Eric's foreign policy engulfed Denmark in a succession of wars with the Holstein counts and the city of Lübeck. When the Hanseatic League imposed a trade embargo on Scandinavia, the Swedes (who saw their mining industry adversely affected) rose up in revolt. The three countries of the Kalmar Union all declared Eric deposed in 1439.

However, support for the idea of regionalism continued, so when Eric's nephew [Christopher of Bavaria](/source/Christopher_of_Bavaria) came to the throne in 1440, he managed to get himself elected in all three kingdoms, briefly reuniting Scandinavia (1442–1448). The Swedish nobility grew increasingly unhappy with Danish rule and the union soon became merely a legal concept with little practical application. During the subsequent reigns of Christian I (1450–1481) and Hans (1481–1513), tensions grew, and several wars between Sweden and Denmark erupted.

In the early 16th century, [Christian II](/source/Christian_II_of_Denmark) (reigned 1513–1523) came to power. He allegedly declared, "If the hat on my head knew what I was thinking, I would pull it off and throw it away." This quotation apparently refers to his devious and [machiavellian](/source/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli) political dealings. He conquered Sweden in an attempt to reinforce the union, and had about 100 leaders of the Swedish anti-unionist forces killed in what came to be known as the [Stockholm Bloodbath](/source/Stockholm_Bloodbath) of November 1520. The bloodbath destroyed any lingering hope of Scandinavian union.

Map of Denmark–Norway, c. 1780

In the aftermath of [Sweden](/source/Sweden)'s definitive secession from the [Kalmar Union](/source/Kalmar_Union) in 1521, [civil war](/source/Civil_war) and the [Protestant Reformation](/source/Protestant_Reformation) followed in Denmark and Norway. When things settled down, the [Privy Council](/source/Privy_Council) of Denmark had lost some of its influence, and that of Norway no longer existed. The two kingdoms, known as [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway), operated in a personal union under a single monarch. Norway kept its separate laws and some institutions, such as a royal [chancellor](/source/Chancellor), separate coinage and a separate army. As a hereditary kingdom, Norway's status as separate from Denmark remained important to the royal dynasty in its struggles to win elections as kings of Denmark. The two kingdoms remained tied until 1814.

## Early Modern Denmark

 Abraham Ortelius's 1570 map of Denmark including parts on the Scandinavian peninsula.

### The Reformation

Main article: [Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein](/source/Reformation_in_Denmark%E2%80%93Norway_and_Holstein)

[Hans Tausen](/source/Hans_Tausen) was one of the first Lutheran preachers, and later a bishop, in Denmark.

The [Reformation](/source/Protestant_Reformation), which originated in the German lands in the early 16th century from the ideas of [Martin Luther](/source/Martin_Luther) (1483–1546), had a considerable impact on Denmark. The Danish Reformation started in the mid-1520s. Some Danes wanted access to the [Bible](/source/Bible) in their own language. In 1524 Hans Mikkelsen and [Christiern Pedersen](/source/Christiern_Pedersen) translated the [New Testament](/source/New_Testament) into Danish; it became an instant best-seller.[17]

Those who had traveled to [Wittenberg](/source/Wittenberg) in Saxony and come under the influence of the teachings of [Luther](/source/Martin_Luther) and his associates included [Hans Tausen](/source/Hans_Tausen), a Danish monk in the [Order of St John Hospitallers](/source/Knights_Hospitaller). On Good Friday in 1525, Tausen used the pulpit at [Antvorskov](/source/Antvorskov) Abbey Church to proclaim Luther's reforms. His scandalized superiors ordered him out of Zealand and held him in the priory at [Viborg](/source/Viborg%2C_Denmark) under close confinement until he should come to his senses.[17]

Townspeople came to see the troublesome monk, and Tausen preached to them from the window of his cell. Within days Tausen's ideas swept through the town. The then radical ideas of Luther found a receptive audience. Tausen's preaching converted ordinary people, merchants, nobles, and monks and even the Prior grew to appreciate Tausen and ordered his release. Tausen preached openly: much to the consternation of Bishop Jøn Friis, who lost his ability to do anything about the Lutherans and retreated to Hald Castle.[17]

After preaching in the open air, Tausen gained the use of a small chapel, which soon proved too small for the crowds who attended services in Danish. His followers broke open a Franciscan Abbey so they could listen to Tausen, who packed the church daily for services. The town leaders protected Tausen from the Bishop of Viborg.[17] Viborg became the center for the Danish Reformation for a time. Lutheranism spread quickly to [Aarhus](/source/Aarhus) and [Aalborg](/source/Aalborg).

Within months King [Frederick](/source/Frederick_I_of_Denmark) appointed Tausen as one of his personal chaplains (October 1526) in order to protect him from Catholics. Tausen's version of Luther's ideas spread throughout Denmark. Copenhagen became a hotbed of reformist activity and Tausen moved there to continue his work. His reputation preceded him and the excitement of hearing the liturgy in Danish brought thousands of people out to hear him. With the kings' permission, churches in Copenhagen opened their doors to the Lutherans and held services for Catholics and for Lutherans at different times of the day.

At Our Lady Church, the main church of Copenhagen, Bishop Ronnow refused to admit the "heretics". In December 1531, a mob stormed the [Church of Our Lady](/source/Church_of_Our_Lady%2C_Copenhagen) in Copenhagen, encouraged by Copenhagen's fiery mayor, [Ambrosius Bogbinder](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ambrosius_Bogbinder&action=edit&redlink=1). They tore down statues and side-altars and destroyed artwork and reliquaries. Frederick I's policy of toleration insisted that the two competing groups share churches and pulpits peacefully, but this satisfied neither Lutherans nor Catholics.

Luther's ideas spread rapidly as a consequence of a powerful combination of popular enthusiasm for church reform and a royal eagerness to secure greater wealth through the seizure of church lands and property. In Denmark the reformation increased the crown's revenues by 300%.

#### Dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church

Dissatisfaction with the established Catholic Church had already been widespread in Denmark. Many people viewed the [tithes](/source/Tithe) and fees — a constant source of irritation for farmers and merchants — as unjust. This became apparent once word got out that King Frederick and his son, [Duke Christian](/source/Christian_III_of_Denmark) had no sympathy with Franciscans who persistently made the rounds of the parishes to collect food, money, and clothing in addition to the tithes. Between 1527 and 1536 many towns petitioned the king to close the Franciscan houses.[18]

Frederick obliged by sending letters authorizing the closure of the monasteries, often offering a small sum of money to help the brothers on their way. With the royal letter in hand, mobs forcibly closed [Franciscan](/source/Franciscan) abbeys all over Denmark. They beat up monks, two of whom died.[18] The closure of Franciscan houses occurred systematically in Copenhagen, Viborg, Aalborg, Randers, Malmö and ten other cities; in all, 28 monasteries or houses closed. People literally hounded Franciscan monks out of the towns.[18]

No other order faced such harsh treatment. Considering how strongly many people felt about removing all traces of Catholic traditions from Danish churches, surprisingly little violence took place. Luther's teaching had become so overwhelmingly popular that Danes systematically cleared churches of statues, paintings, wall-hangings, reliquaries and other Catholic elements without interference. The only exceptions came in individual churches where the local churchmen refused to permit reform.

[King Christian III](/source/Christian_III_of_Denmark) carried out the Protestant Reformation in Slesvig, Holsten, Denmark and Norway.

[Frederick I](/source/Frederick_I_of_Denmark) died in 1533; the Viborg Assembly ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *landsting*) [proclaimed his son, Duke Christian of Schleswig, King Christian III](/source/Election_of_Christian_III). The State Council ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *Rigsråd*) on Zealand, led by the Catholic bishops, took control of the country and refused to recognize the election of Christian III, a staunch Lutheran. The regents feared Christian's zeal for Luther's ideas would tip the balance and disenfranchise Catholics — both peasants and nobles.

The State Council encouraged Count [Christopher of Oldenburg](/source/Christopher_of_Oldenburg) to become Regent of Denmark. Christian III quickly raised an army to enforce his election, including mercenary troops from Germany. Count Christopher raised an army (including troops from [Mecklenburg](/source/Mecklenburg) and [Oldenburg](/source/Duchy_of_Oldenburg) and the Hanseatic League, especially [Lübeck](/source/L%C3%BCbeck)) to restore his Catholic uncle King [Christian II](/source/Christian_II) (deposed in 1523). This resulted in a three-year civil war called the [Count's Feud](/source/Count's_Feud) ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *Grevens Fejde*).

#### Count's Feud (1534–1536)

Armed rebellion by Catholic peasants led by [Skipper Clement](/source/Skipper_Clement) started in northern Jutland. Rebellion swept across [Funen](/source/Funen), Zealand and Skåne. Christian III's army soundly defeated an army of Catholic nobles at Svenstrup on 16 October 1534. Christian forced a truce with the [Hanseatic League](/source/Hanseatic_League), which had sent troops to help Count Christopher. Christian III's army, under [Johan Rantzau](/source/Johan_Rantzau), chased the rebels all the way back to [Aalborg](/source/Aalborg) and then massacred over 2,000 of them inside the city in December 1534.

The Protestants captured Skipper Clement (1534), and later executed him in 1536. Christian III's mercenary troops put an end to Catholic hopes on Zealand and then Funen. Skåne rebels went as far as proclaiming Christian II king again. King [Gustav Vasa](/source/Gustav_I_of_Sweden) of Sweden sent two separate armies to ravage [Halland](/source/Halland) and Skåne into submission. Besiegers finally starved the last hold-outs in the rebellion, Copenhagen and [Malmø](/source/Malm%C3%B8), into surrender in July 1536. By the spring of 1536, Christian III had taken firm control.

#### State Lutheranism

Denmark became officially Lutheran on 30 October 1536 by decree of King Christian III, and in 1537 the reconstituted State Council approved the [Lutheran Ordinances](/source/Church_Order_(Lutheran)) which was worked out by Danish theologians and [Johannes Bugenhagen](/source/Johannes_Bugenhagen), based on the [Augsburg Confession](/source/Augsburg_Confession) and Luther's [Little Catechism](/source/Small_Catechism). The government established the Danish National Church ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *Folkekirken*) as the [state church](/source/State_church). All of Denmark's Catholic bishops went to prison until such time as they converted to Luther's reform. The authorities released them when they promised to marry and to support the reforms.

If they agreed, they received property and spent the rest of their lives as wealthy landowners. If they refused conversion, they died in prison. The State confiscated Church lands to pay for the armies that had enforced Christian III's election. Priests swore allegiance to Lutheranism or found new employment. The new owners turned monks out of their monasteries and abbeys. Nuns in a few places gained permission to live out their lives in nunneries, though without governmental financial support. The Crown closed churches, abbeys, priories and cathedrals, giving their property to local nobles or selling it.

The King appointed Danish superintendents (later bishops) to oversee Lutheran orthodoxy in the church. Denmark became part of a Lutheran heartland extending through Scandinavia and northern Germany. The Catholic Church everywhere in Scandinavia had sealed its fate by supporting hopeless causes: Christian II and the emperor Charles V in Denmark, Norwegian independence in that country, and in Sweden the Kalmar Union. Geographical distance also prevented them from receiving anything more than a sympathetic ear from Rome.

The 17th century saw a period of strict Lutheran [orthodoxy](/source/Orthodoxy) in Denmark, with harsh punishments visited on suspected followers of either [Calvinism](/source/John_Calvin) or [Huldrych Zwingli](/source/Huldrych_Zwingli). Lutheran authorities treated Catholics harshly — in the fear that they might undermine the king, government, and national church. In a delayed result of the Reformation, Denmark became embroiled in the [Thirty Years' War](/source/Thirty_Years'_War) (1618–1648) on the Protestant side.

### The loss of Eastern Denmark

See also: [Dominium maris baltici](/source/Dominium_maris_baltici)

The [Dano-Norwegian Kingdom](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) grew wealthy during the 16th century, largely because of the increased traffic through the [Øresund](/source/%C3%98resund), which Danes could tax because Denmark controlled both sides of the Sound. The trade in grain exports from [Poland](/source/Poland) to the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) and to the rest of Europe grew enormously at this time, and the Danish kings did not hesitate to cash in on it. The Sound duty was only repealed in the 1840s.

The Danish economy benefited from the [Eighty Years' War](/source/Eighty_Years'_War) (1568–1648) in the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) because a large number of skilled refugees from that area (the most economically advanced in Europe) came to Denmark. This helped to modernize many aspects of society and to establish trading links between Denmark and the Netherlands.

[Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) had a reputation as a relatively powerful kingdom at this time. European politics of the 16th century revolved largely around the struggle between Catholic and Protestant forces, so it seemed almost inevitable that Denmark, a strong, unified Lutheran kingdom, would get drawn into the larger war when it came. The [Thirty Years' War](/source/Thirty_Years'_War) went badly for the Protestant states in the early 1620s, and a call went out to [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) to "save the Protestant cause".

King [Christian IV](/source/Christian_IV_of_Denmark), who was also a duke of the [Holy Roman Empire](/source/Holy_Roman_Empire) on the basis of his possessions in [Holstein](/source/Duchy_of_Holstein), decided to intervene in the conflict raging in northern Germany. The campaign [ended in defeat](/source/Battle_of_Wolgast), and Jutland was occupied by the imperial army of [Albrecht von Wallenstein](/source/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein). In the [Treaty of Lübeck](/source/Treaty_of_L%C3%BCbeck), Christian made peace and agreed to not intervene in Germany again. The war in Germany had been very expensive and [Christian IV](/source/Christian_IV_of_Denmark) saw no other recourse than to raise the Sound tolls. Unfortunately, this act pushed the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) away from Denmark and into the arms of Sweden.

#### Torstenson War (1643–1645)

Denmark before 1645

In 1643, Sweden's armies, under the command of [Lennart Torstensson](/source/Lennart_Torstensson), suddenly invaded Denmark without declaring war. The ensuing conflict became known as the [Torstenson War](/source/Torstenson_War). The [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands), wishing to end the Danish stranglehold on the Baltic, joined the Swedes in their war against [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway). In October 1644, a combined Dutch-Swedish fleet destroyed 80 percent of the Danish fleet in the Battle of Femern. The result of this defeat proved disastrous for [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway): in the [Second treaty of Brömsebro (1645)](/source/Second_treaty_of_Br%C3%B6msebro_(1645)) Denmark ceded to Sweden the Norwegian provinces [Jemtland](/source/Jemtland), [Herjedalen](/source/Herjedalen) and [Älvdalen](/source/%C3%84lvdalen_Municipality) as well as the Danish islands of [Gotland](/source/Gotland) and [Øsel](/source/Saaremaa). [Halland](/source/Halland) went to Sweden for a period of 30 years and the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) were exempted from paying the Sound Duty.

Denmark before 1658

**Treaty of Roskilde, 1658**.

  Halland, previously occupied by Sweden for a 30-year period under the terms of the Peace of Brömsebro negotiated in 1645, was now ceded

  the Scanian lands and Bohus County were ceded

  Trøndelag and Bornholm provinces, which were ceded in 1658, but rebelled against Sweden and returned to Danish rule in [1660](/source/Treaty_of_Copenhagen_(1660)).

Nevertheless, Danes remember Christian IV as one of the great kings of Denmark. He had a very long reign, from 1588 to 1648, and has become known as "the architect on the Danish throne" because of the large number of building [projects](/source/Project) he undertook. Many of the great buildings of Denmark date from his reign. After the death of Christian IV in 1648, his son Frederick succeeded him.

#### Second Northern War (1655–1660)

In 1657, during the [Second Northern War](/source/Second_Northern_War), [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) launched a war of revenge against Sweden (then distracted in Poland) which turned into a complete disaster. The war became a disaster for two reasons: Primarily, because Denmark's new powerful ally, the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands), remained neutral as Denmark was the aggressor and Sweden the defender. Secondly, the [Belts](/source/Great_Belt) froze over in a rare occurrence during the winter of 1657–1658, allowing [Charles X Gustav of Sweden](/source/Charles_X_Gustav_of_Sweden) to [lead his armies across the ice](/source/March_across_the_Belts) to invade [Zealand](/source/Zealand).

In the following [Treaty of Roskilde](/source/Treaty_of_Roskilde), [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) capitulated and gave up all of [Eastern Denmark](/source/Terra_Scania) ([Danish](/source/Danish_language): *Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and [Bornholm](/source/Bornholm)*), in addition to the counties of [Bohuslän](/source/Bohusl%C3%A4n) ([Norwegian](/source/Norwegian_language): *Båhuslen*) and [Trøndelag](/source/Tr%C3%B8ndelag) in Norway. [Holstein-Gottorp](/source/Holstein-Gottorp) was also tied to Sweden, providing a gateway for future invasions from the south.

But the Second Northern War was not yet over. Three months after the peace treaty was signed, [Charles X Gustav of Sweden](/source/Charles_X_Gustav_of_Sweden) held a council of war where he decided to simply wipe Denmark from the map and unite all of Scandinavia under his rule. Once again the Swedish army arrived outside Copenhagen. However, this time the Danes did not panic or surrender. Instead, they decided to fight and prepared to defend Copenhagen.

[March across the Belts](/source/March_across_the_Belts) in 1658

[Frederick III of Denmark](/source/Frederick_III_of_Denmark) had stayed in his capital and now encouraged the citizens of Copenhagen to resist the Swedes, by saying he would die in his nest. Furthermore, this unprovoked declaration of war by Sweden finally triggered the alliance that [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) had with the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands). A powerful Dutch fleet was sent to Copenhagen with vital supplies and reinforcements, which saved the city from being captured during the [Swedish attack](/source/Assault_on_Copenhagen_(1659)). Furthermore, [Brandenburg-Prussia](/source/Brandenburg-Prussia), the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/source/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth) and the [Habsburg monarchy](/source/Habsburg_monarchy) had gathered large forces to aid [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) and fighting continued into 1659.

[Battle of Køge Bay](/source/Battle_of_K%C3%B8ge_Bay_(1677)) in 1677

[Charles X Gustav of Sweden](/source/Charles_X_Gustav_of_Sweden) suddenly died of an illness in early 1660, while planning an invasion of Norway. Following his death, Sweden made peace in the [Treaty of Copenhagen](/source/Treaty_of_Copenhagen_(1660)). The Swedes returned [Trøndelag](/source/Tr%C3%B8ndelag) to Norway and [Bornholm](/source/Bornholm) to Denmark, but kept both [Bohuslän](/source/Bohusl%C3%A4n) and [Terra Scania](/source/Terra_Scania). The [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) and other European powers accepted the settlement, not wanting both coasts of the Sound controlled by Denmark. This treaty established the boundaries between Norway, Denmark, and Sweden that still exist today. All in all, Sweden had now surpassed Denmark as the most powerful country in Scandinavia.

### Absolutism

As a result of the disaster in the war against Sweden, [King Frederick III](/source/Frederick_III_of_Denmark) (reigned 1648–1670) succeeded in convincing the nobles to give up some of their powers and their exemption from taxes, leading to the era of [absolutism](/source/Absolutism_(European_history)) in Denmark. The country's main objective in the following decades was the recovery of its lost provinces from Sweden. In the 1670s, [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) had regained enough strength to start [a war with Sweden to recover its lost provinces](/source/Scanian_War). However, in spite of Denmark's outside support, naval dominance and initial support from the population of [the former eastern provinces](/source/Terra_Scania), the war ended in a bitter [stalemate](/source/Peace_of_Lund).

#### Great Northern War (1700–1721)

A renewed attack during the [Third Northern War](/source/Great_Northern_War) (1700–1721) first resulted in the unfavourable [Peace of Travendal](/source/Peace_of_Travendal), but after Denmark's re-entry into the war and Sweden's ultimate defeat by a large alliance, Sweden was no longer a threat to Denmark. However, the great powers opposed any Danish territorial gains, which meant the [Treaty of Frederiksborg](/source/Treaty_of_Frederiksborg) did not return the former eastern provinces to Denmark. Furthermore, Denmark was even forced to return [Swedish Pomerania](/source/Swedish_Pomerania), [held by Danish forces since 1715](/source/Siege_of_Stralsund_(1711%E2%80%931715)), to Sweden. Denmark now had no hope of recovering its lost provinces from Sweden. As noted earlier, the rest of Europe was simply against the Sound being controlled by a single nation ever again.

Unification process of Holstein

For most of the 18th century, Denmark was at peace. The only time when war threatened was in 1762, when the [Duke of Holstein-Gottorp](/source/Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp) became Tsar [Peter III of Russia](/source/Peter_III_of_Russia) and declared war on Denmark over his ancestral claims in [Schleswig](/source/Schleswig). Before any fighting could begin, however, he was overthrown by his wife, who took control of Russia as Tsarina [Catherine II](/source/Catherine_the_Great) (Catherine the Great).[19] Empress Catherine withdrew her husband's demands and negotiated the transfer of ducal [Schleswig-Holstein](/source/Schleswig-Holstein) to the Danish crown in return for Russian control of the [County of Oldenburg](/source/County_of_Oldenburg) and adjacent lands within the [Holy Roman Empire](/source/Holy_Roman_Empire), an exchange that was formalized with the 1773 [Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo](/source/Treaty_of_Tsarskoye_Selo). The alliance that accompanied the territorial exchange tied Denmark's foreign policy to Russia's and led directly to Denmark's involvement in a series of wars over the succeeding decades.

With the suspension of the Danish [diet](/source/Diet_(assembly)), that body disappeared for a couple of centuries. During this time power became increasingly centralized in Copenhagen. Frederick's government reorganized itself in a much more hierarchical manner, built around the king as a focal point of administration. Crown officials dominated the administration, as well as a new group of bureaucrats, much to the dismay of the traditional aristocracy, who saw their own influence curtailed even further. The absolutist kings of Denmark were quite weak compared to their Swedish counterparts, and non-noble landlords became the real rulers of the country. They used their influence to pass laws that favored themselves.

The administration and laws underwent "modernization" during this period. In 1683, the *Danske lov 1683* ([Danish Code](/source/Danish_Code)) standardized and collected all the old provincial laws. Other initiatives included the standardization of all [weights and measures](/source/Weights_and_measures) throughout the kingdom, and an agricultural survey and registry. This survey allowed the government to begin taxing landowners directly, moving it beyond dependence on revenue from [crown lands](/source/Crown_land).

The population of Denmark rose steadily through this period, from 600,000 in 1660 (after the loss of territory to Sweden) to 700,000 in 1720. By 1807, it had risen to 978,000.

#### Changes in the agricultural economy

Attempts to diversify the economy away from agriculture failed. During this period, little industry existed, except for a very small amount in Copenhagen (population: 30,000). In the late 17th century a small amount of industry did develop, catering to the military. Denmark suffered in part because of its lack of natural resources. It had nothing much to export except agricultural products. The Netherlands bought the largest share of Denmark's exports. The landlords, only about 300 in number, nevertheless owned 90% of the land in the country.

Rural administration remained primarily the preserve of the large landholders and of a few law-enforcement officials. In 1733, low crop prices caused the introduction of [adscription](/source/Adscription), an effort by the landlords to obtain cheap labor. The effect of this was to turn the previously free Danish peasantry into serfs. The adscription system tied rural laborers to their place of birth and required them to rent farms on the estates.

As rent, peasants were required to work the landlords' plots and could not negotiate contracts or demand payment for improvements made to the farm. Peasants who refused to rent a farm were subject to six years of military service. Danish agriculture was very inefficient and unproductive as a result, since the peasants had no motivation to perform anything more than the absolute minimum of work. Attempts to sell Danish grain in Norway failed because of its low quality compared to grain from the Baltic.

In the late 18th century, extensive agricultural reforms took place, involving the abolition of the old [open-field system](/source/Open_field_system) and the amalgamation of many smaller farms into larger ones. With the abolition of the adscription system, the military could now only obtain manpower through conscription. These reforms were possible because agricultural prices steadily rose in the second half of the century.

Throughout the 18th century, the Danish economy did very well, largely on the basis of expanded agricultural output to meet growing demand across Europe. Danish merchant ships also traded around Europe and the North Atlantic, venturing to new [Danish colonies](/source/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas) in the Caribbean and North Atlantic.

#### The Enlightenment and Danish nationalism

Denmark's social reformers [Struensee](/source/Johann_Friedrich_Struensee) and [Brandt](/source/Enevold_Brandt) quartered and displayed on the wheel on 28 April 1772

New propriety and [Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment) ideas became popular among the [middle classes](/source/Middle_class) of Denmark, arousing increased interest in [personal liberty](/source/Personal_liberty). In the last 15 years of the 18th century, the authorities relaxed the censorship which had existed since the beginning of the 17th century. At the same time, a sense of Danish nationalism began to develop. Hostility increased against Germans and Norwegians present at the royal court. Pride in the Danish language and culture increased, and eventually a law banned "foreigners" from holding posts in the government. Antagonism between Germans and Danes increased from the mid-18th century on.

In the 1770s, during the reign of the mentally unstable Christian VII (1766–1808), the queen [Caroline Matilda's](/source/Caroline_Matilda_of_Great_Britain) lover, a German doctor named [Johann Friedrich Struensee](/source/Johann_Friedrich_Struensee), became the de facto ruler of the country. Filled with the ideas of the Enlightenment, he attempted a number of radical reforms including freedom of the press and religion. But it was short-lived and [saw open revolt](/source/Royal_Life_Guards'_Mutiny). The landlords feared that the reforms were a threat to their power, while the commoners believed that religious freedom was an invitation to atheism.

In 1772, a court faction involving the [king's stepmother](/source/Juliana_Maria_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel) had Struensee arrested, tried, and convicted of crimes against the majesty, his right hand was cut off following his beheading, his remains were quartered and put on display on top of spikes on the commons west of Copenhagen. The next 12 years were a period of unmitigated reaction until a group of reformers gained power in 1784.

#### Reforms

Denmark became the model of enlightened despotism, partially influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution. Denmark thus adopted liberalizing reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Danes were aware of French ideas and agreed with them, as it moved from Danish absolutism to a liberal constitutional system between 1750 and 1850. The change of government in 1784 was caused by a power vacuum created when King Christian VII took ill, and influence shifted to the crown prince (who later became King Frederick VI) and reform-oriented landowners. Between 1784 and 1815, the abolition of [serfdom](/source/Serfdom) made the majority of the peasants into landowners. The government also introduced [free trade](/source/Free_trade) and [universal education](/source/Universal_education). In contrast to France under the **ancien regime**, agricultural reform was intensified in Denmark, civil rights were extended to the peasants, the finances of the Danish state were healthy, and there were no external or internal crises. That is, reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well-organized liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.[20]

#### Newspapers

Danish news media first appeared in the 1540s, when handwritten fly sheets reported on the news. In 1666, [Anders Bording](/source/Anders_Bording), the father of Danish journalism, began a state paper. The royal privilege to bring out a newspaper was issued to Joachim Wielandt in 1720. University officials handled the censorship, but in 1770 Denmark became one of the first nations of the world to provide for press freedom; it ended in 1799. In 1795–1814, the press, led by intellectuals and civil servants, called out for a more just and modern society, and spoke out for the oppressed tenant farmers against the power of the old aristocracy.[21]

In 1834, the first liberal newspaper appeared, one that gave much more emphasis to actual news content rather than opinions. The newspapers championed the [Revolution of 1848](/source/March_Revolution_(Denmark)) in Denmark. The new constitution of 1849 liberated the Danish press. Newspapers flourished in the second half of the 19th century, usually tied to one or another political party or labor union. Modernization, bringing in new features and mechanical techniques, appeared after 1900. The total circulation was 500,000 daily in 1901, more than doubling to 1.2 million in 1925. The German occupation brought informal censorship; some offending newspaper buildings were simply blown up by the Nazis. During the war, the underground produced 550 newspapers—small, surreptitiously printed sheets that encouraged sabotage and resistance.[22]

### Colonial ventures

Main articles: [Danish colonization of the Americas](/source/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas) and [Danish colonial empire](/source/Danish_colonial_empire)

See also: [List of Danish colonial trading posts and settlements](/source/List_of_Danish_colonial_trading_posts_and_settlements)

Map showing Denmark–Norway and its colonial possessions.

Denmark maintained a number of [colonies](/source/Colonies) outside Scandinavia, starting in the 17th century and lasting until the 20th century. Denmark also controlled traditional colonies in Greenland[23] and Iceland[24] in the north Atlantic, obtained through the union with Norway. [Christian IV](/source/Christian_IV_of_Denmark) (reigned 1588–1648) first initiated the policy of expanding Denmark's overseas trade, as part of the [mercantilist](/source/Mercantilist) trend then popular in European governing circles. Denmark established its own first colony at [Tranquebar](/source/Tranquebar), or Trankebar, on India's south coast, in 1620.

In the [Caribbean](/source/Caribbean), Denmark started a colony on [St Thomas](/source/Saint_Thomas%2C_United_States_Virgin_Islands) in 1671, [St John](/source/Saint_John%2C_United_States_Virgin_Islands) in 1718, and purchased [Saint Croix](/source/Saint_Croix) from [France](/source/France) in 1733. Denmark maintained its Indian colony, Tranquebar, as well as several other smaller colonies there, for about two hundred years. The [Danish East India Company](/source/Danish_East_India_Company) operated out of Tranquebar. The Danes also [established themselves in the Gold coast](/source/Danish_Gold_Coast) and fought against other European powers like Sweden and the [Netherlands there.](/source/Dano-Dutch_War)

During its heyday, [Danish East Indian Company](/source/Danish_East_India_Company) and the [Swedish East India Company](/source/Swedish_East_India_Company) imported more tea than the [British East India Company](/source/British_East_India_Company) – and smuggled 90% of it into Britain, where it sold at a huge profit. Both of the Scandinavia-based East India Companies folded during the course of the Napoleonic Wars. Denmark also maintained other colonies, forts, and bases in West Africa, primarily for the purpose of [slave](/source/Slavery)-trading.

## 19th century

Further information: [Danish Golden Age](/source/Danish_Golden_Age)

Danish Unitary State Helstaten (da) Dänischer Gesamtstaat (de) 1814–1864 Territories that were part of the Kingdom of Denmark from 1814 to 1864 Status personal union between Schleswig, Holstein, Lauenburg and Denmark Common languages Danish, Frisian, German Religion Lutheranism King of Denmark, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg • 1808–1839 Frederik VI • 1839–1848 Christian VIII • 1848–1863 Frederik VII • 1863–1906 Christian IX Prime ministers (1848–1855) Council Presidents (1855–1864) • 1848–1852 Adam Wilhelm Moltke • 1852–1853 Christian Albrecht Bluhme • 1853–1854 Anders Sandøe Ørsted • 1854–1856 Peter Georg Bang • 1856–1857 Carl Christoffer Georg Andræ • 1857–1859 Carl Christian Hall • 1859–1860 Carl Edvard Rotwitt • 1863–1864 Ditlev Gothard Monrad Historical era Late Modern Period • Established 1814 • Treaty of Kiel 14 January 1814 • First Schleswig War 1848–1851 • Disestablished 1864

### The Napoleonic Wars

The Battle of Copenhagen, 1801.

The long decades of peace came to an abrupt end during the [French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars](/source/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars). Denmark-Norway initially attempted to stay neutral in the ongoing conflict in order to maintain their trade with both France and Britain. However, British fears that the Dano-Norwegians would ally with France led to a [naval battle](/source/Battle_of_Copenhagen_(1801)) outside of Copenhagen in 1801, in which a [Royal Navy](/source/Royal_Navy) fleet delivered a crushing blow to the Dano-Norwegian navy. Despite this, Denmark-Norway continued to remain neutral until 1807, when a British fleet [bombarded Copenhagen](/source/Battle_of_Copenhagen_(1807)) and captured most of the Dano-Norwegian navy in order to prevent it from assisting [Napoleon](/source/Napoleon) against Britain. This led to the [Gunboat War](/source/Gunboat_War), in which Danish [gunboats](/source/Gunboat) fought against the British navy until 1814, though major engagements ended after the last Danish frigate was captured by the Royal Navy [at Lyngør](/source/Battle_of_Lyng%C3%B8r) in 1812.

In 1809 Danish forces fighting on the French side participated in defeating the anti-Bonapartist German rebellion led by [Ferdinand von Schill](/source/Ferdinand_von_Schill), at the [Battle of Stralsund](/source/Battle_of_Stralsund_(1809)). By 1813, Denmark could no longer bear the war costs, and the [state was bankrupt](/source/National_bankruptcy). When in the same year the [Sixth Coalition](/source/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition) isolated Denmark by clearing Northern Germany of French forces, [Frederick VI](/source/Frederick_VI_of_Denmark) had to make peace. Accordingly, the [Treaty of Kiel](/source/Treaty_of_Kiel) was concluded in January 1814 with Sweden and Great Britain, and another peace was signed with Russia in February.

The post-Napoleonic [Congress of Vienna](/source/Congress_of_Vienna) demanded the dissolution of the Dano-Norwegian union, and this was confirmed by the [Treaty of Kiel](/source/Treaty_of_Kiel) in 1814. The treaty transferred [Heligoland](/source/Heligoland) to Great Britain and [Norway](/source/Norway) from the Danish to the Swedish crown, Denmark was to be satisfied with [Swedish Pomerania](/source/Swedish_Pomerania). But the [Norwegians revolted](/source/Norway_in_1814), declared their independence, and elected crown-prince Christian Frederick (the future [Christian VIII](/source/Christian_VIII_of_Denmark)) as their king. However, the Norwegian independence movement failed to attract any support from the European powers. After a brief war with Sweden, Christian had to abdicate in order to preserve Norwegian autonomy, established in a [personal union](/source/Personal_union) with Sweden. In favour of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/source/Kingdom_of_Prussia), Denmark renounced her claims to Swedish Pomerania at the [Congress of Vienna](/source/Congress_of_Vienna) (1815), and instead was satisfied with the [Duchy of Lauenburg](/source/Duchy_of_Lauenburg) and a Prussian payment of 3.5 million talers. Prussia also took over a Danish 600,000-taler debt to Sweden.

This period also counts as "the Golden Age" of Danish [intellectual history](/source/Intellectual_history). A sign of renewed intellectual vigor was the introduction of compulsory schooling in 1814. Literature, painting, sculpture, and philosophy all experienced an unusually vibrant period. The stories of [Hans Christian Andersen](/source/Hans_Christian_Andersen) (1805–1875) became popular not only in Denmark, but all over Europe and in the United States.[25] The ideas of the philosopher [Søren Kierkegaard](/source/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard) (1813–1855) spread far beyond Denmark, influencing not only his own era, but proving instrumental in the development of new philosophical systems after him. The sculptures of [Thorvaldsen](/source/Bertel_Thorvaldsen) (1770–1834) grace public buildings all over Denmark and other artists appreciated and copied his style. [Grundtvig](/source/N._F._S._Grundtvig) (1783–1872) tried to reinvigorate the Danish National Church and contributed to the hymns used by the church in Denmark.

### Nationalism and liberalism

See also: [History of Schleswig-Holstein](/source/History_of_Schleswig-Holstein)

*Den Grundlovgivende Rigsforsamling*
 The Constitutional Assembly created The [Danish constitution](/source/Constitution_of_Denmark), 1860–1864 painting by [Constantin Hansen](/source/Constantin_Hansen).

The Danish [liberal](/source/Liberalism) and [national](/source/Nationalism) movements gained momentum in the 1830s, and after the European revolutions of 1848 Denmark became a [constitutional monarchy](/source/Constitutional_monarchy) on 5 June 1849. The growing [bourgeoisie](/source/Bourgeoisie) had demanded a share in government, and in an attempt to avert the sort of bloody revolution occurring elsewhere in Europe, [Frederick VII](/source/Frederick_VII_of_Denmark) gave in to the demands of the citizens. A new constitution emerged, [separating the powers](/source/Separation_of_powers) and granting the [franchise](/source/Suffrage) to all adult males, as well as freedom of the press, religion, and association. The king became head of the [executive branch](/source/Executive_branch). The [legislative branch](/source/Legislative_branch) consisted of two parliamentary chambers; the [Folketing](/source/Folketing), comprising members elected by the general population, and the [Landsting](/source/Landsting_(Denmark)), elected by landowners. Denmark also gained an independent [judiciary](/source/Judiciary).

Another significant result of the revolution was the [abolition of slavery](/source/Abolitionism) in the [Danish West Indies](/source/Danish_West_Indies), the Danish colony in the Caribbean, which at an earlier part of its history witnessed the biggest slave auctions in the world.[26] In 1845 Denmark's other tropical colony, [Tranquebar](/source/Tranquebar) in India, was sold to Britain.

The Danish king's realm still consisted of the islands, the northern half of the [Jutland](/source/Jutland) peninsula, and the [Duchy of Schleswig](/source/Duchy_of_Schleswig) in [real union](/source/Real_union) with the [Duchy of Holstein](/source/Duchy_of_Holstein).

Danish Infantry regiment in a fight with regiment "Martini". Contemporary illustration of the 1864 [Second Schleswig War](/source/Second_Schleswig_War).

The islands and Jutland together constituted the kingdom, whereas the monarch held the duchies in [personal union](/source/Personal_union) with the kingdom. The duchy of Schleswig constituted a Danish [fief](/source/Fief), while the Duchy of Holstein remained a part of the [German Confederation](/source/German_Confederation).

Since the early 18th century, and even more so from the early 19th century, the Danes had become used to viewing the duchies and the kingdom as increasingly unified in one [state](/source/Sovereign_state). This view, however, clashed with that of the German majority in the duchies, also enthused by liberal and national trends, which led to a movement known as Schleswig-Holsteinism. Schleswig-Holsteinists aimed for independence from Denmark. The [First Schleswig War](/source/First_Schleswig_War) (1848–1851) broke out after constitutional change in 1849 and ended with the *status quo* because of the intervention of [Britain](/source/United_Kingdom) and other Great Powers.

Much debate took place in Denmark as to how to deal with the question of Schleswig-Holstein. National-Liberals demanded permanent ties between Schleswig and Denmark, but stated that Holstein could do as it pleased. However, international events overtook domestic Danish politics, and Denmark faced war against both [Prussia](/source/Prussia) and [Austria](/source/Austria) in what became known as the [Second Schleswig War](/source/Second_Schleswig_War) (1864). The war lasted from February to October 1864. Denmark was easily beaten by Prussia and Austria, and obliged to relinquish both Schleswig and Holstein.

The war caused Denmark as a nation severe trauma, forcing it to reconsider its place in the world. The loss of Schleswig-Holstein came as the latest in the long series of defeats and territorial loss that had begun in the 17th century. The Danish state had now lost some of the richest areas of the kingdom: Skåne to Sweden and Schleswig to Germany, so the nation focused on developing the poorer areas of the country. Extensive agricultural improvements took place in Jutland, and a new form of nationalism, which emphasized the "small" people, the decency of rural Denmark, and the shunning of wider aspirations, developed.

### Industrialisation

[Industrialisation](/source/Industrialisation) came to Denmark in the second half of the 19th century. The nation's first railroads were constructed in the 1850s, and improved communications and overseas trade allowed industry to develop in spite of Denmark's lack of natural resources. Trade unions developed starting in the 1870s. There was a considerable migration of people from the countryside to the cities.

Danish agriculture became centered around the export of dairy and meat products, especially to Great Britain. Instead of relying on German middlemen in Hamburg, the Danes opened new direct trade routes to England after the defeat by the Germans.[27] Lampke and Sharp argue that Denmark's success as in the dairy industry was not based on co-operatives, which came in the late nineteenth century. Instead leadership was in the hands of the landed, intellectual and political elites. They made land reforms, adopted new technologies, and started educational and trading systems. Together these made Denmark a major exporter of butter after 1850. Land reform enabled the growth of a middle ranking class of farmers. They copied the innovations pioneered by wealthy estate owners, and implemented them through newly formed co-operatives.[28]

Internationalism and nationalism have become very much part of the history of the Danish [Labour movement](/source/Labour_movement). The Labour movement gathered momentum when social issues became associated with internationalism. Socialist theory and organisational contact with the [First International](/source/International_Workingmen's_Association), which linked labour movements in various countries, paved the way. [Louis Pio](/source/Louis_Pio) emerged as the driving force. In 1871, following the bloody defeat of the [Paris Commune](/source/Paris_Commune), he started publishing socialist journalism. He campaigned strongly for an independent organisation of the workers under their own management, and organised a Danish branch of the First International. This became the foundation stone for the [Social Democratic Party](/source/Social_Democrats_(Denmark)) under the name of *Den Internationale Arbejderforening for Danmark* (The International Labour Association for Denmark). As a combination of union and political party, it adroitly brought together national and international elements.[29]

Pio saw internationalism as vital for the success of the workers' struggle: without internationalism, no progress. He pointed out that the middle classes cooperated across national frontiers and used nationalistic rhetoric as a weapon against the workers and their liberation.[30]

The Danish section started organising strikes and demonstrations for higher wages and social reforms.[31] Demands were moderate, but enough to provoke the employers and the forces of [law and order](/source/Law_and_order_(politics)). Things came to a head in the Battle of [Fælleden](/source/F%C3%A6lledparken) on 5 May 1872. The authorities arrested the three leaders, Louis Pio, [Poul Geleff](/source/Poul_Geleff) and Harald Brix, charged them and convicted them of high treason. The three left Denmark for the United States to set up the ill-starred and short-lived socialist colony near Hays City, in [Ellis County, Kansas](/source/Ellis_County%2C_Kansas).

Back in Denmark, the emerging political situation made possible by the new Danish door of independence alarmed many of the existing elites, since it inevitably [empowered](/source/Empowerment) the peasantry. Simple men with little education replaced professors and professionals in positions of power. The peasants, in coalition with liberal and radical elements from the cities, eventually won a majority of seats in the Folketing. Even though constitutional changes had taken place to boost the power of the Landsting, the Left *[Venstre](/source/Venstre_(Denmark))* Party demanded to form the government, but the king, still the head of the executive branch, refused. However, in 1901, king [Christian IX](/source/Christian_IX_of_Denmark) gave in and asked [Johan Henrik Deuntzer](/source/Johan_Henrik_Deuntzer), a member of Venstre, to form a government, the [Cabinet of Deuntzer](/source/Cabinet_of_Deuntzer). This began a tradition of [parliamentary government](/source/Parliamentary_government), and with the exception of the [Easter Crisis of 1920](/source/Easter_Crisis_of_1920), no government since 1901 has ruled against a parliamentary majority in the Folketing.

### Monetary union

Main article: [Scandinavian Monetary Union](/source/Scandinavian_Monetary_Union)

Two golden 20 kr coins from the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which was based on a [gold standard](/source/Gold_standard). The coin to the left is Swedish and the right one is Danish.

The [Scandinavian Monetary Union](/source/Scandinavian_Monetary_Union), a [monetary union](/source/Monetary_union) formed by Sweden and Denmark on 5 May 1873, fixed both their [currencies](/source/Currency) against [gold](/source/Gold_standard) [at par](/source/Par_value) to each other. [Norway](/source/Norway), governed in union with Sweden, entered the monetary union two years later in 1875 by pegging its currency to gold at the same level as Denmark and Sweden (.403 gram).[32] The monetary union proved one of the few tangible results of the [Scandinavist](/source/Scandinavist) political movement of the 19th century.

The union provided fixed exchange-rates and stability in monetary terms, but the member-countries continued to issue their own separate currencies. In an outcome not initially foreseen, the perceived security led to a situation where the formally separate currencies circulated on a basis of "as good as" the [legal tender](/source/Legal_tender) virtually throughout the entire area.

The outbreak of [World War I](/source/World_War_I) in 1914 brought an end to the monetary union. Sweden abandoned the tie to gold on 2 August 1914, and without a fixed exchange rate the free circulation came to an end.

## 20th century

### 1901–1939

In the early decades of the 20th century the new [Danish Social Liberal Party](/source/Danish_Social_Liberal_Party) and the older [Venstre Party](/source/Venstre_(Denmark)) shared government. During this time women gained the [right to vote](/source/Women's_suffrage) (1915), and the United States purchased some of Denmark's colonial holdings: the three islands of [Saint John](/source/Saint_John%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands), [Saint Croix](/source/Saint_Croix), and [Saint Thomas](/source/Saint_Thomas%2C_U.S._Virgin_Islands) in the [West Indies](/source/West_Indies). The period also saw Denmark inaugurating important social and labour-market reforms, laying the basis for the present[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Denmark&action=edit) [welfare state](/source/Welfare_state).

[Denmark remained neutral](/source/Denmark_during_World_War_I) during [World War I](/source/World_War_I), but the conflict affected the country to a considerable extent. As its economy was heavily based on exports, the unrestricted German submarine warfare was a serious problem. Denmark had to sell many of its exports to Germany instead of overseas nations. Widespread [war profiteering](/source/War_profiteering) took place, but commerce also suffered significant disruption because of the conflict and because of the ensuing financial instability in Europe. Rationing was instituted, and there were food and fuel shortages. In addition, Berlin forced Denmark to mine the Sound to prevent British ships from entering it. Following the defeat of Germany in the war (1918), the [Treaty of Versailles](/source/Treaty_of_Versailles) (1919) mandated the [Schleswig Plebiscites](/source/Schleswig_Plebiscites), which resulted in the return of Northern Schleswig (now[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Denmark&action=edit) [South Jutland](/source/Southern_Jutland)) to Denmark. The king and parts of the opposition grumbled that Prime Minister [Carl Theodor Zahle](/source/Carl_Theodor_Zahle) (in office 1909–1910 and 1913–1920) did not use Germany's defeat to take back a bigger portion of the province, which Denmark had lost in the [Second Schleswig War](/source/Second_Schleswig_War) in 1864. The king and the opposition wanted to take over the city of [Flensburg](/source/Flensburg), while the cabinet insisted on only claiming areas where a majority of Danes lived, which led to a plebiscite in the affected areas over whether they wanted to become a part of [Denmark](/source/Denmark) or remain within [Germany](/source/Germany). Believing that he had the support of the people, King Christian X used his [reserve power](/source/Reserve_power) to dismiss Zahle's cabinet, sparking the [Easter Crisis of 1920](/source/Easter_Crisis_of_1920). As a result of the Easter Crisis, the king promised to no longer interfere in politics. Although the [Danish Constitution](/source/Danish_Constitution) was not amended at that time, Danish monarchs have stayed out of politics since then. The end of the war also prompted the Danish government to finish negotiating with [Iceland](/source/Iceland), resulting in Iceland becoming a sovereign [Kingdom](/source/Kingdom_of_Iceland) on 1 December 1918 while retaining the Danish monarch as [head of state](/source/Head_of_state).

In the [1924 Folketing election](/source/1924_Danish_Folketing_election) the [Social Democrats](/source/Social_Democrat), under the charismatic [Thorvald Stauning](/source/Thorvald_Stauning), became Denmark's largest parliamentary political party, a position they maintained until 2001. Since the opposition still held a majority of the seats in the [Landsting](/source/Landsting_(Denmark)), Stauning had to co-operate with some of the right-wing parties, making the Social Democrats a more mainstream party. He succeeded in brokering an important deal in the 1930s which brought an end to the [Great Depression](/source/Great_Depression) in Denmark, and also laid the foundation for a welfare state.

Denmark joined the [League of Nations](/source/League_of_Nations) in 1920 and during the interwar period was active in promoting peaceful solutions to international issues. With the rise of [Adolf Hitler](/source/Adolf_Hitler) in Germany during the 1930s, the country found itself in a very precarious situation. Berlin refused to recognize its post-1920 border with Denmark, but the Nazi regime was preoccupied with more important matters and did not make any issue of it. The Danes tried unsuccessfully to obtain recognition of the border from their neighbor, but otherwise went out of their way to avoid antagonizing Germany.

### Second World War

Main article: [Occupation of Denmark](/source/Occupation_of_Denmark)

During the German occupation, King [Christian X](/source/Christian_X) became a powerful symbol of national sovereignty. This image dates from the King's birthday, 26 September 1940. Note the lack of a guard.

In 1939, Hitler offered non-aggression pacts to the Scandinavian nations. While Sweden and Norway refused, Denmark readily accepted. When WWII began that fall, Copenhagen declared its neutrality. Nevertheless, Germany (so as to secure communications for its invasion of Norway) invaded and subsequently occupied Denmark on 9 April 1940, meeting limited resistance. British forces, however, [occupied](/source/British_occupation_of_the_Faroe_Islands_in_World_War_II) the [Faroe Islands](/source/Faroe_Islands) (12 April 1940) and [invaded](/source/Invasion_of_Iceland) Iceland (10 May 1940) in pre-emptive moves to prevent German occupation. Following a [plebiscite](/source/1944_Icelandic_referendum), Iceland declared its independence on 17 June 1944 and became a republic, dissolving its union with Denmark.

The Nazi occupation of Denmark unfolded in a unique manner. The Monarchy remained. The conditions of occupation started off very leniently (although the authorities banned [Danmarks Kommunistiske Parti](/source/Communist_Party_of_Denmark) (the Communist party) when the Wehrmacht [invaded the Soviet Union](/source/Operation_Barbarossa) in June 1941), and Denmark retained its own government. The new coalition government tried to protect the population from Nazi rule through compromise. The Germans allowed the Folketing to remain in session. Despite [deportations of nearly 2,000 of its members](/source/Deportation_of_the_Danish_police), the police remained largely under Danish control, and the German authorities stayed one step removed from the population. However, the Nazi demands eventually became intolerable for the Danish government, so, in 1943, it resigned and Germany assumed full control of Denmark. From that point, an armed resistance movement grew against the occupying forces. Towards the end of the war, Denmark grew increasingly difficult for Germany to control, but the country remained under occupation until near the end of the war. On 4 May 1945, German forces in Denmark, North West Germany, and the Netherlands surrendered to the Allies. On 5 May 1945, British troops liberated Copenhagen. Three days later, the war ended.

Denmark succeeded in smuggling most of its Jewish population to Sweden, in 1943, when the Nazis threatened deportation; see [Rescue of the Danish Jews](/source/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews). Danish doctors refused to treat German citizens fleeing from Germany. More than 13,000 died in 1945 from various causes, among them some 7,000 children under five.[33]

### Post-war

In 1948, Denmark granted [home rule](/source/Home_rule) to the [Faroe Islands](/source/Faroe_Islands). 1953 saw further political reform in Denmark, abolishing the Landsting (the elected upper house), colonial status for [Greenland](/source/Greenland) and allowing female rights of succession to the throne with the signing of a new constitution.

Although not one of the war-time United Nations, Denmark succeeded in obtaining a (belated) invitation to the UN Charter conference, and became a founding member of the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations) organisation in 1945.[34] With the [Soviet](/source/USSR) occupation of Bornholm, the emergence of what evolved to become the [Cold War](/source/Cold_War) and with the lessons of World War II still fresh in Danish minds, the country abandoned its former policy of neutrality and became one of the original founding members of the [North Atlantic Treaty Organisation](/source/NATO) (NATO) in 1949. Denmark had originally tried to form an alliance with Norway and Sweden only, but this attempt had failed. A [Nordic Council](/source/Nordic_Council) later emerged however, with the aim of co-ordinating Nordic policies. Later on, in a [referendum in 1972](/source/1972_Danish_European_Communities_membership_referendum), Danes voted in favour of joining the [European Community](/source/European_Community), the predecessor of the [European Union](/source/European_Union), and Denmark became a member on 1 January 1973. Since then, Denmark has proven a hesitant member of the European community, opting out of many proposals, including the [Euro](/source/Euro), which the country rejected in a [referendum in 2000](/source/2000_Danish_euro_referendum).[35]

## 21st century

Then-Crown Prince [Frederik](/source/Frederik_X) with his wife then-Crown Princess [Mary](/source/Queen_Mary_of_Denmark) in 2015.

Indian Prime Minister [Narendra Modi](/source/Narendra_Modi) and 5 Nordic Prime Ministers ([Sanna Marin](/source/Sanna_Marin) of Finland, [Magdalena Andersson](/source/Magdalena_Andersson) of Sweden, [Mette Frederiksen](/source/Mette_Frederiksen) of Denmark, [Jonas Gahr Støre](/source/Jonas_Gahr_St%C3%B8re) of Norway, and [Katrín Jakobsdóttir](/source/Katr%C3%ADn_Jakobsd%C3%B3ttir) of Iceland) at 2nd India-Nordic Summit, in [Copenhagen](/source/Copenhagen), 4 May 2022.

Denmark went through some of its most serious post-war crises in the early 21st century, such as [SARS outbreak](/source/2002-2004_SARS_outbreak) in 2003, [Indian Ocean tsunami](/source/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami) in December 2004,[36][37][38] [Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy](/source/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy) in 2005, [Great Recession](/source/Great_Recession) and [Danish embassy bombing](/source/2008_Danish_embassy_bombing_in_Islamabad) in [Islamabad](/source/Islamabad) in 2008, [Copenhagen attacks](/source/2015_Copenhagen_attacks) in 2015, and with [COVID-19 pandemic](/source/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Denmark) in between January 2020 and March 2022, which further met with national and international acclaim.

In 2001 following [9/11 terror attacks](/source/September_11_attacks) in the [United States of America](/source/United_States), Folketing agreed to entered the [War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)](/source/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)).[39] A total of 43 Danish soldiers were killed in Afghanistan since the first deployment in 2002.

Venstre leader [Anders Fogh Rasmussen](/source/Anders_Fogh_Rasmussen) won the [2001](/source/2001_Danish_general_election), [2005](/source/2005_Danish_general_election), and [2007 Folketing elections](/source/2007_Danish_general_election) and formed a new government and was in his first few months challenged after the Social Democrat prime minister [Poul Nyrup Rasmussen](/source/Poul_Nyrup_Rasmussen) admitted defeat. Eight years later, he resigned from his office in April 2009 due to upcoming as the [NATO Secretary-General](/source/Secretary_General_of_NATO), and then [Lars Løkke Rasmussen](/source/Lars_L%C3%B8kke_Rasmussen) was sworn in as prime minister in his first term from 2009 to 2011.[40]

In [2011 Folketing elections](/source/2011_Danish_general_election), incumbent centre-right coalition led by Venstre lost power to a centre-left coalition led by the [Social Democrats](/source/Social_Democrats_(Denmark)), making [Helle Thorning-Schmidt](/source/Helle_Thorning-Schmidt) the country's first female prime minister. The Social Liberal Party and the Socialist People's Party became part of the three-party government. The new parliament convened on 4 October 2011.[41]

In 2015, Lars Løkke Rasmussen won the [Folketing election](/source/2015_Danish_general_election) and formed a government for the second time. Although the ruling [Social Democrats](/source/Social_Democrats_(Denmark)) became the largest party in the Folketing and increased their seat count, the opposition [Venstre party](/source/Venstre_(Denmark)) was able to form a minority government headed by [Lars Løkke Rasmussen](/source/Lars_L%C3%B8kke_Rasmussen) with the support of the [Danish People's Party](/source/Danish_People's_Party), the [Liberal Alliance](/source/Liberal_Alliance_(Denmark)) and the [Conservative People's Party](/source/Conservative_People's_Party_(Denmark)).[42] Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen held the office between 2009 and 2011, and again between 2015 and 2019, with backing from the Danish People's Party (DF).

In the [2019 Folketing election](/source/2019_Danish_general_election), comprising parties that supported the [Social Democrats](/source/Social_Democrats_(Denmark))' leader [Mette Frederiksen](/source/Mette_Frederiksen) as candidate for Prime Minister. The "red bloc", consisting of the Social Democrats, the [Social Liberals](/source/Danish_Social_Liberal_Party), [Socialist People's Party](/source/Socialist_People's_Party_(Denmark)), the [Red–Green Alliance](/source/Red-Green_Alliance_(Denmark)), the [Faroese](/source/Faroe_Islands) [Social Democratic Party](/source/Social_Democrats_(Denmark)) and the [Greenlandic](/source/Greenland) [Siumut](/source/Siumut), won 93 of the 179 seats, securing a parliamentary majority. Meanwhile, the incumbent governing coalition, consisting of [Venstre](/source/Venstre_(Denmark)), the [Liberal Alliance](/source/Liberal_Alliance_(Denmark)) and the [Conservative People's Party](/source/Conservative_People's_Party_(Denmark)) was reduced to 76 seats (including the [Venstre](/source/Venstre_(Denmark))-affiliated [Union Party](/source/Union_Party_(Faroe_Islands)) in the [Faroe Islands](/source/Faroe_Islands)) despite receiving external parliamentary support from the [Danish People's Party](/source/Danish_People's_Party) and [Nunatta Qitornai](/source/Nunatta_Qitornai). Following [2019 general election](/source/2019_Danish_general_election) the Social Democrats, led by leader [Mette Frederiksen](/source/Mette_Frederiksen), formed a single-party government with support from the left-wing coalition.[43] Frederiksen became prime minister on 27 June 2019.[44]

In November 2022 snap [general election](/source/2022_Danish_general_election), Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen's Social Democrats remained the biggest party with two more seats, its best result in two decades.[45] The second biggest was the Liberal Party (Venstre), led by [Jakob Ellemann-Jensen](/source/Jakob_Ellemann-Jensen). The recently formed [Moderates](/source/Moderates_(Denmark)) party, led by two-time former Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen, became the third-biggest party in Denmark.[46] In December 2022, Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen formed a new coalition government with her Social Democrats and the Liberal Party and the Moderates party. Jakob Ellemann-Jensen became deputy prime minister and defence minister while Lars Løkke Rasmussen was appointed foreign minister.[47]

In her 52nd New Year's speech on the last day of 2023, Queen [Margrethe II](/source/Margrethe_II) announced [her abdication](/source/Abdication_of_Margrethe_II) of the Danish throne in favor of her son, [Frederick](/source/Frederik_X). This was the first willing abdication of a [Danish monarch](/source/Danish_monarch) since [Eric III](/source/Eric_III_of_Denmark) in 1146.[48] On 14 January, 52 years to the day after Margrethe ascended the throne, Frederik X was [proclaimed](/source/Proclamation) king of Denmark.[49]

## See also

- [Denmark portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Denmark)
- [Faroe Islands portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Faroe_Islands)
- [History portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History)

- [List of Danish monarchs](/source/List_of_Danish_monarchs) - [Danish monarchs' family tree](/source/Danish_monarchs'_family_tree)

- [List of Danish chronicles](/source/List_of_Danish_chronicles)

- [History of Christianity in Denmark](/source/History_of_Christianity_in_Denmark)

- [Politics of Denmark](/source/Politics_of_Denmark)

- [Timeline of Danish history](/source/Timeline_of_Danish_history)

- [Politics of the Faroe Islands](/source/Politics_of_the_Faroe_Islands)

- [Politics of Greenland](/source/Politics_of_Greenland)

Part of a series on Scandinavia Countries Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden History Chronological history Prehistory Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Migration Period Vendel Period Viking Age Norsemen Christianization Kalmar Union Swedish Empire Denmark–Norway Sweden–Norway Denmark–Iceland Nordic Council History by country Åland Denmark Faroe Islands Finland Greenland Iceland Norway Scotland Sweden Geography Mountains Peninsula Baltic Sea North Sea Economy Nordic model Finland Sweden Related Languages Scandinavism Nordic countries Monetary Union Defence Union Scandinavian Airlines Denmark Faroe Islands Finland Iceland Norway Sweden v t e

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Reconstructed nominative *tanmarkaʀ*, based on the [Jelling stones](/source/Jelling_stones).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** "The controversies over the nature of the Rus and the origins of the Russian state have bedevilled Viking studies, and indeed Russian history, for well over a century. It is historically certain that the Rus were Swedes. The evidence is incontrovertible, and that a debate still lingers at some levels of historical writing is clear evidence of the holding power of received notions. The debate over this issue – futile, embittered, tendentious, doctrinaire – served to obscure the most serious and genuine historical problem which remains: the assimilation of these Viking Rus into the Slavic people among whom they lived. The principal historical question is not whether the Rus were Scandinavians or Slavs, but, rather, how quickly these Scandinavian Rus became absorbed into Slavic life and culture."[13]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["Frederik X: Denmark has new King as Queen Margrethe II abdicates in historic moment for Europe's oldest monarchy"](https://news.sky.com/story/frederik-x-denmark-has-new-king-as-queen-margrethe-ii-abdicates-in-historic-moment-for-europe-s-oldest-monarchy-13048144). *Sky News*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** The remote Danish island of [Bornholm](/source/Bornholm) in the Baltic Sea was liberated by Soviet forces of the Allies. This led to some political turmoil and conflict, occasionally resurfacing in modern times.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["Koelbjergkvinden fra Danmark"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050306125009/http://www2.natmus.dk/saer/mislink/uvmateriale/koelbjer.htm) (in Danish). Archived from [the original](http://www2.natmus.dk/saer/mislink/uvmateriale/koelbjer.htm) on 2005-03-06. Retrieved 2011-11-30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Koelbjerg Woman"](https://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/bog/koelbjerg.html). *Bodies of the Bogs*. Archeology Magazine. 1997. Retrieved 21 March 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Koelbjerg"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120404130537/http://www.kulturarv.dk/fundogfortidsminder/Lokalitet/141623/). *og Fund Fortidsminder* (in Danish). Archived from [the original](http://www.kulturarv.dk/fundogfortidsminder/Lokalitet/141623) on 2012-04-04. Retrieved 2011-11-30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Jensen 2003:12–18

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Jensen 2003:24

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Jensen 2003:32

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Jensen 2003:34

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["New study unearths our Scandinavian ancestors"](https://www.gu.se/en/news/new-study-unearths-our-scandinavian-ancestors). *University of Gothenburg*. 10 January 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Birger Storgaard, *Cosmopolitan aristocrats*, pp. 106–125 in: *The Spoils of Victory – The North in the shadow of the Roman Empire*, Nationalmuseet, 2003. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [87-7602-006-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-7602-006-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [Jordanes](/source/Jordanes). ["III (23)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20010608032907/https://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html#III). *The Origin and Deeds of the Goths*. Translated by [Charles C. Mierow](/source/Charles_C._Mierow). Archived from [the original](https://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html#III) on 2001-06-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELogan2005184_14-0)** [Logan 2005](#CITEREFLogan2005), p. 184.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-kongehuset_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-kongehuset_16-1) ["The Royal Lineage – The Danish Monarchy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150706134401/http://kongehuset.dk/english/the-monarchy-in-denmark/The-Royal-Lineage/the-royal-lineage). *kongehuset.dk*. Archived from [the original](http://kongehuset.dk/english/the-monarchy-in-denmark/The-Royal-Lineage/the-royal-lineage) on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Britannica_Online_Encyclopedia_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Britannica_Online_Encyclopedia_17-1) Staff. [Saint Brices Day massacre](https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-516876/Saint-Brices-Day-massacre), [Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica). Retrieved 26 December 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, trans. Francis J. Tschan (New York, 2002), pp. 77–78.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-runeberg.org_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-runeberg.org_19-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-runeberg.org_19-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-runeberg.org_19-3) [C. F. Bricka](/source/Carl_Frederik_Bricka), ed. (1903). ["Tausen, Hans, 1494–1561, evangelisk Reformator og Biskop"](https://runeberg.org/dbl/17/). *[Dansk Biografiske Lexicon](/source/Dansk_biografisk_leksikon)* (in Danish). Gyldendal. pp. 100–114. Retrieved 2008-09-09.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-2) *Krønike om Gråbrodrenes Udjagelse*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** [Tytler Woodhouselee, Lord Alexander Fraser](/source/Alexander_Fraser_Tytler%2C_Lord_Woodhouselee) (1823). [*Elements of General History, Ancient and Modern*](https://archive.org/details/elementsofgenera02wood). H. Hill. pp. [428](https://archive.org/details/elementsofgenera02wood/page/428)–429. Retrieved 4 November 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Henrik Horstboll, and Uffe Ostergård, "Reform and Revolution: The French Revolution and the Case of Denmark, *Scandinavian Journal of History* (1990) 15#3 pp 155–179

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Thorkild Kjærgaard, "The rise of press and public opinion in eighteenth‐century Denmark—Norway." *Scandinavian journal of History* 14.4 (1989): 215–230. He stresses the role

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Kenneth E. Olson, *The history makers: The press of Europe from its beginnings through 1965* (LSU Press, 1966) pp 50 – 64, 433

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Thór, J. Th. (2003). "Fra biland til republik". [*De vestnordiske landes fælleshistorie: udvalg af indledende betragtninger over dele af den vestnordiske fælleshistorie*](https://naalakkersuisut.gl/~/media/Nanoq/Files/Publications/Uddannelse/De%20vestnordiske%20landes%20fælleshistorie.pdf) (PDF) (in Danish) (1. udg ed.). Nuuk, Grønland: Grønlands Hjemmestyre, Direktoratet for kultur, uddannelse, forskning og kirke. p. 55. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [87-90948-07-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-90948-07-6). Retrieved 25 September 2020. moreover, Greenland, which by 1800 was already described as a colony.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Loftsdóttir, Kristín; Pálsson, Gísli (2013). "Black on white: Danish colonialism, Iceland and the Caribbean.". *Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity*. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 37–52. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-4614-6202-6](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6202-6). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4614-6202-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-6202-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Sven Hakon Rossel, ed. (1996). *Hans Christian Andersen: Danish Writer and Citizen of the World*. Rodopi. pp. 52–54.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Neville A.T. Hall, and B. W. Higman, *Slave Society in the Danish West Indies: St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix* (Aarhus Universitetsforlag, 1992).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Markus Lampe, and Paul Sharp, "How the Danes discovered Britain: the international integration of the Danish dairy industry before 1880." *European Review of Economic History* 19.4 (2015): 432-453 [Lampe, Markus, and Paul Sharp. "How the Danes discovered Britain: the international integration of the Danish dairy industry before 1880." European Review of Economic History 19.4 (2015): 432-453. online].

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Markus Lampe, and Paul Sharp, *A Land of Milk and Butter: How Elites Created the Modern Danish Dairy Industry* (2018).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Harald Lövaas, *The trade union movement in Denmark* (European Trade Union Institute, 1987).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Peder Tabor, "The Oldest Social-Democratic Press in the World." *Gazette* (Leiden, Netherlands) 9.2 (1963): 157–164.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** David Greasley, "A Tale of Two Peripheries: Real Wages in Denmark and New Zealand 1875–1939." *Scandinavian Economic History Review* 54.2 (2006): 116–136.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** [From silver standard to gold standard](https://www.nationalbanken.dk/dnuk/hist.nsf/side/From_silver_standard_to_gold_standard) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131103214722/http://www.nationalbanken.dk/dnuk/hist.nsf/side/From_silver_standard_to_gold_standard) 2013-11-03 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), retrieved 2008-08-05

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Manfred Ertel. [A Legacy of Dead German Children](http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,355772,00.html) Spiegel Online, 16 May 2005

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Götz, Norbert (2004). "Prestige and lack of alternative: Denmark and the United Nations in the making". *Scandinavian Journal of History*. **29** (2): 73–96. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/03468750410004594](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468750410004594). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145403585](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145403585).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["Denmark says no to the euro"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/sep/29/euro.eu1). *the Guardian*. 29 September 2000.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** ["Denmark mourns its tsunami dead"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4142043.stm). 2 January 2005.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** ["Mary from the start: Thailand: tsunami memorial"](http://maryfromthestart.blogspot.com/2014/04/thailand-tsunami-memorial.html). *Mary from the start*. 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** ["Beautiful Danish Memorial in Thailand"](https://scandasia.com/1467-beautiful-danish-memorial-in-thailand/). *Scandasia*. 16 April 2005.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** ["Tidslinje: Krigen i Afghanistan"](https://web.archive.org/web/20171107075400/https://www.dr.dk/undervisning/samfundsfag/tidslinje-krigen-i-afghanistan). *dr.dk* (in Danish). 9 July 2014. Archived from [the original](https://www.dr.dk/undervisning/samfundsfag/tidslinje-krigen-i-afghanistan) on 2017-11-07. Retrieved 2017-11-06.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** ["Rasmussen named new Danish PM"](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/rasmussen-named-new-danish-pm-1.838621). *The Irish Times*. 5 April 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** ["Danes vote for their first female prime minister"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/15/danes-female-prime-minister-helle-thorning-schmidt). *the Guardian*. 15 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche (19 June 2015). ["Record gains for anti-immigration party in Denmark | DW | 19.06.2015"](https://www.dw.com/en/record-gains-for-anti-immigration-party-in-denmark/a-18526244). *DW.COM*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** ["Denmark's new leader joins Nordic swing to left"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-48784508). *BBC News*. 27 June 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** ["Frederiksen prepares to take over as new Danish prime minister"](https://www.thelocal.dk/20190627/frederiksen-prepares-to-take-over-as-new-danish-prime-minister/). *The Local Denmark*. 27 June 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** ["Denmark: Mette Frederiksen's Social Democrats win the best result in 20 years"](https://progressivepost.eu/the-danish-election-mette-frederiksens-social-democrats-win-the-best-result-in-20-years/). *The Progressive Post*. 8 November 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** ["Denmark election: Centre-left bloc comes out on top"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63481675). *BBC News*. 2 November 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** ["Danish PM picks right-leaning rivals as key ministers in new government"](https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/danish-pm-frederiksen-appoints-lokke-rasmussen-foreign-minister-new-government-2022-12-15/). *Reuters*. 15 December 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** ["Abdication"](https://www.kongehuset.dk/en/news/abdication). *www.kongehuset.dk*. Retrieved 2024-01-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Bryant, Miranda (14 January 2024). ["Denmark's King Frederik X takes throne after Margrethe abdicates"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/14/denmark-proclaims-king-frederik-queen-margrethe-abdicates). *The Guardian*.

- [Logan, F. Donald](/source/F._Donald_Logan) (2005). [*The Vikings in History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=7K2ywwGox6IC). New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). p. 205. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780415327565](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415327565). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230423152845/https://books.google.com/books?id=7K2ywwGox6IC) from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2023. (third edition)

## Further reading

Further information: [History of Scandinavia § Further reading](/source/History_of_Scandinavia#Further_reading)

- Bain, R. Nisbet. *Scandinavia: A Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden from 1513 to 1900* (2014) [online](https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Obs0AAAAQBAJ)

- Bagge, Sverre. *Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms From the Vikings to the Reformation* (Princeton University Press; 2014) 325 pages;

- Barton, H. Arnold. *Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era 1760–1815*, University of Minnesota Press, 1986. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8166-1392-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-1392-3).

- Birch J. H. S. *Denmark In History* (1938) [online](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.505403/page/n5/mode/2up)

- Derry, T. K. *A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland*. (U of Minnesota Press, 1979.) [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8166-3799-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-3799-7).

- Lauring, Palle. *A History of Denmark*. (3rd ed. Copenhagen: Høst, 1995). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [87-14-29306-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-14-29306-4).

- Jespersen, Knud J. V. *A History of Denmark* (Palgrave Essential Histories) (2nd ed. 2011) [excerpt and text search](https://www.amazon.com/History-Denmark-Palgrave-Essential-Histories/dp/0333659171/)

- Oakley, Stewart. *A short history of Denmark* (Praeger Publishers, 1972)

- Pulsiano, Phillip. *Medieval Scandinavia: an encyclopedia* (Taylor & Francis, 1993).

### Political history

- Barton, H. A. *Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era, 1760–1815* (Minneapolis, 1986)

- Bregnsbo, Michael. "The motives behind the foreign political decisions of Frederick VI during the Napoleonic Wars." *Scandinavian Journal of History* 39.3 (2014): 335–352.

- Campbell, John L., John A. Hall, and Ove Kaj Pedersen, eds. *National Identity and the Varieties of Capitalism: The Danish Experience* (Studies in Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict) (2006)

- Etting, Vivian. *Queen Margrete I, 1353–1412, and the Founding of the Nordic Union* (Brill, 2004) [online edition](https://www.questia.com/read/114102227)[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

- Gouges, Linnea de (2014) *From Witch Hunts to Scientific Confidence; The Influence of British and Continental Currents on the Consolidation of the Scandinavian States in the 17th Century* (Nisus Publications).

- Jespersen, Leon. "Court and Nobility in Early Modern Denmark," *Scandinavian Journal of History,* September 2002, Vol. 27 Issue 3, pp 129–142, covers 1588 to 1650

- Jonas, Frank. *Scandinavia and the Great Powers in the First World War* (2019) [online review](http://www.miwsr.com/2020-024.aspx)

- Munck, Thomas. "Absolute Monarchy in Later 18th-century Denmark: Centralized Reform, Public Expectations, and the Copenhagen Press" *Historical Journal,* March 1998, Vol. 41 Issue 1, pp 201–24 [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2640150)

- Munck, Thomas. *The peasantry and the early absolute monarchy in Denmark, 1660–1708* (Copenhagen, 1979)

- Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). ["Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950-2016"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880). *[Scandinavian Journal of History](/source/Scandinavian_Journal_of_History)*. **41** (4–5): 475–494. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[109.1.5/469ed487-ad15-4504-a969-8eb9a0ea0d17](https://hdl.handle.net/109.1.5%2F469ed487-ad15-4504-a969-8eb9a0ea0d17).

### Culture and religion

- Eichberg, Henning. "Sporting history, moving democracy, challenging body culture: The development of a Danish approach." *Stadion* (2011) 37#1 pp: 149–167.

- Jacobsen, Brian Arly. "Islam and Muslims in Denmark." in Marian Burchardt and Ines Michalowski, eds. *After integration: Islam, conviviality and contentious politics in Europe* (Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2015) pp: 171–186.

- Kirmmse, Bruce. *Kierkegaard in Golden Age Denmark* (Indiana University Press, 1990)

- Michelson, William. "From Religious Movement to Economic Change: The Grundtvigian Case in Denmark," *Journal of Social History,* (1969) 2#4 pp: 283–301

- Mordhorst, Mads. "Arla and Danish national identity–business history as cultural history." *Business History* (2014) 56#1 pp: 116–133.

- Rossel, Sven H. *A History of Danish Literature* (University of Nebraska Press, 1992) 714pp

- Schwarz, Martin. *Church History of Denmark* (Ashgate, 2002). 333 pp. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7546-0307-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-0307-5)

### Economic and social history

- Abildgren, Kim. "Consumer prices in Denmark 1502–2007," *Scandinavian Economic History Review,* (2010) 58#1 pp: 2–24

- Abildgren, Kim. "Estimates of the national wealth of Denmark 1845–2013" (Danmarks Nationalbank Working Papers No. 92., 2015) [online](http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/106350/1/815367643.pdf)

- Hornby, Ove. "Proto-Industrialisation Before Industrialisation? The Danish Case," *Scandinavian Economic History Review,* April 1982, Vol. 30 Issue 1, pp 3–33, covers 1750 to 1850

- Christiansen, Palle Ove. "Culture and Contrasts in a Northern European Village: Lifestyles among Manorial Peasants in 18th-Century Denmark, *Journal of Social History* Volume: 29#2 (1995) pp 275+.

- Johansen, Hans Chr. *Danish Population History, 1600–1939* (Odense: University Press of Southern Denmark, 2002) 246 pp. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-87-7838-725-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7838-725-7) [online review](http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=8582)

- Johansen, Hans Chr. "Trends in Modern and Early Modern Social History Writing in Denmark after 1970," *Social History,* Vol. 8, No. 3 (Oct. 1983), pp. 375–381

- Kjzergaard, T. *The Danish Revolution: an ecohistorical interpretation* (Cambridge, 1995), on farming

- Lampe, Markus, and Paul Sharp. *A Land of Milk and Butter: How Elites Created the Modern Danish Dairy Industry* (U of Chicago Press, 2018) [online review](https://eh.net/?s=danish+dairy)

- Olson, Kenneth E. *The history makers;: The press of Europe from its beginnings through 1965* (LSU Press, 1966) pp 50 – 64

- Topp, Niels-Henrik. "Unemployment and Economic Policy in Denmark in the 1930s," *Scandinavian Economic History Review,* April 2008, Vol. 56 Issue 1, pp 71–90

### Relations with Germany

- Barfod, Jörgen H.: *The Holocaust Failed in Denmark*. Kopenhagen 1985.

- Berdichevsky, Norman. *The Danish-German Border Dispute, 1815–2001: aspects of cultural and demographic politics*. (2002) [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-930901-34-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930901-34-8)

- Buckser, Andrew: *After the Rescue: Jewish identity and community in contemporary Denmark*. ORT 2003.

- Lund, Joachim. "Denmark and the ‘European New Order’, 1940–-1942," *Contemporary European History,* August 2004, Vol. 13 Issue 3, pp 305–321

### Historiography, memory, teaching

- Brincker, Benedikte. "When did the Danish nation emerge? A review of Danish historians' attempts to date the Danish nation," *National Identities,* December 2009, Vol. 11 Issue 4, pp 353–365

- Haue, Harry. "Transformation of history textbooks from national monument to global agent." *Nordidactica: Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education* (2013) 1 (2013): 80–89. [online](http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:639129/FULLTEXT03)

- Jørgensen, Simon Laumann. "The History We Need: Strategies of Citizen Formation in the Danish History Curriculum." *Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research* (2014): 1–18.

- Mariager, Rasmus. "Danish Cold War Historiography." *Journal of Cold War Studies* 20.4 (2019): 180–211.

- Olesen, Thorsten B., ed. *The Cold War and the Nordic countries: Historiography at a crossroads* (University Press of Southern Denmark, 2004).

- Pedersen, Christian Damm. "Empire and the Borders of Danish History." (2014).

### In German

- Robert Bohn: *Dänische Geschichte.* München: Beck, 2001. – (Beck'sche Reihe; 2162). – [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [3-406-44762-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-44762-7)

- Eva Heinzelmann / Stefanie Robl / Thomas Riis (Hrsg.): *Der dänische Gesamtstaat*, Verlag Ludwig, Kiel 2006, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-937719-01-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-937719-01-6).

- Erich Hoffmann: "Der heutige Stand der Erforschung der Geschichte Skandinaviens in der Völkerwanderungszeit im Rahmen der mittelalterlichen Geschichtsforschung." In: *Der historische Horizont der Götterbild–Amulette aus der Übergangsepoche von der Spätantike zum Frühmittelalter*. Göttingen 1992. S. 143–182.

- Jörg-Peter *Findeisen: Dänemark. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart*. Regensburg 1999.

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [History of Denmark](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Denmark).

- [Historical Atlas of Denmark](https://web.archive.org/web/20060302004117/http://home.student.uu.se/o/orma1967/Kartor/Danmark/denmark.htm) [Bad link as of 2008-05-01.]

- [History of Denmark: Primary Documents](http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Denmark:_Primary_Documents)

- [Review of Danish History](http://www3.sympatico.ca/colin.swift/history.htm)

- [Sources on Danish history](http://danhist.pbwiki.com/sources)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [History of Denmark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Denmark) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Denmark?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.