# History of Charente
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{{Short description|French department established in 1790}}
thumb|339x339px|Administrative map of Charente.
[Charente](/source/Charente) is a French department that was established in 1790 based on geographic criteria, the upper and middle basin of the [Charente](/source/Charente_(river)) River, and historical reasons. Its central part corresponds to the former diocese and then the county of [Angoumois](/source/Angoumois).[{{Cite web |title=Department of Charente |url=https://missionfranceguichet.fr/en/departement-charente-16# |website=Mission FRANCE Guichet}}] Before the [Revolution](/source/French_Revolution), this region did not have political, religious, or judicial unity. Its history has been closely associated with [Aquitaine](/source/Aquitaine). However, the county of Angoumois, a royal birthplace, has had a distinct history and has played a significant role in the [history of France](/source/history_of_France).
Charente is rich in historical sites that reflect continuous human settlement from the [Paleolithic](/source/Paleolithic) era through the [Neolithic](/source/Neolithic) and the [Iron Age](/source/Iron_Age). Following a prosperous [Gallo-Roman](/source/Gallo-Roman_culture) period, the [early Middle Ages](/source/early_Middle_Ages) witnessed ongoing [Christianization](/source/Christianization), while the [later Middle Ages](/source/Late_Middle_Ages) saw the construction of [Romanesque churches](/source/Romanesque_architecture) in every village. During the [Hundred Years' War](/source/Hundred_Years'_War), [Charente](/source/Charente) served as a frontier between the territories of the King of England and the King of France, enduring significant devastation. Despite a period of prosperity, particularly under [Francis I](/source/Francis_I_of_France), the [Wars of Religion](/source/French_Wars_of_Religion) and the Protestant exodus led to economic stagnation, which only began to recover under [Napoleon III](/source/Napoleon_III) with the rise of [cognac](/source/cognac) production and industrialization in [Angoulême](/source/Angoul%C3%AAme).
== Prehistory ==
=== Paleolithic ===
thumb|115x115px|Coat of arms of the Charente department.The region corresponding to present-day Charente has been inhabited since the [Lower Paleolithic](/source/Lower_Paleolithic) era, as evidenced by the discovery of numerous Acheulean hand axes in the Charente alluvium. Situated 26 kilometers south of Angoulême, at [Gardes-le-Pontaroux](/source/Gardes-le-Pontaroux) on the right bank of the [Voultron](/source/Voultron%2C_Charente), the site of [La Quina](/source/La_Quina) has yielded fossil remains of 27 [Neanderthal](/source/Neanderthal)s, including adults and children.[{{Cite book |last1=Debénath |first1=A |title=Néandertal en Poitou-Charentes |last2=Tournepiche |first2=J. F |publisher=Association régionale des musées en Poitou-Charentes |language=fr}}]left|thumb|218x218px|The Chaire-à-Calvin rock shelter.The [Upper Paleolithic](/source/Upper_Paleolithic) period is evident at La Quina, where [spears](/source/Assegai) and ornaments, such as perforated wolf and fox teeth, have been discovered. Other significant sites include [Roc de Sers](/source/Roc_de_Sers), the [Placard cave](/source/Placard_cave) in Vilhonneur, the [Chaire-à-Calvin](/source/La_Chaire_a_Calvin) shelter in Mouthiers, and the [Montgaudier cave](/source/Montgaudier_Cave). The [Visage cave](/source/Visage_cave) in Vilhonneur, unearthed in 2005, showcases Upper Paleolithic artworks currently being studied.[{{Cite web |title=Article "Vilhonneur, une nouvelle grotte ornée de 25000 BP" |url=http://www.hominides.com/html/actualites/vilhonneur-decouverte-grotte-jourdy.html |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110223201906/http://www.hominides.com/html/actualites/vilhonneur-decouverte-grotte-jourdy.html |archive-date=February 23, 2011 |access-date=February 21, 2010 |website=hominides.com |language=fr |url-status=dead }}]
On the left bank of the [Tardoire](/source/Tardoire), the [Placard cave](/source/Placard_cave) showcases a history spanning 15 millennia, from the [Middle Paleolithic](/source/Middle_Paleolithic) to the [Solutrean](/source/Solutrean) period. It features parietal engravings of deer, horses, and [aurochs](/source/aurochs), engraved reindeer bones and antlers; and a pink [sandstone](/source/sandstone) lamp.[{{Cite journal |last=Delage |first=Christophe |year=2018 |title=The Grotte du Placard at 150: New Considerations on an Exceptional Prehistoric Site |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335104575 |journal=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd}}] The [Roc-de-Sers](/source/Sers%2C_Charente) site, located in the Roc valley within a cliff cave, has revealed [Aurignacian](/source/Aurignacian) industries, a burial containing three skeletons, and sculpted friezes of horses, bison, and ibexes that are attributed to the [Solutrean](/source/Solutrean) period.[{{Cite web |title=Roc de Sers |url=https://donsmaps.com/rocdesers.html |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Dons Maps}}]
At [Mouthiers-sur-Boëme](/source/Mouthiers-sur-Bo%C3%ABme), the [Chaire-à-Calvin](/source/La_Chaire_a_Calvin) [rock shelter](/source/rock_shelter) features a frieze of horses in the [encrusted enamel](/source/Ronde-bosse), attributed to the [Magdalenian culture](/source/Magdalenian). This culture is also evident in the [Montgaudier cave](/source/Montgaudier_Cave) near [Montbron](/source/Montbron), where a carved reindeer antler baton depicting seals was discovered.[José Gomez de Soto in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=29–31}}] Additionally, burials have been found within the ditches of these camps.
[Dolmen](/source/Dolmen)s were erected during the 5th and early 4th millennia, primarily in the Middle Neolithic period. They are abundant in Charente, either standing alone or grouped, originally covered by stone [tumuli](/source/Tumulus) known as [cairn](/source/cairn)s. The oldest dolmens, some of which still exist in the [Boixe forest](/source/Boixe_forest), are circular dry stone funerary chambers with access corridors.[{{Cite book |last=Combes |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sgNcz4RlYOwC |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais : Deux-Sèvres, Vienne, Charente, Charente-Maritime |date=2001 |publisher=Éditions Gérard Tisserand |isbn=2-84494-084-6 |location=Clermont-Ferrand |pages=31, 78 |language=fr |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.fr%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsgNcz4RlYOwC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26resnum%3D1%23v%3Donepage |archive-date=September 12, 2011}}] Notable examples include dolmens at Cognac ([Séchebec](/source/Dolmen_of_S%C3%A9chebec)), [Saint-Brice](/source/Dolmen_of_Garde-%C3%89p%C3%A9e), [Saint-Fort-sur-le-Né](/source/Dolmen_of_Saint-Fort-sur-le-N%C3%A9), [Saint-Germain-de-Confolens](/source/Dolmen_of_La_Madeleine_(Lessac)), [Luxé](/source/Dolmen_of_La_Folati%C3%A8re), [Chenon](/source/Chenon), and [Fontenille](/source/Dolmens_of_P%C3%A9rottes).[José Gomez de Soto in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=32–33}}]
Knowledge of metals began at the end of the Neolithic period and gradually spread in western France during the 3rd millennium BC. The first copper artifacts appeared with the [Artenac civilization](/source/Artenacian_culture). [Bell Beaker](/source/Bell_Beaker_culture) culture groups were present, with their burials discovered but few settlements.[{{Cite journal |last=Clément |first=Nicolas |year=2020 |title=The prestige of warriors: Bell Beaker archers' equipment in Central Europe |url=https://journals.openedition.org/pm/2167 |journal=Identité? Prestige? Quoi d'autre |issue=2|doi=10.4000/pm.2167 }}]
File:Cognac1.2.JPG|Dolmen de Séchebec, Cognac
File:StBrice1.4.JPG|Dolmen de Garde-Épée, Saint-Brice
File:DolmenBoixe.JPG|Fragment of a table from dolmen A in the Boixe forest, improperly known as the "Sacrifice Stone"
File:StFortsurNé6.JPG|Dolmen at Saint-Fort-sur-le-Né
=== Bronze Age ===
The [Bronze Age](/source/Bronze_Age) is characterized by the discovery of bronze objects in different locations. Axes were found at Montdouzil, near [Châteauneuf](/source/Ch%C3%A2teauneuf-sur-Charente), [Montignac](/source/Montignac-Charente), [Chazelles](/source/Chazelles%2C_Charente), and [Rancogne](/source/Rancogne). A significant discovery was the Vénat deposit at [Saint-Yrieix](/source/Saint-Yrieix-sur-Charente), which contained swords, daggers, spears, jewelry, and toiletry items. Additionally, the Duffaits funeral cave at La Rochette, the Quéroy cave at Chazelles, and the Perrats cave at Agris have provided valuable insights into long-distance trade in Europe, including the presence of Baltic amber.[José Gomez de Soto in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=37–41}}][{{Cite book |last1=Coffyn |first1=A |title=Le dépôt de Vénat |last2=Gomez de Soto |first2=J |last3=Mohen |first3=J.-P |publisher=Picard |year=1981 |location=Paris |language=fr}}]
=== Iron Age ===
[[File:Parade helmet.jpg|upright|thumb|The Agris ceremonial helmet, [Angoulême Museum](/source/Mus%C3%A9e_d'Angoul%C3%AAme)]]
During the second [Iron Age](/source/Iron_Age), the [Santones](/source/Santoni_(tribe)) inhabited the regions of Charente saintongeaise and [Charente-Maritime](/source/Charente-Maritime). [Angoumois](/source/Angoumois) was populated by an unidentified group, potentially under the influence of the neighboring [Petrocorii](/source/Petrocorii) or [Lemovices](/source/Lemovices). The Santones engaged in trade, particularly in salt from coastal areas that are now located inland; their main settlement was the [oppidum of Pons](/source/oppidum_of_Pons).
''[Iculisma](/source/Angoul%C3%AAme)'' or ''Ecolisma'' (modern Angoulême) was the oppidum of the ancient people of Angoumois. Coins found in [Angoumois](/source/Angoul%C3%AAme) were mostly [Lemovice](/source/Lemovices). Excavations, particularly of the southern rampart, have uncovered evidence of occupation dating back to the 7th century BC. The plateau has been inhabited continuously up to the present day.[Louis Maurin in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=|p=72}}][{{Cite journal |last=Gomez de Soto |first=José |date=2014 |title=Aux origines d'Iculisma/Angoulême. Avant la ville de la période romaine, un oppidum gaulois |journal=Bulletin de la Société archéologique et historique de la Charente |language=fr |pages=19–31}}]
Notable discoveries in the region include jewelry found in a late 6th-century BC grave at Les Planes in [Saint-Yrieix](/source/Saint-Yrieix-sur-Charente), which included a [torc](/source/torc), bracelet, [ankle chains](/source/Anklet), and [fibula](/source/Fibula_(brooch)). Another significant find is the [Agris helmet](/source/Agris_Helmet), dating from the second quarter of the 4th century BC, near La Rochefoucauld. It is covered in gold and inlaid with [coral](/source/coral), making it one of the most remarkable works of Celtic art at the [Angoulême Museum](/source/Mus%C3%A9e_d'Angoul%C3%AAme).[José Gomez de Soto in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=|p=45}}][{{Cite web |last=Porstner |first=Laurie |year=2009 |title=The Agris Helmet: From Iron Age Votive Deposit to Cultural Icon |url=https://www.academia.edu/4255806 |via=Academia.edu}}]
The [Perrats cave](/source/Perrats_cave) at Agris revealed ceramics and numerous other objects, as well as [stele](/source/stele)s. Additionally, steles in the form of pointed [obelisk](/source/obelisk)s were discovered at [L'Isle-d'Espagnac](/source/L'Isle-d'Espagnac) and [Roullet-Saint-Estèphe](/source/Roullet-Saint-Est%C3%A8phe).[{{Cite journal |title=Les Gaulois entre Loire et Dordogne |journal=Archéologia |language=fr |volume=447}}]
== From Roman Annexation to the Renaissance ==
=== Gallo-Roman Era ===
During the period of Gallic independence, the central Charente territory around Iculisma (Angoulême) was not associated with any larger group. While the Santones inhabited the west, the [Lemovices](/source/Lemovices) and [Petrocorii](/source/Petrocorii) occupied the east, and the [Pictones](/source/Pictones) resided in the north, the status of the Iculisma territory was likely autonomous. The people of this region were probably clients of a neighboring group, possibly the Petrocorii or Lemovices.[{{Cite book |last=Gomez de Soto |first=José |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Préhistoire et protohistoire}} ''op. cit.'', p. 58.] It was previously believed that they might be the [Agesinates](/source/Agesinates) mentioned by [Pliny the Elder](/source/Pliny_the_Elder) in [Natural History](/source/Natural_history),[{{Cite book |last=Martin-Buchey |first=Jules |title=Géographie historique et communale de la Charente |date=1914–1917 |publisher=Jules Martin-Buchey |location=Châteauneuf |pages=45 |language=fr}}] but recent interpretations locate the Agesinates further south, near the Garonne. Consequently, the name of this Celtic tribe in [Angoumois](/source/Angoumois) remains unknown, and their relationship with neighboring peoples is uncertain.[Louis Maurin in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=|p=54}}][{{Cite book |title=Charente, Encyclopédie Bonneton |date=2009 |publisher=Bonneton |isbn=978-2-86253-463-3 |language=fr}}]
In [60 BC](/source/60_BC), the [Helvetii](/source/Helvetii), facing a [Germanic](/source/Germanic_peoples) invasion, intended to migrate to Saintonge, possibly with the approval of the Santones. Realizing the potential danger of this migration and the Santones' growing power, [Caesar](/source/Julius_Caesar) decided to invade and incorporate them in [58 BC](/source/58_BC) without facing any opposition. During the rebellion in [52 BC](/source/52_BC), they heeded [Vercingetorix](/source/Vercingetorix)'s call to arms, with Caesar estimating their numbers at 30,000, but they arrived too late to make a significant impact.[{{Cite web |title=Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul (58-50 BC) |url=https://www.athenapub.com/AR/caesarg1.htm |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Athena Pub}}][{{Cite web |title=Gallic Wars |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Gallic-Wars |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Britannica}}]
thumb|Gallo-Roman theater at Les Bouchauds.
The Romanized Charente region is intersected by the "Chemin chaussé" or "Roman Road" ([Agrippa Road](/source/Agrippa_Roman_Road_(Saintes-Lyon)) [Lyon](/source/Lyon)-[Saintes](/source/Saintes%2C_Charente-Maritime)) and the "[Boisné Road](/source/Roman_Road_from_Saintes_to_P%C3%A9rigueux)" Périgueux-Saintes, which trace pre-Roman paths to Rome. Major north–south routes include [Périgueux](/source/P%C3%A9rigueux)-[Poitiers](/source/Poitiers) via [Chassenon](/source/Chassenon) and [Quéroy](/source/Mornac), [Montignac](/source/Montignac-Lascaux), [Mansle](/source/Mansle), [Rom](/source/Rom%2C_Deux-S%C3%A8vres) (known as the ''Chaussade''),[{{Cite book |last=Lièvre |first=Auguste-François |url=https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_Kt8DAAAAYAAJ/bub_gb_Kt8DAAAAYAAJ_djvu.txt |title=Les chemins gaulois et romains entre la Loire et la Gironde |date=1878–1879 |publisher=Bulletin de la [Société archéologique et historique de la Charente](/source/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_arch%C3%A9ologique_et_historique_de_la_Charente) |pages=15 |language=fr}}][{{Cite book |last=Michon |first=Jean-Hippolyte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165 |title=Statistique monumentale de la Charente |date=1844 |publisher=Derache |others=Preface by Bruno Sépulchre |location=Paris |pages=165 |language=fr}}] and, as indicated in the [Peutinger Table](/source/Tabula_Peutingeriana), Chassenon-Mansle-[Aulnay](/source/Aulnay%2C_Charente-Maritime). These roads and the navigable river connecting the sea to Angoulême facilitated significant trade.
Angoumois was established as an autonomous territory (''civitas'') during the [Late Roman Empire](/source/Later_Roman_Empire), with its boundaries corresponding to the first [diocese of Angoulême](/source/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Angoul%C3%AAme). Numerous villas were constructed, primarily along the Charente Valley, along with settlements for retired legionaries. Significant constructions included monuments such as the temple, baths, and theater in the ''vicus'' of Chassenon, as well as the Bouchauds theater and the ''vicus'' of La Terne in Luxé.
The Christianization of Charente began in the 3rd century under Bishop [Ausonius](/source/Ausonius) from Saintes, but it was delayed in Angoumois. The first bishop to be officially recognized was Dynamius, who was lauded by [Gregory of Tours](/source/Gregory_of_Tours) for his exemplary conduct during the [Vandal](/source/Vandals) siege of Angoulême in 406. This tumultuous period was marked by successive invasions, with the [Visigoths](/source/Visigoths), who were Christian but Arians and heavily Romanized, establishing themselves in 418 before being expelled by the [Franks](/source/Franks). The original [Angoulême Cathedral](/source/Angoul%C3%AAme_Cathedral) was destroyed in 508 during [Clovis](/source/Clovis_I)' siege of the city.[{{Cite book |last=Debord |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=celnAAAAMAAJ |title=La Charente de la Préhistoire à nos jours (ouvrage collectif) |date=1986 |publisher=St-Jean-d'Y, Imprimerie Bordessoules |isbn=2-903504-21-0 |series=L'histoire par les documents |language=fr |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20150828193209/https://books.google.com/books?id=celnAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=August 28, 2015 |access-date=May 24, 2024 |url-status=live }}]
The limited presence of Visigoths and their strong assimilation into the Gallo-Roman culture of Aquitaine resulted in few remnants of their influence in Charente. However, some indications of their presence can be found in place names such as [Gourville](/source/Gourville) (''Gothorum villa'') and a handful of unique artifacts like ornamental fibulae.[Louis Maurin in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=|p=75}}]
=== Early Middle Ages ===
Clovis established a count in Angoulême, likely the first counts being ''Maracaire'' and ''Nantinus'', along with a Frankish Catholic bishop. He replaced the [Arian](/source/Arianism) bishop with his chaplain, ''Aptone'', and rebuilt the church, which became the first Saint-Pierre church and the episcopal see. Following Clovis's death, his vast domains were divided among his four sons, with Angoumois going to [Childebert](/source/Childebert_I), [the King of Paris](/source/Francia).[{{Cite web |title=Cimetière des Francs d'Herpes |url=http://www.histoirepassion.eu/spip.php?article466 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010127/http://www.histoirepassion.eu/spip.php?Article466 |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |language=fr |access-date=May 24, 2024 }}] Despite this, the Aquitanians remained the predominant population, still heavily influenced by Gallo-Roman culture.[{{Harvsp|Debord|1984|p=451}}] The land was divided into large estates worked by slaves (Saint Cybard purchased 175 slaves in 558) and smaller to medium-sized properties.[André Debord in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=77–142|p=}}] Charente was divided into numerous [fief](/source/fief)s; the most significant of which were Cognac, Jarnac, and Angoulême. In 565, a ''Waddon'' is mentioned as the Count of Saintonge. ''Maraquier'' (or ''Maracaire'') and ''Nantin'' (or ''Nantinus'') are also documented as Counts of Angoulême during the 6th century.[{{Cite book |last1=Michon |first1=Jean-Hippolyte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYcOAAAAQAAJ |title=Histoire de l'Angoumois. Suivie du recueil en forme d'histoire de ce qui se trouve par écrit de la ville et des comtes d'Angoulême |last2=de La Pile |first2=Vigier |last3=de Corlieu |first3=François |date= |publisher=Laffitte |year=1976 |isbn=2-86276-384-5 |location=Paris |pages=9 |language=fr |orig-year=1846}}]
During the 5th and 6th centuries, Christianization continued with hermits such as [Saint Cybard](/source/Saint_Cybard), Saint Amant, Saint Fraigne, and Saint Groux. Angoulême had five places of worship within its walls and an equal number in the suburbs. The [Saint-Cybard Abbey](/source/Abbey_of_Saint-Cybard) was established before conventual rules were in place, and the [Saint-Amant-de-Boixe](/source/Saint-Amant-de-Boixe) Abbey from the late 10th century.[{{Cite web |title=Church abbey Saint-Cybard de Cercles |url=https://binauralhdtracks.com/church-abbey-saint-cybard-de-cercles/ |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=BNRL tracks}}]
As Charente became part of the ''[second Aquitaine](/source/Duchy_of_Aquitaine)'', the [Moors](/source/Moors) invaded but were repelled by [Charles Martel](/source/Charles_Martel) in 732. [Pepin the Short](/source/Pepin_the_Short) initiated the reconquest of Aquitaine, which had become too independent. In [766](/source/766), based in [Bourges](/source/Bourges), he devastated Aquitaine up to [Agen](/source/Agen), particularly Angoumois and [Périgord](/source/P%C3%A9rigord). At [Saintes](/source/Saintes%2C_Charente-Maritime) in 768, he granted the Aquitanians the benefits of Roman law. In 769, [Charlemagne](/source/Charlemagne) assembled an army and stayed at [Mornac](/source/Mornac) and [Angeac](/source/Angeac-Champagne), before defeating the last rebels led by [Duke](/source/Duke_of_Aquitaine) [Waifer](/source/Waiofar). Charlemagne advanced to the [Dordogne](/source/Dordogne), where he captured the remaining rebels and constructed the fortress of ''Franciacum'' ([Fronsac](/source/Fronsac%2C_Gironde)) on the edge of the Wascon territory, which remained unconquered.[{{Cite book |last=Mourre |first=Michel |title=Dictionnaire encyclopédique d'histoire |date=1978 |publisher=Bordas |isbn=2-04-006516-4 |pages=2714 |language=fr}}]
After 838, the situation became uncertain once again. Around 850, the [Vikings](/source/Vikings) sailed up Charente, destroying Saintes and Angoulême without any reaction from the [Carolingians](/source/Carolingian_dynasty). The Aquitanian nobles then organized themselves and established the [Duchy of Aquitaine](/source/Duchy_of_Aquitaine), which later came under the rule of the [Counts of Poitiers](/source/Count_of_Poitiers). The only non-hereditary [counts of Angoulême](/source/Counts_and_Dukes_of_Angoul%C3%AAme) identified from this period were [Turpio](/source/Turpio) (839–863) and his brother [Emenon](/source/Emenon) (863–866).[{{Cite journal |title=Le castrum d'Andone |journal=Archéologia |language=fr |volume=467}}]
=== High Middle Ages ===
Charente was adorned with several religious buildings. Each village had a Romanesque church, with the majority of these structures dating back to the 12th century.
The Count of Angoulême had control over the abbeys of [Saint-Cybard](/source/Abbey_of_Saint-Cybard) in Angoulême and [Saint-Amant-de-Boixe](/source/Saint-Amant-de-Boixe). The number of castles increased significantly, with twenty recorded in 1050 (including [Merpins](/source/Merpins), [Cognac](/source/Cognac%2C_France), [Jarnac](/source/Jarnac), [Ruffec](/source/Ruffec%2C_Charente), [Barbezieux](/source/Barbezieux-Saint-Hilaire), and [La Rochefoucauld](/source/La_Rochefoucauld%2C_Charente)) and twelve more by 1100 (such as [Richemont](/source/Richemont%2C_Seine-Maritime), [Châteauneuf](/source/Ch%C3%A2teauneuf-sur-Charente), and [Villebois](/source/Villebois)). These initially consisted of [motte-and-bailey](/source/Motte-and-bailey_castle) structures, which were later replaced by stone [keep](/source/keep)s and castles in the 12th century.[{{Cite web |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eleanor-of-Aquitaine |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Britannica|date=10 May 2024 }}][{{Cite web |title=Richard I Coeur de Lion ('The Lionheart') (r.1189-1199) |url=https://www.royal.uk/richard-i#:~:text=By%20the%20time%20of%20his,Normandy%20and%20Anjou%20by%201205. |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=The Royal Family}}]
The Right Bank of Charente was recaptured from John Lackland between 1204 and 1210, resulting in devastation in the Charente region. A significant number of castles were burned, and several, including Richemont, Fontjoyeuse, and Boisroche, were destroyed or not rebuilt in their original locations. This destruction was reportedly carried out by Richard, the Lionheart. Following John Lackland's death in 1216, Isabelle married her first fiancé, [Hugh X of Lusignan](/source/Hugh_X_of_Lusignan). After her father, Count [Aymar](/source/Aymer%2C_Count_of_Angoul%C3%AAme), died in 1217, Isabelle inherited the county of Angoulême as the last representative of the [Taillefer](/source/Counts_and_Dukes_of_Angoul%C3%AAme) family. In 1241, King [Louis IX](/source/Louis_IX_of_France) granted his brother Alphonse the counties of [Poitiers](/source/County_of_Poitou) and [Auvergne](/source/County_of_Auvergne), and the conflicts persisted until the peace treaty was signed in 1258. When the last Lusignan died in 1308, King [Philip IV the Fair](/source/Philip_IV_of_France) placed his properties under sequestration.[{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Jone |date=2019-11-24 |title=Isabella of Angouleme Biography |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/isabella-of-angouleme-biography-3530277 |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=ThoughtCo}}][{{Cite web |title=Lusignan Family |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lusignan-family |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Britannica}}]
In 1317, [Joan of France](/source/Joan_I_of_Navarre), the daughter of [Louis X the Quarreler](/source/Louis_X_of_France), was granted the county of Angoulême as compensation for being excluded from the succession to the French throne. She managed the county until she died in 1349. However, her son did not inherit the county as the king traded it for other territories.[{{Cite web |title=Joan I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joan-I-queen-of-France |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Britannica}}]
==== The Hundred Years' War ====
left|thumb|1365: France after the Treaties of Brétigny and Guérande. {{Legend|#EA8B9D|Territories controlled by Edward III}}{{Legend|#FDDCFB|Territories ceded by France to England under the Treaty of Brétigny.}}{{Legend|#FFFFFF|Territory of the Duchy of Brittany, allied with the English}}
The [Hundred Years' War](/source/Hundred_Years'_War) between the kings of France and England began in 1337. The first phase ended in 1360 with the [Treaty of Brétigny](/source/Treaty_of_Br%C3%A9tigny), which returned all of Saintonge and Angoumois to the English. Edward the [Black Prince](/source/Edward_the_Black_Prince) frequently resided in Angoulême, Bouteville, and Cognac, surrounded by a splendid court. Angoumois enjoyed a few years of peace until issues arose from an extraordinary tax called the [hearth tax](/source/hearth_tax), which was approved in 1363 and renewed in 1367.[{{Cite web |title=Le fouage |url=https://www.mailxxi.com/fiscalitat/Glossaireview.asp?export=html&id=383 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524174748/https://www.mailxxi.com/fiscalitat/Glossaireview.asp?export=html&id=383 |archive-date=May 24, 2024 |language=fr |access-date=May 24, 2024 }}] The French initiated the reconquest in 1369. In 1372, Angoulême welcomed the royal army, and [Charles V](/source/Charles_V_of_France) granted it a communal charter in 1373, establishing a mayor and twelve aldermen, similar to the one Cognac had obtained during the time of John Lackland and renewed by [Charles de La Cerda](/source/Charles_de_la_Cerda), Count of Angoulême, in 1352. Cognac was recaptured in 1375, and the river later served as a border. Many churches were [fortified](/source/Fortified_church) during this period.
After a brief truce, the Charente castles were gradually retaken: Archiac and Bourg-Charente in 1385, Merpins and Châteauneuf in 1386, and Jarnac in 1387. Some of these castles changed hands multiple times, creating a complex patchwork of fiefs controlled by either side or their allies. In 1416, the stronghold of [La Roche-Chandry](/source/Mouthiers-sur-Bo%C3%ABme) was recaptured from the English and destroyed; in 1417, [Barbezieux](/source/Barbezieux-Saint-Hilaire) met a similar fate, and in 1445, Bouteville was taken. The war in Charente finally came to an end in 1453 with the capture of [Chalais](/source/Chalais%2C_Charente), marking the conclusion of the English Aquitaine ([Battle of Castillon](/source/Battle_of_Castillon)).[{{Cite web |title=Histoire de la Guerre de Cent Ans |url=https://www.linternaute.com/histoire/categorie/51/a/1/1/histoire_de_la_guerre_de_cent_ans.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203120614/http://www.linternaute.com/histoire/categorie/51/a/1/1/histoire_de_la_guerre_de_cent_ans.shtml |archive-date=December 3, 2018 |language=fr |access-date=May 24, 2024 }}]
Angoulême suffered a significant population decline, losing half of its residents, particularly during the [Black Death](/source/Black_Death) from 1400 to 1407.[{{Cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Noel |last2=Koyama |first2=Mark |last3=Jedwab |first3=Remi |date=2019-05-08 |title=Pandemics, places, and populations: Evidence from the Black Death |url=https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/pandemics-places-and-populations-evidence-black-death |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=CEPR}}] This led to deserted villages, abandoned lands, diminished commerce, disappearing fairs, and ruined mills. To encourage agricultural activity, the lords provided favorable conditions for tenants willing to work the land.
In 1445, [Count John](/source/John%2C_Count_of_Angoul%C3%AAme), who had been a hostage in England since 1412, returned to find the [Cognac castle](/source/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Cognac) abandoned and in disrepair. He began its reconstruction in 1450, restoring his county and ensuring its prosperity.[{{Cite journal |last=Kosto |first=Adam |year=2012 |title=4 Hostages in the Later Middle Ages: Representation, Finance, and the Laws of War |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3170/chapter-abstract/144053024?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Hostages in the Middle Ages |pages=78–129 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199651702.003.0004 |isbn=9780191741999|url-access=subscription }}] He passed the county on to his son [Charles de Valois](/source/Charles_de_Valois%2C_Duke_of_Angoul%C3%AAme) in 1467. Together with his wife [Louise of Savoy](/source/Louise_of_Savoy), they transformed Cognac into an intellectual and artistic hub.
== Modern times ==
=== From Francis I to the Wars of Religion ===
thumb|246x246px|Francis I
[Francis I](/source/Francis_I_of_France), the son of the Count of Angoulême, was born on September 12, 1494, in Cognac. He spent his early childhood in a court led by his mother, [Louise of Savoy](/source/Louise_of_Savoy). After his coronation in 1515, Francis continued to show interest in his beloved Charente.[{{Cite book |title=Francis I |date=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24344-5 |ol=7735278M}}] He completed the drainage of the marshland north of [Cognac](/source/Cognac%2C_France) and, around 1517, added a long facade facing the quays to Cognac Castle. His sister, Marguerite of Orléans, also known as [Marguerite of Angoulême](/source/Marguerite_de_Navarre),[{{Cite web |title=Marguerite d'Angoulême (1492-1549) |url=https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/marguerite-dangouleme-1492-1549-2/ |access-date=June 10, 2024 |website=Musée protestant}}] who was the mother of [Jeanne d'Albret](/source/Jeanne_d'Albret) and the grandmother of the future king [Henry IV](/source/Henry_IV_of_France), had close ties to the [Protestants](/source/Protestantism). Due to this connection, Francis did not persecute them at the beginning of the Reformation. In February 1514, he elevated the county of Angoulême to a duchy-peerage, combining it with the lands and lordships of [Jarnac](/source/Jarnac), [Châteauneuf](/source/Ch%C3%A2teauneuf-sur-Charente), [Montignac](/source/Montignac-Charente), and [Bassac](/source/Bassac%2C_Charente). He then granted it to his mother, Louise of Savoy, who managed it until her death on September 22, 1531.[{{Cite web |title=Francis I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francis-I-king-of-France |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Britannica}}]left|thumb|Château de Cognac facade.
Upon the death of Louise of Savoy, the duchy of Angoulême was reunited with the crown until 1540. It was then granted as an appanage to [Charles of France](/source/Charles_II_de_Valois%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans), the sovereign's third son.[{{Cite web |title=Charles II |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-II-duke-of-Lorraine-1543-1608 |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Britannica|date=10 May 2024 }}] The period was marked by revolts against the [gabelle](/source/gabelle) tax starting in 1542.[Francine Ducluzeau in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=149–250|p=}}]
After the Edict of Compiègne in 1557, which condemned heretics to death, the [Wars of Religion](/source/French_Wars_of_Religion) began in Charente in 1562 with various massacres of Protestants, notably in retaliation for the sacking they had perpetrated.[{{Cite journal |last=Durot |first=Éric |year=2009 |title=The Preacher, the Heretic, and the Seditious: From the Edict of Compiègne (1557) to the Edict of January (1562) |url=https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_RHIS_091_0039--the-preacher-the-heretic-and-the.htm |journal=Revue Historique |volume=649 |issue=1 |pages=39–64|doi=10.3917/rhis.091.0039 }}] During the first War of Religion, Cognac city took up arms; it was retaken in 1563 by [Montpensier](/source/Louis_de_Bourbon%2C_Duke_of_Montpensier). In 1565, [Charles IX](/source/Charles_IX_of_France) visited during his [royal tour of France](/source/Charles_IX's_grand_tour_of_France) (1564–1566).[{{Cite book |last=Miquel |first=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxnhNAEACAAJ |title=Les Guerres de Religion |date=1980 |publisher=[Fayard](/source/Fayard) |isbn=978-2-21300-826-4 |location=Paris |pages=258 |language=fr |oclc=299354152}}] In 1570, the [Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye](/source/Peace_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye), signed between King Charles IX and Admiral [Gaspard de Coligny](/source/Gaspard_II_de_Coligny), granted the Protestants four strongholds, including Cognac.[{{Cite web |date=2021-08-10 |title=EPHEMERIS FOR AUGUST 8: SIGNING OF THE SAINT-GERMAIN-EN-LAYE PEACE EDICT |url=https://www.sortiraparis.com/en/what-to-visit-in-paris/history-heritage/articles/251022-ephemeris-for-august-8-signing-of-the-saint-germain-en-laye-peace-edict |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Sortiraparis}}][{{Cite web |title=Peace of Saint-Germain |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Peace-of-Saint-Germain-French-history |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Britannica}}]
left|thumb|Obelisk on the Saint-Sulpice bridge
In 1567, the fifth Protestant synod took place in [Verteuil-sur-Charente](/source/Verteuil-sur-Charente), following similar events in Paris and Lyon.
A significant event in Charente was the [Battle of Jarnac](/source/Battle_of_Jarnac) on March 13, 1569, resulting in the death of [Condé](/source/Louis_I%2C_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9).[{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=James |title=The Kings Army: Warfare, Soldiers and Society during the Wars of Religion in France, 1562-1576 |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}] Some troops regrouped on the bridge of [Saint-Sulpice](/source/Saint-Sulpice-de-Cognac), which is now commemorated by an obelisk, before moving to La Rochelle. The [Edict of Nantes](/source/Edict_of_Nantes), signed by [Henry IV](/source/Henry_IV_of_France) on April 13, 1598, granted Protestants the freedom to worship.[{{Cite journal |last=Bourgeon |first=Jean-Louis |date=1998 |title=La date de l'édit de Nantes : 30 avril 1598 |journal=Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire du protestantisme français |volume=144 |language=fr |issue=144 |pages=17–50 |jstor=43498913}}] As a result, temples and communities were established in all the towns of Charente, located outside the walls.
=== Charente during absolutism (17th - 18th centuries) ===
During this period, the cathedral and hundreds of ruined churches needed repair or rebuilding. Additionally, convents such as the [Capuchins](/source/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin), [Recollects](/source/Recollects), [Minims](/source/Order_of_Minims), [Jesuits](/source/Jesuits), [Carmelites](/source/Carmelites), [Franciscans](/source/Franciscans), [Ursulines](/source/Ursulines), [Poor Clares](/source/Poor_Clares), and [Benedictines](/source/Benedictines) multiplied and settled throughout the department. In the early 17th century, [croquant rebellions](/source/croquant_rebellions) were prevalent. The Augier house, one of the pioneering cognac trading houses, was founded in 1643.[{{Cite web |title=Heritage |url=https://www.cognac-augier.com/en/heritage/ |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Augier Cognac}}] During the [Fronde](/source/The_Fronde), despite [Louis XIV](/source/Louis_XIV), [Anne of Austria](/source/Anne_of_Austria), and [Mazarin](/source/Cardinal_Mazarin) visiting Angoulême in 1650 to secure its allegiance, [Condé](/source/Louis%2C_Grand_Cond%C3%A9) rebelled, and [La Rochefoucauld](/source/La_Rochefoucauld%2C_Charente) laid siege to Cognac.[{{Cite book |title=Mémoires de La Rochefoucauld |publisher=Éditions de la Pléiade |pages=161 |language=fr}}]
From 1620 onwards, the right to Protestant worship was fiercely contested, leading to the destruction of temples and the deprivation of freedom of worship for Reformed worshipers whose lord had abandoned the faith. The [dragonnades](/source/dragonnades), which followed the revocation of the [Edict of Nantes](/source/Edict_of_Nantes) by the [Edict of Fontainebleau](/source/Edict_of_Fontainebleau) in 1685, coerced Protestants to either convert or emigrate, with many choosing to relocate to [Germany](/source/Germany), [Switzerland](/source/Switzerland), the [New World](/source/New_World), [Canada](/source/Canada), and particularly the [West Indies](/source/West_Indies).[{{Cite web |title=The "Dragonnades" (1681-1685) |url=https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-dragonnades-1681-1685/}}] It took the Charente economy over a hundred years to recover from the departure of nearly half of its artisans.thumb|Gabares in the port of Cognac.During a period of relative peace, the region faced challenges in recovering from sackings, massacres, and the departure of Protestants. The Charente region was predominantly agricultural, focusing on the production of cereals, with lesser importance placed on [hemp](/source/hemp), [truffle](/source/truffle)s, [saffron](/source/saffron), and [pasture](/source/pasture)s. The Cognac region emerged as a significant producer of [distilled wine](/source/Eau_de_vie) for export around 1630. Despite setbacks such as the frost of 1709, which required replanting, production, and the area of vineyards (156,000 hectares in 1780) continued to grow.[{{Cite book |last=Quenot |first=J. P |title=Statistiques du département de la Charente |date=1818 |language=fr}}]
== The Revolutionary Period ==
=== The Revolution: 1789-1799 ===
thumb|Map of Charente (1790).
Local [grievance books](/source/Cahiers_de_dol%C3%A9ances) presented general demands such as the unification of regulations, voting on taxes, and several specific requests, including the separation of Angoulême from [Limousin](/source/Limousin). Parishioners from Angoumois took a keen interest in drafting the grievance books, with between 40% and 50% of household heads participating.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 329.] The bourgeoisie influence was significant, with 90% of the presidents of parish assemblies and 80% of the deputies to the [bailiwick](/source/bailiwick) assemblies being bourgeois.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 328-329.] This influence was evident in the politicization of the Angoumois grievance books, which were among the most advanced in the center-west of the kingdom. Equality before taxes was demanded in 88% of them, a third requested the regular convening of an assembly, and one in four wanted deputies to vote individually rather than by order. However, the seigneurial regime was less criticized in Charente than in Poitou.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 330.]
After the [storming of the Bastille](/source/storming_of_the_Bastille), the region was impacted by the [Great Fear](/source/Great_Fear) of the summer of 1789. In Charente, it began in [Ruffec](/source/Ruffec%2C_Charente) and quickly spread in all directions, reaching Saintes within two days. This period allowed for some anti-seigneurial actions and led to the formation of numerous [national guards](/source/National_Guard_(France)).[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 332.]
In 1790, the department of Charente was established, consisting of six districts (Angoulême, [Barbezieux](/source/Barbezieux-Saint-Hilaire), [Confolens](/source/Confolent-Port-Dieu), Cognac, [La Rochefoucauld](/source/La_Rochefoucauld%2C_Charente), [Ruffec](/source/Ruffec%2C_Charente)) and forty-four cantons. Barbezieux sought to merge with [Saintonge](/source/County_of_Saintonge), while Cognac requested a court of equal status to Angoulême to gain independence.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 335.] The [Civil Constitution of the Clergy](/source/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy) found acceptance in the countryside, with 60% of Charentais clergy taking the [oath](/source/Jureur), rising to over 80% in the northern part of the department.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 340.] However, it faced rejection in towns influenced by the Bishop of Angoulême.
Church properties were sold in large lots, while [national properties](/source/Biens_nationaux) confiscated from [emigrants](/source/French_emigration_(1789%E2%80%931815)) were sold in numerous small lots, often purchased by bourgeois and wealthy peasants. Additionally, monuments were sold off as quarries, such as the [Jarnac castle](/source/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Jarnac) and the [Abbey of Notre-Dame de La Couronne](/source/Abbey_of_Notre-Dame_de_La_Couronne). From 1791 to 1793, six [districts](/source/District_(French_departmental_subdivision)) ([Ruffec](/source/Ruffec%2C_Charente), [Confolens](/source/Confolens), [La Rochefoucauld](/source/La_Rochefoucauld%2C_Charente), [Angoulême](/source/Angoul%C3%AAme), [Barbezieux](/source/Barbezieux-Saint-Hilaire), and [Cognac](/source/Cognac%2C_France)) in [Charente](/source/Charente) department contributed 10 [battalions of national volunteers](/source/National_Volunteers_(France)) and 3 companies.
The volunteer levies initially consisted of two battalions, with one battalion earning distinction at [Jemappes](/source/Jemappes) and the other during the [Italian campaign](/source/Italian_campaigns_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars). From 1791 to 1793, 45,000 Charentais were enlisted.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 336.] However, support for the Revolution was not unanimous, as riots broke out in the Confolens region.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 342.]
The [Reign of Terror](/source/Reign_of_Terror) was relatively moderate, resulting in only sixty-eight death sentences, with forty-nine issued by the Paris tribunal. These sentences were primarily based on denunciations by revolutionary committees, notably the one led by [La Rochefoucauld](/source/La_Rochefoucauld%2C_Charente).[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 351-352.]
=== The Consulate (1799-1804) and the First Empire (1804-1814) ===
The [Consulate](/source/Consulate) facilitated pacification after a tumultuous decade. Angoulême's administrative authority was enhanced with the appointment of a [prefect](/source/Prefect_(France)), and the Diocese of Angoulême encompassed Charente and Dordogne.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 360.] All other officials, such as [subprefect](/source/subprefect)s, were from Charente and mostly already in their positions.
In 1799, all churches were reopened for worship, and Protestant worship was officially permitted in [Jarnac](/source/Jarnac), serving as the ecclesiastical headquarters for the four districts with 3,260 declared Protestants. During the [First Empire](/source/First_French_Empire), [conscription](/source/conscription) imposed a significant burden, leading to an increase in the number of draft evaders and deserters, although it remained around the national average of approximately 20%.[{{Cite book |last=Péret |first=Jacques |title=Histoire du Poitou et des Pays charentais |chapter=Affrontements et ruptures révolutionnaires}} ''op. cit.'', p. 362.]
== Contemporary Period ==
=== The 19th Century and the Industrial Revolution ===
During this period, Charente showed hesitancy or indifference towards national political events, despite the steady progress of liberal opinions. The royalist [Viscount Delalot](/source/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis_Delalot), defeated in the general elections of 1824, was elected by the Charente department college to the Chamber of Deputies on November 24, 1827.[148 votes out of 212 voters and 254 registered voters.] In the elections of April 1848, Charente elected four republican deputies and five right-wing candidates. In the December 1848 elections, with 111,338 registered voters and 95,027 votes cast, [Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte](/source/Napoleon_III_of_France) received 90,360 votes, [Cavaignac](/source/Louis-Eug%C3%A8ne_Cavaignac) received 3,168 votes, and [Ledru-Rollin](/source/Alexandre_Auguste_Ledru-Rollin) received 1,011 votes. Alfred de Vigny, residing in [Maine-Giraud](/source/Logis_du_Maine-Giraud), described Charente as "nothing but a Bonapartist Vendée." In 1877, six Bonapartist deputies were elected, with the seventh being Auguste Duclaud, a republican in Confolens. A by-election in 1888 led to violent confrontations when [Paul Déroulède](/source/Paul_D%C3%A9roul%C3%A8de) ran, initially defeated but later elected in the general elections in 1889.
In the early 19th century, as metallurgy advanced, the paper industry in Angoulême stagnated, and the cognac trade declined by half. Angoulême, an industrial town known for its foundry, numerous paper mills, and various manufacturing industries, including the renowned [''charentaises''](/source/Charentaise) felt slippers, saw steady growth without any significant events.
Viticulture has been the principal economic activity in the Cognac region since the 17th century, resulting in the accumulation of considerable wealth. This is evident in the numerous chateaus and manors built or renovated during this period, thanks to the [1860 trade treaty](/source/Cobden%E2%80%93Chevalier_Treaty). The vineyard area expanded from 50,000 hectares in 1817 to 116,000 hectares in 1876.[François Pairault in {{Harvsp|Combes|Luc|1986|pages=255–326|p=}}] The crisis caused by the appearance of [phylloxera](/source/phylloxera), which destroyed [grapevines](/source/grapevines) from 1875 onwards, resulted in ruin and [rural exodus](/source/Rural_flight). American plants, resistant to the disease, helped reconstitute the vineyard twenty years later. During this period, the development of livestock farming in Charente-Limousin was focused on the meat and milk production. This was achieved through the establishment of cooperative and private dairies across the department.
A dense railway network was established in Angoulême with the construction of the [Paris-Bordeaux](/source/Paris%E2%80%93Bordeaux_railway) line by the [Orleans railway company](/source/Compagnie_du_chemin_de_fer_de_Paris_%C3%A0_Orl%C3%A9ans) in 1852. The Angoulême-Cognac-Saintes line was also built by the [Charentes Railway Company](/source/Compagnie_des_Charentes) in 1867, with six of the eighteen largest shareholders being local spirits trading companies. Additionally, the small lines of the CFD (Chemins de Fer Départementaux, humorously referred to as "Compagnie Foutue D'avance") were part of the railway network.[{{Cite book |last=Tavé |first=Claude |title=Histoire des chemins de fer de la Charente |language=fr}}]
After reaching a peak of over 50,000 tons per year at the port of l'Houmeau in Angoulême, traffic and navigation on the Charente River started to decrease.[{{Cite book |last=Maneaud |first=G |title=La Guerre 1914-1918 en Charente |date=1923 |language=fr}}] In 1917, the Mayoux couple, both teachers, published the inaugural pacifist brochure. They were subsequently tried for defeatism and dismissed from their teaching posts.[{{Cite web |last=Hart |first=Basil |date=May 9, 2024 |title=Battle of France |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-France-World-War-II |access-date=June 10, 2024 |website=Britannica}}]
The department was divided by the [demarcation line](/source/Demarcation_line_(France)) after the [armistice on June 22, 1940](/source/Armistice_of_22_June_1940), with the western part in the [occupied zone](/source/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II) and the eastern part in the [free zone](/source/Zone_libre). The demarcation line ran approximately north–south a few kilometers east of [Angoulême](/source/Angoul%C3%AAme) and had fourteen crossing points.
[Resistance](/source/French_Resistance) in Charente started with secret crossings and an initial act of sabotage on September 20, 1941, when two students tried to set fire to a depot at Angoulême station. In 1941, elected officials were dismissed and suspects arrested. In October 1942, the Jews of Angoulême were rounded up and deported.
In 1942 and 1943, [maquis groups](/source/Maquis_(World_War_II)) organized and united, mostly affiliated with the [Bir Hacheim maquis](/source/Bir_Hacheim_Maquis) (''[Armée secrète](/source/Arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te)'') and the [FTP](/source/Francs-Tireurs_et_Partisans) (''Francs-Tireurs et Partisans''). The Cognac [air base](/source/air_base) was bombed on December 13, 1943. The [FFI](/source/French_Forces_of_the_Interior) (French Forces of the Interior), with 2,936 members in 1944,[{{Cite book |last=Lormier |first=Dominique |title=La Libération de la France : Aquitaine, Auvergne, Charentes, Limousin, Midi-Pyrénées |date=2007 |publisher=Lucien Sourny |isbn=978-2-84886-065-7 |pages=15 |language=fr}}] increased their operations. Many convoys were immobilized due to sabotage, and the Angoulême station was bombed on June 15, 1944. Despite severe reprisals, German columns were halted or delayed. Angoulême and the rest of Charente were liberated by the end of August 1944. Cognac was liberated on September 1, with [General de Gaulle](/source/Charles_de_Gaulle) visiting on September 13. Subsequently, 1,800 fighters moved to the southern part of the [La Rochelle siege](/source/Allied_siege_of_La_Rochelle), where fighting continued until [May 8, 1945](/source/Victory_in_Europe_Day).[{{Cite book |last=Troussard |first=Raymond |title=Le Maquis charentais Bir Hacheim |date=1981 |publisher=SAJIC Angoulême |language=fr}}]
Charente mourned a total of 3,565 victims, which included 249 individuals who were executed and 345 who died in deportation (with 377 other deportees eventually returning). Additionally, there were 910 victims in the partisan army, 156 victims of bombings, 1,835 military casualties, and 70 [STO](/source/Service_du_travail_obligatoire) (Compulsory Work Service) conscripts (with 738 out of the 11,785 prisoners of war not returning).[{{Cite book |last=Tavé |first=Claude |title=Cognac dans l'histoire de France |date=2007 |isbn=978-2-9531403-0-9 |language=fr}}]
=== Contemporary Period ===
The industry in the region continues to rely on extractive activities, including clay extraction for brick and tile manufacturing in the [Roumazières-Loubert](/source/Roumazi%C3%A8res-Loubert) area (which accounts for one-sixth of French tile production). Additionally, gray marl is supplied to the [Lafarge](/source/Lafarge_(company)) cement plant in [La Couronne](/source/La_Couronne%2C_Charente), [gypsum](/source/gypsum) is extracted in [Cherves-Richemont](/source/Cherves-Richemont) for use by the [Placoplatre](/source/Placoplatre) plant, and there are also smaller operations for white clay, building stone, and aggregates.
While the foundry and paper industries have declined, the [powder factory](/source/Powder_mill), now known as [SNPE](/source/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_nationale_des_poudres_et_des_explosifs), continues to thrive. [Leroy-Somer](/source/Nidec_Leroy-Somer), a manufacturer of electric motors, also represents the electrical industry.[{{Cite web |title=Nidec Leroy-Somer Holdings |url=https://www.nidec.com/en/corporate/network/ |language=fr}}] The [CNBDI](/source/Cit%C3%A9_internationale_de_la_bande_dessin%C3%A9e_et_de_l'image) (National Comic Book and Image Center) was established in 1990 and transformed into [La Cité](/source/Cit%C3%A9_internationale_de_la_bande_dessin%C3%A9e_et_de_l'image) in 2008. Additionally, the Digital Imaging Department (DIN) evolved into the Digital Imaging Laboratory (LIN) in 1996, and the Image and Sound High School (LISA) was established, contributing to the growth of the animation industry sector.
The [agri-food sector](/source/Agro-Industrial_Complex) (IAA) has experienced a decline in dairy and meat processing industries, while livestock farming remains significant. The [cognac](/source/Cognac%2C_France) trade has transformed as most cognac houses were acquired by global distributors, shifting decision-making away from the region. Despite these challenges, the cognac industry has adapted by expanding into other areas and focusing on exports ([cooperage](/source/Cooper_(profession)), [glassmaking](/source/Studio_glass), [cardboard](/source/cardboard), [label](/source/label)s, and [packaging](/source/packaging)).
Charente, with a population of 349,535 in 2007, has not experienced demographic growth for over 200 years. Rural areas, particularly [Charente Limousine](/source/Charente_Limousine) and [Southern Charente](/source/Southern_Charente), are experiencing depopulation. The cities of [Angoulême](/source/Angoul%C3%AAme) and [Cognac](/source/Cognac%2C_France) saw growth between 1954 and 1975, with the Angoulême metropolitan area now housing a third of the department's population. From 1950, the department faced 40 years of [net migration](/source/Net_migration_rate) balance as young adults left, leading to high unemployment of 9.8% by the end of 2009.[{{Cite web |title=Le taux de chômage trimestriel continue de progresser au 3e trimestre 2009 |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/fichier/1294302/fc223.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219121012/http://www.insee.fr/fr/insee_regions/reunion/zoom/mayotte/publications/inseeinfos/pdf/insee#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-date=December 19, 2018 |access-date=May 24, 2024 |website=[INSEE](/source/Institut_national_de_la_statistique_et_des_%C3%A9tudes_%C3%A9conomiques) |language=fr}}] However, the migration balance turned positive from 1999 onwards.[{{Cite web |title=Projections de population à l'horizon 2030 : la Charente-Maritime et la Vienne alimentent l'augmentation en Poitou-Charentes |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/accueil |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219121012/http://www.insee.fr/fr/insee_regions/reunion/zoom/mayotte/publications/inseeinfos/pdf/insee |archive-date=December 19, 2018 |access-date=May 24, 2024 |website=INSEE |language=fr }}] The population of Charente is aging significantly, especially in rural areas, due to increased life expectancy and the return of retirees.