# History

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/History
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/History.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History
> Source revision: 1356341939
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Study of the past

This article is about the academic discipline. For a general history of human beings, see [Human history](/source/Human_history). For a general history of Earth, see [History of Earth](/source/History_of_Earth). For other uses, see [History (disambiguation)](/source/History_(disambiguation)).

Part of a series on History Index Outline Glossary Key concepts Archeology Chronology Common Era (anno Domini, Gregorian calendar) Historical method Historical source (primary, secondary, tertiary) Historiography Periodization Recorded history Periods Prehistory (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) Ancient history (Copper Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, classical antiquity) Post-classical history (Early Middle Ages, High Middle Ages, Late Middle Ages) Modern history (early modern history, late modern history, contemporary history) By region Africa Antarctica Australia Central America East Asia Europe Middle East New Zealand North America Pacific Islands South America South Asia Southeast Asia The Caribbean Notable historians Beard Bede Braudel Froissart Geoffrey Gibbon Herodotus Hobsbawm Ibn Khaldun Josephus Karamzin Mommsen Plutarch Ranke Sima Tacitus Taylor Thucydides Turner Vasari Xenophon Timelines Prehistoric Ancient Post-classical Modern Future History portal Category v t e

**History** is the systematic study of the [past](/source/Past), focusing primarily on the [human past](/source/Human_history). As an [academic discipline](/source/Academic_discipline), it analyses and interprets [evidence](/source/Evidence) to construct [narratives](/source/Narrative) about what happened and explain why it happened. Some theorists categorize history as a [social science](/source/Social_science), while others see it as part of the [humanities](/source/Humanities) or consider it a hybrid discipline. Similar debates surround the purpose of history—for example, whether its main aim is theoretical, to uncover the [truth](/source/Truth), or practical, to learn lessons from the past. In a more general sense, the term *history* refers not to an academic field but to the [past](/source/Past) itself, times in the past, or to individual texts about the past.

[Historical research](/source/Historical_research) relies on [primary](/source/Primary_source) and [secondary sources](/source/Secondary_sources) to reconstruct past events and validate interpretations. [Source criticism](/source/Source_criticism) is used to evaluate these sources, assessing their authenticity, content, and reliability. Historians strive to integrate the perspectives of several sources to develop a coherent narrative. Different schools of thought, such as [positivism](/source/Positivism), the [*Annales* school](/source/Annales_school), [Marxism](/source/Marxism), and [postmodernism](/source/Postmodernism), have distinct [methodological](/source/Methodological) approaches.

History is a broad discipline encompassing many branches. Some focus on specific [time periods](/source/Periodization), such as [ancient history](/source/Ancient_history), while others concentrate on particular [geographic](/source/Geographic) regions, such as the [history of Africa](/source/History_of_Africa). Thematic categorizations include [political history](/source/Political_history), [military history](/source/Military_history), [social history](/source/Social_history), and [economic history](/source/Economic_history). Branches associated with specific research methods and sources include [quantitative history](/source/Quantitative_history), [comparative history](/source/Comparative_history), and [oral history](/source/Oral_history).

History emerged as a field of inquiry in [antiquity](/source/Ancient_history) to replace myth-infused narratives, with influential early traditions originating in [Greece](/source/Ancient_Greece), [China](/source/Ancient_China), and later in the [Islamic world](/source/Islamic_world). Historical writing evolved throughout the ages and became increasingly professional, particularly during the 19th century, when a rigorous methodology and various academic institutions were established. History is related to many fields, including [historiography](/source/Historiography), [philosophy](/source/Philosophy), [education](/source/Education), and [politics](/source/Politics).

## Definition

As an [academic discipline](/source/Academic_discipline), history is the study of the past with the main focus on the human past.[1] It conceptualizes and describes what happened by collecting and analysing [evidence](/source/Evidence) to construct [narratives](/source/Narrative). These narratives cover not only how events developed over time but also why they happened and in which contexts, providing an explanation of relevant background conditions and [causal](/source/Causality) mechanisms. History further examines the meaning of historical events and the underlying [human motives](/source/Motivation) driving them.[2]

In a slightly different sense, *history* refers to the past events themselves. Under this interpretation, history is what happened rather than the academic field studying what happened. When used as a [countable noun](/source/Countable_noun), *a history* is a representation of the past in the form of a history text. History texts are cultural products involving active [interpretation](/source/Interpretation_(philosophy)) and reconstruction. The narratives presented in them can change as historians discover new evidence or reinterpret already-known sources. The past itself, by contrast, is static and unchangeable.[3] Some historians focus on the interpretative and explanatory aspects to distinguish histories from [chronicles](/source/Chronicle), arguing that chronicles only catalogue events in chronological order, whereas histories aim at a comprehensive understanding of their causes, contexts, and consequences.[4][a]

History has been primarily concerned with written documents. It focused on [recorded history](/source/Recorded_history) since the [invention of writing](/source/Invention_of_writing), leaving [prehistory](/source/Prehistory)[b] to other fields, such as [archaeology](/source/Archaeology).[7] Its scope broadened in the 20th century as historians became interested in the human past before the invention of writing.[8][c]

Historians debate whether history is a [social science](/source/Social_science) or forms part of the [humanities](/source/Humanities). Like social scientists, historians formulate [hypotheses](/source/Hypotheses), gather objective evidence, and present arguments based on this evidence. At the same time, history aligns closely with the humanities because of its reliance on subjective aspects associated with interpretation, [storytelling](/source/Storytelling), human experience, and [cultural heritage](/source/Cultural_heritage).[10] Some historians strongly support one or the other classification while others characterize history as a hybrid discipline that does not belong to one category at the exclusion of the other.[11] History contrasts with *[pseudohistory](/source/Pseudohistory)*, a label used to describe practices that deviate from historiographical standards by relying on disputed historical evidence, selectively ignoring genuine evidence, or using other means to distort the historical record. Often motivated by specific [ideological agendas](/source/Ideology), pseudohistorical practices mimic [historical methodology](/source/Historical_method) to promote biased, misleading narratives that lack rigorous analysis and scholarly consensus.[12]

### Purpose

Various suggestions about the purpose or value of history have been made. Some historians propose that its primary function is the pure discovery of [truth](/source/Truth) about the past. This view emphasizes that the disinterested pursuit of truth is an [end in itself](/source/End_in_itself), while external purposes, associated with ideology or [politics](/source/Politics), threaten to undermine the accuracy of historical research by distorting the past. In this role, history also challenges traditional [myths](/source/Myth) lacking factual support.[13][d]

A different perspective suggests that the main value of history lies in the lessons it teaches for the present. This view is based on the idea that an [understanding of the past](/source/Historical_consciousness) can guide [decision-making](/source/Decision-making), for example, to avoid repeating previous mistakes.[15] A related perspective focuses on a general understanding of the [human condition](/source/Human_condition), making people aware of the diversity of [human behaviour](/source/Human_behavior) across different contexts—similar to what one can learn by visiting foreign countries.[16] History can also foster [social cohesion](/source/Social_cohesion) by providing people with a [collective identity](/source/Collective_identity) through a shared past, helping to preserve and cultivate cultural heritage and values across generations.[17] For some scholars, including [Whig historians](/source/Whig_historians) and the Marxist scholar [E. H. Carr](/source/E._H._Carr), history is a key to understanding the present[18] and, in Carr's case, shaping the future.[19]

History has sometimes been used for political or ideological purposes, for instance, to justify the status quo by emphasising the respectability of certain traditions or to promote change by highlighting past injustices.[20] In extreme forms, evidence is intentionally ignored or misinterpreted to construct misleading narratives, which can result in pseudohistory or [historical denialism](/source/Historical_denialism).[12][e] Influential examples are [Holocaust denial](/source/Holocaust_denial), [Armenian genocide denial](/source/Armenian_genocide_denial), [Nanjing Massacre denial](/source/Nanjing_Massacre_denial), and [Holodomor denial](/source/Holodomor_denial).[22]

### Etymology

Fragment of the *[Histories](/source/Histories_(Herodotus))* by [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus), an Ancient Greek historical text[23]

The word *history* comes from the [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) term [ἵστωρ](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%B5%CF%83%CF%84%CF%89%CF%81) (*histōr*), meaning 'learned, wise man'. It gave rise to the Ancient Greek word [ἱστορία](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1) (*historiā*), which had a wide meaning associated with inquiry in general and giving testimony. The term was later adopted into [Classical Latin](/source/Classical_Latin) as *historia*. In [Hellenistic](/source/Hellenistic_period) and [Roman times](/source/Roman_Empire), the meaning of the term shifted, placing more emphasis on narrative aspects and the art of presentation rather than focusing on investigation and testimony.[24]

The word entered [Middle English](/source/Middle_English) in the 14th century via the [Old French](/source/Old_French) term *histoire*.[25] At this time, it meant 'story, tale', encompassing both factual and fictional narratives. In the 15th century, its meaning shifted to cover the branch of knowledge studying the past in addition to narratives about the past.[26] In the 18th and 19th centuries, the word *history* became more closely associated with factual accounts and evidence-based inquiry, coinciding with the professionalization of historical inquiry, a meaning still dominant in contemporary usage.[27] The dual meaning, referring to both mere stories and factual accounts of the past, is present in the terms for history in many other European languages. They include the French *histoire*, the Italian *storia*, and the German *Geschichte*.[28]

## Methods

Main article: [Historical method](/source/Historical_method)

The historical method is a [set of techniques](/source/Methodology) historians use to research and interpret the past, covering the processes of collecting, evaluating, and synthesizing evidence.[f] It seeks to ensure scholarly rigour, accuracy, and reliability in how historical [evidence](/source/Evidence) is chosen, analysed, and interpreted.[30] Historical research often starts with a [research question](/source/Research_question) to define the scope of the inquiry. Some research questions focus on a simple description of what happened. Others aim to explain why a particular event occurred, refute an existing theory, or confirm a new hypothesis.[31]

### Sources and source criticism

To answer research questions, historians rely on various types of evidence to reconstruct the past and support their conclusions. Historical evidence is usually divided into [primary](/source/Primary_source) and [secondary sources](/source/Secondary_sources).[32] A primary source is a source that originated during the period that is studied. Primary sources can take various forms, such as official documents, letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, photographs, and audio or video recordings. They also include historical remains examined in [archaeology](/source/Archaeology), [geology](/source/Geology), and the [medical sciences](/source/Medical_sciences), such as artefacts and [fossils](/source/Fossil) unearthed from [excavations](/source/Excavations). Primary sources offer the most direct evidence of historical events.[33]

Archives preserve large quantities of original sources for researchers to access.[34]

A secondary source is a source that analyses or interprets information found in other sources.[35] Whether a document is a primary or a secondary source depends not only on the document itself but also on the purpose for which it is used. For example, if a historian writes a text about slavery based on an analysis of historical documents, then the text is a secondary source on slavery and a primary source on the historian's opinion.[36][g] Consistency with available sources is one of the main standards of historical works. For instance, the discovery of new sources may lead historians to revise or dismiss previously accepted narratives.[38] To find and access primary and secondary sources, historians consult [archives](/source/Archive), [libraries](/source/Libraries), and [museums](/source/Museum). Archives play a central role by preserving countless original sources and making them available to researchers in a systematic and accessible manner. Thanks to technological advances, historians increasingly rely on online resources, which offer vast digital [databases](/source/Database) with methods to search and access specific documents.[39]

[Source criticism](/source/Source_criticism) is the process of analysing and evaluating the information a source provides.[h] Typically, this process begins with external criticism, which evaluates the authenticity of a source. It addresses the questions of when and where the source was created and seeks to identify the author, understand their reasons for producing the source, and determine if it has undergone some type of modification since its creation. Additionally, the process involves distinguishing between original works, copies, and deceptive forgeries.[41]

Internal criticism evaluates the content of a source, typically beginning with the clarification of the meaning within the source. This involves disambiguating individual terms that could be misunderstood but may also require a general translation if the source is written in an unfamiliar language.[i] Once the information content of a source is understood, internal criticism is specifically interested in determining accuracy. Critics ask whether the information is reliable or misrepresents the topic and further question whether the source is comprehensive or omits important details. One way to make these assessments is to evaluate whether the author was able, in principle, to provide a faithful presentation of the studied event. Other approaches include the assessment of the influences of the author's intentions and prejudices, and cross-referencing information with other credible sources. Being aware of the inadequacies of a source helps historians decide whether and which aspects of it to trust, and how to use it to construct a narrative.[43]

### Synthesis and schools of thought

The selection, analysis, and criticism of sources result in the validation of a large collection of mostly isolated statements about the past. As a next step, sometimes termed *historical synthesis*, historians examine how the individual pieces of evidence fit together to form part of a larger story.[j] Constructing this broader perspective is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the topic as a whole. It is a creative aspect[k] of historical writing that reconstructs, interprets, and explains what happened by showing how different events are connected.[46] In this way, historians address not only which events occurred but also why they occurred and what consequences they had.[47] While there are no universally accepted techniques for this synthesis, historians rely on various interpretative tools and approaches in this process.[48]

[Auguste Comte](/source/Auguste_Comte) articulated [positivism](/source/Positivism), advocating a science-based approach to history.[49]

One tool to provide an accessible overview of complex developments is the use of [periodization](/source/Periodization), which divides a timeframe into different periods, each organized around central themes or developments that shaped the period. For example, the [three-age system](/source/Three-age_system) is traditionally used to divide early human history into [Stone Age](/source/Stone_Age), [Bronze Age](/source/Bronze_Age), and [Iron Age](/source/Iron_Age) based on the predominant materials and technologies during these periods.[50] Another methodological tool is the examination of silences, gaps or omissions in the historical record of events that occurred but did not leave significant evidential traces. Silences can happen when contemporaries find information too obvious to document but may also occur if there are specific reasons to withhold or destroy information.[51][l] Conversely, when large [datasets](/source/Dataset) are available, [quantitative approaches](/source/Quantitative_history) can be used. For instance, economic and social historians commonly employ [statistical analysis](/source/Statistical_analysis) to identify patterns and trends associated with large groups.[54]

Different schools of thought often come with their own methodological implications for how to write history.[55] [Positivists](/source/Positivism) emphasize the scientific nature of historical inquiry, focusing on [empirical evidence](/source/Empirical_evidence) to discover [objective truths](/source/Objectivity_(science)).[56] In contrast, [postmodernists](/source/Postmodernism) reject [grand narratives](/source/Grand_narratives) that claim to offer a single, objective truth. Instead, they highlight the [subjective](/source/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)) nature of historical interpretation, which leads to a multiplicity of divergent perspectives.[57] [Marxists](/source/Marxism) interpret historical developments as expressions of economic forces and [class struggles](/source/Class_struggle).[58] The [*Annales* school](/source/Annales_school) highlights long-term social and economic trends while relying on quantitative and interdisciplinary methods.[59] [Feminist historians](/source/Feminist_history) study the role of [gender](/source/Gender) in history, with a particular interest in analysing the experiences of women to challenge [patriarchal](/source/Patriarchy) perspectives.[60]

## Areas of study

History is a wide field of inquiry encompassing many branches. Some branches focus on a specific time period, while others concentrate on a particular geographic region or a distinct theme. Specializations of different types can usually be combined; for example, a work on economic history in ancient Egypt merges temporal, regional, and thematic perspectives. For topics with a broad scope, the amount of primary sources is often too extensive for an individual historian to review, forcing them to either narrow the scope of their topic or also rely on secondary sources to arrive at a wide overview.[61]

### By period

Chronological division is a common approach to organizing the vast expanse of history into more manageable segments. Different [periods](/source/Periodization) are often defined based on dominant themes that characterize a specific time frame and significant events that initiated these developments or brought them to an end. Depending on the selected context and level of detail, a period may be as short as a decade or longer than several centuries.[62] A traditionally influential approach divides [human history](/source/Human_history) into [prehistory](/source/Prehistory), [ancient history](/source/Ancient_history), [post-classical history](/source/Post-classical_history), [early modern history](/source/Early_modern_history), and [modern history](/source/Modern_history).[63][m] Depending on the region and theme, the time frames covered by these periods can vary and historians may use entirely different periodizations.[65] For example, traditional periodizations of [Chinese history](/source/Chinese_history) follow the [main dynasties](/source/Dynasties_of_China),[66] and the division into [pre-Columbian](/source/Pre-Columbian_era), [colonial](/source/European_colonization_of_the_Americas), and post-colonial periods plays a central role in the [history of the Americas](/source/History_of_the_Americas).[67]

Historians draw on evidence from various fields to examine prehistory, including fossils like [Lucy](/source/Lucy_(hominid)).[68]

The study of prehistory includes the examination of the evolution of [human-like species](/source/Hominini) several million years ago, leading to the emergence of [anatomically modern humans](/source/Homo_sapiens) about 200,000 years ago.[69] Subsequently, [humans migrated out of Africa](/source/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans) to populate most of the earth. Towards the end of prehistory, technological advances in the form of new and improved tools led many groups to give up their established [nomadic](/source/Nomadic) lifestyle, based on [hunting and gathering](/source/Hunting_and_gathering), in favour of a [sedentary](/source/Sedentary) lifestyle supported by [early forms of agriculture](/source/Neolithic_Revolution).[70] The absence of written documents from this period presents researchers with unique challenges. It results in an interdisciplinary approach relying on other forms of evidence from fields such as [archaeology](/source/Archaeology), [anthropology](/source/Anthropology), [palaeontology](/source/Palaeontology), and [geology](/source/Geology).[71]

Historians studying the ancient period examine the [emergence of the first major civilizations](/source/Cradles_of_civilization) in regions such as [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia), Egypt, the [Indus Valley](/source/Indus_Valley_Civilisation), China, and Peru, beginning approximately 3500 BCE in some regions. The new social, economic, and political complexities necessitated the [development of writing systems](/source/Invention_of_writing). Thanks to advancements in agriculture, surplus food allowed these civilizations to support larger populations, leading to [urbanization](/source/Urbanization), the establishment of trade networks, and the emergence of regional empires. In the later part of the ancient period, sometimes termed the *classical period*, societies in China, India, Persia, and the Mediterranean expanded further, reaching new cultural, scientific, and political heights. Meanwhile, influential religious systems and philosophical ideas were first formulated, such as [Hinduism](/source/Hinduism), [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism), [Confucianism](/source/Confucianism), [Judaism](/source/Judaism), and [Greek philosophy](/source/Greek_philosophy).[72]

In the study of post-classical or medieval history, which began around 500 CE, historians note the growing influence of major religions. [Missionary](/source/Missionary) religions, like Buddhism, [Christianity](/source/Christianity), and [Islam](/source/Islam), spread rapidly and established themselves as [world religions](/source/World_religions), marking a cultural shift as they gradually replaced other belief systems. Meanwhile, inter-regional trade networks flourished, leading to increased technological and cultural exchange. Conquering many territories in Asia and Europe, the [Mongol Empire](/source/Mongol_Empire) became a dominant force during the 13th and 14th centuries.[73]

Historians focused on early modern history, which started roughly in 1500 CE, commonly highlight how European states rose to global power. As [gunpowder empires](/source/Gunpowder_empires), they explored and [colonized](/source/Colonialism) large parts of the world. As a result, the Americas were integrated into the global network, triggering a vast [biological exchange](/source/Columbian_exchange) of plants, animals, people, and diseases.[n] The [Scientific Revolution](/source/Scientific_Revolution) prompted major discoveries and accelerated technological progress. It was accompanied by other intellectual developments, such as [humanism](/source/Humanism) and the [Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment), which ushered in [secularization](/source/Secularization).[75]

The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on economic and social life, marking the transition from [agrarian](/source/Agrarian_society) to [industrial societies](/source/Industrial_societies).[76]

In the study of modern history, which began at the end of the 18th century, historians are interested in how the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution) transformed economies by introducing more efficient modes of production. Western powers [established vast colonial empires](/source/Age_of_Imperialism), gaining superiority through industrialized military technology. The increased international exchange of goods, ideas, and people marked the beginning of [globalization](/source/Globalization). Various social revolutions challenged [autocratic](/source/Autocratic) and colonial regimes, paving the way for [democracies](/source/Democracies). Many developments in fields like science, technology, economy, living standards, and human population accelerated at unprecedented rates. This happened despite the widespread destruction caused by two [world wars](/source/World_wars), which rebalanced international power relations by undermining European dominance.[77]

### By geographic location

Areas of historical study can also be categorized by the geographic locations they examine.[78] [Geography](/source/Geography) plays a central role in history through its influence on [food production](/source/Food_production), [natural resources](/source/Natural_resources), economic activities, political boundaries, and cultural interactions.[79][o] Some historical works limit their scope to small regions, such as a village or a settlement. Others focus on broad territories that encompass entire continents, like the histories of Africa, Asia, Europe, the Americas, and Oceania.[81]

The [Pyramids of Giza](/source/Pyramids_of_Giza) showcase the lasting heritage of the ancient Egyptian civilization.[82]

The [history of Africa](/source/History_of_Africa) begins with the examination of the evolution of anatomically modern humans.[83] Ancient historians describe how the invention of writing and the establishment of civilization happened in [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) in the 4th millennium BCE.[84] Over the next millennia, other notable civilizations and kingdoms formed in [Nubia](/source/Nubia), [Axum](/source/Kingdom_of_Aksum), [Carthage](/source/Ancient_Carthage), [Ghana](/source/Ghana_Empire), [Mali](/source/Mali_Empire), and [Songhay](/source/Songhai_Empire).[85] Islam began spreading across North Africa in the 7th century CE and became the dominant faith in many empires. Meanwhile, trade along the [trans-Saharan route](/source/Trans-Saharan_route) intensified.[86] Beginning in the 15th century, millions of Africans were enslaved and forcibly transported to the Americas as part of the [Atlantic slave trade](/source/Atlantic_slave_trade).[87] Most of the continent [was colonized](/source/Scramble_for_Africa) by European powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[88] Amid rising [nationalism](/source/African_nationalism), African states gradually [gained independence](/source/Decolonisation_of_Africa) in the aftermath of [World War II](/source/World_War_II), a period that saw economic progress, rapid population growth, and struggles for political stability.[89]

Historians studying the [history of Asia](/source/History_of_Asia) note the arrival of anatomically modern humans around 100,000 years ago.[90] They explore Asia's role as one of the cradles of civilization, with the emergence of some of the first ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China beginning in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE.[91] In the following millennia, civilizations on the Asian continent gave birth to all major world religions and several influential philosophical traditions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, [Taoism](/source/Taoism), Christianity, and Islam.[92] Other developments were the establishment of the [Silk Road](/source/Silk_Road), which facilitated trade and cultural exchange across [Eurasia](/source/Eurasia), and the formation of powerful empires, such as the Mongol Empire.[93] European influence grew over the following centuries, ushering in the modern era. It culminated in the 19th and early 20th centuries when many parts of Asia came under direct colonial control [until the end of World War II](/source/Decolonisation_of_Asia).[94] The post-independence period was characterized by modernization, economic growth, and a steep increase in population.[95]

Due to its influence on Western culture and philosophy, [Ancient Greece](/source/Ancient_Greece) is an important area of study for historians of Europe.[96]

In the study of the [history of Europe](/source/History_of_Europe), historians describe the arrival of the first anatomically modern humans about 45,000 years ago.[97] They explore how in the first millennium BCE the [Ancient Greeks](/source/Ancient_Greeks) contributed key elements to the [culture](/source/Western_culture), [philosophy](/source/Western_philosophy), and politics associated with the [Western world](/source/Western_world),[96] and how their cultural heritage influenced the [Roman](/source/Roman_Empire) and [Byzantine Empires](/source/Byzantine_Empire).[98] The [medieval period](/source/Medieval_period) began with the fall of the [Western Roman Empire](/source/Western_Roman_Empire) in the 5th century CE and was marked by the [spread of Christianity](/source/Spread_of_Christianity).[99] Starting in the 15th century, European exploration and colonization interconnected the globe, while cultural, intellectual, and scientific developments transformed Western societies.[100] From the late 18th to the early 20th centuries, European global dominance was further solidified by the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of large overseas colonies.[101] It came to an end because of the devastating effects of two world wars.[102] In the following [Cold War](/source/Cold_War) era, the continent was divided into a [Western](/source/Western_bloc) and an [Eastern bloc](/source/Eastern_bloc). They pursued political and economic integration in the aftermath of the Cold War.[103]

Historians examining the history of the Americas document the arrival of the first humans around 20,000 to 15,000 years ago.[104] The Americas were home to some of the earliest civilizations, like the [Norte Chico civilization](/source/Norte_Chico_civilization) in South America and the [Maya](/source/Maya_civilization) and [Olmec civilizations](/source/Olmec_civilization) in Central America.[105] Over the next millennia, major empires arose beside them, such as the [Teotihuacan](/source/Teotihuacan), [Aztec](/source/Aztec), and [Inca empires](/source/Inca_empire).[106] Following the arrival of the Europeans from the late 15th century onwards, the spread of newly introduced diseases drastically reduced the local population. Together with colonization, it led to the collapse of major empires as demographic and cultural landscapes were reshaped.[107] [Independence movements](/source/Decolonization_of_the_Americas) in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation of new nations across the Americas.[108] In the 20th century, the United States emerged as a dominant global power and a key player in the Cold War.[109]

In the study of the [history of Oceania](/source/History_of_Oceania), historians note the arrival of humans about 60,000 to 50,000 years ago.[110] They explore the establishment of [diverse regional societies and cultures](/source/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania), first in Australia and Papua New Guinea and later also on other [Pacific Islands](/source/Pacific_Islands).[111] The arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century prompted significant transformations, and by the end of the 19th century, most of the region had come under Western control.[112] Oceania became involved in various conflicts during the world wars and experienced [decolonization in the post-war period](/source/Decolonisation_of_Oceania).[113]

### By theme

Historians often limit their inquiry to a specific theme.[114] Some propose a general subdivision into three major themes: [political history](/source/Political_history), [economic history](/source/Economic_history), and [social history](/source/Social_history). However, the boundaries between these branches are vague and their relation to other thematic branches, such as [intellectual history](/source/Intellectual_history), is not always clear.[115]

Political history studies the organization of [power](/source/Power_(social_and_political)) in society, examining how power structures arise, develop, and interact. Throughout most of recorded history, [states](/source/State_(polity)) or state-like structures have been central to this field of study. It explores how a state was [organized internally](/source/Political_system), like [factions](/source/Political_faction), [parties](/source/Political_party), leaders, and other political institutions. It also examines which [policies](/source/Policies) were implemented and how the state interacted with other states.[116] Political history has been studied since antiquity by historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides, making it one of the oldest branches of history, while other major subfields have only become established branches in the past century.[117]

Military history studies armed conflicts, including advancements in military technology, like [trebuchets](/source/Trebuchet).[118]

[Diplomatic](/source/Diplomatic_history) and [military history](/source/Military_history) are associated with political history. Diplomatic history examines [international relations](/source/International_relations) between states. It covers [foreign policy](/source/Foreign_policy) topics such as negotiations, strategic considerations, [treaties](/source/Treaties), and conflicts between nations as well as the role of [international organizations](/source/International_organizations) in these processes.[119] Military history studies the impact and development of [armed conflicts](/source/Armed_conflict) in human history. This includes the examination of specific events, like the analysis of a particular battle and the discussion of the different causes of a war. It also involves more general considerations about the evolution of warfare, including advancements in [military technology](/source/Military_technology), [strategies](/source/Military_strategy), [tactics](/source/Military_tactics), [logistics](/source/Military_logistics), and institutions.[120]

Economic history examines how [commodities](/source/Commodities) are produced, exchanged, and consumed. It covers economic aspects such as the use of land, [labour](/source/Work_(human_activity)), and [capital](/source/Capital_(economics)), the [supply and demand](/source/Supply_and_demand) of goods, the costs and [means of production](/source/Means_of_production), and the [distribution of income](/source/Distribution_of_income) and [wealth](/source/Distribution_of_wealth). Economic historians typically focus on general trends in the form of impersonal forces, such as [inflation](/source/Inflation), rather than the actions and decisions of individuals. If enough data is available, they rely on quantitative methods, like statistical analysis. For periods before the modern era, available data is often limited, forcing economic historians to rely on scarce sources and extrapolate information from them.[121]

Social history is a broad field investigating social phenomena, but its precise definition is disputed. Some theorists understand it as the study of everyday life outside the domains of politics and economics, including cultural practices, family structures, community interactions, and education. A closely related approach focuses on experience rather than activities, examining how members of particular social groups, like [social classes](/source/Social_class), [races](/source/Race_(human_categorization)), [genders](/source/Gender), or [age groups](/source/Age_group), experienced their world. Other definitions see social history as the study of social problems, like poverty, disease, and crime, or take a broader perspective by examining how whole [societies](/source/Societies) developed.[122] Closely related fields include [cultural history](/source/Cultural_history), [gender history](/source/Gender_history), and [religious history](/source/Religious_history).[123]

Intellectual history is the history of ideas and studies how concepts, philosophies, and [ideologies](/source/Ideologies) have evolved. It is particularly interested in academic fields but not limited to them, including the study of the beliefs and prejudices of ordinary people. In addition to studying intellectual movements themselves, it also examines the cultural and social contexts that shaped them and their influence on other historical developments.[124] As closely related fields, the [history of philosophy](/source/History_of_philosophy) investigates the development of philosophical thought[125] while the [history of science](/source/History_of_science) studies the evolution of scientific theories and practices, such as the scientific contributions of [Charles Darwin](/source/Charles_Darwin) and [Albert Einstein](/source/Albert_Einstein).[126] [Art history](/source/Art_history), another connected discipline, examines historical [works of art](/source/Works_of_art) and the development of artistic activities, [styles](/source/Artistic_style), and [movements](/source/Artistic_movement). It includes a discussion of the cultural, social, and political contexts of art production.[127]

[Environmental history](/source/Environmental_history) studies the relation between humans and their environment. It seeks to understand how humans and the rest of nature have affected each other in the course of history.[128] Other thematic branches include [constitutional history](/source/Constitutional_history), [legal history](/source/Legal_history), [urban history](/source/Urban_history), [business history](/source/Business_history), [history of technology](/source/History_of_technology), [medical history](/source/Medical_history), [history of education](/source/History_of_education), and [people's history](/source/People's_history).[129]

### Others

Some branches of history are characterized by the [methods](/source/Methodology) they employ, such as [quantitative history](/source/Quantitative_history) and [digital history](/source/Digital_history), which rely on [quantitative methods](/source/Quantitative_research) and [digital media](/source/Digital_media).[130] [Comparative history](/source/Comparative_history) compares historical phenomena from distinct times, regions, or cultures to examine their similarities and differences.[131] Unlike most other branches, [oral history](/source/Oral_history) relies on oral reports rather than written documents, encompassing eyewitness accounts, [hearsay](/source/Hearsay), and communal [legends](/source/Legend). It reflects the personal experiences, interpretations, and [memories](/source/Memory) of common people, showcasing how people subjectively remember the past.[132] [Counterfactual history](/source/Counterfactual_history) uses [counterfactual thinking](/source/Counterfactual_thinking) to examine alternative courses of history, exploring what could have happened under different circumstances.[133] Certain branches of history are distinguished by their theoretical outlook, such as [Marxist](/source/Marxist_history) and [feminist history](/source/Feminist_history).[134]

[World history](/source/World_history) examines history on a global level, incorporating the whole of [human history](/source/Human_history).[135]

Some distinctions focus on the scope of the studied topic. [Big History](/source/Big_History) is the branch with the broadest scope, covering everything from the [Big Bang](/source/Big_Bang) to the present, incorporating elements of [cosmology](/source/Cosmology), geology, [biology](/source/Biology), and anthropology.[9] [World history](/source/World_history_(field)) is another branch with a wide topic. It examines human history as a whole, starting with the evolution of human-like species.[135] The terms *[macrohistory](/source/Macrohistory)*, *mesohistory*, and *[microhistory](/source/Microhistory)* refer to different scales of analysis, ranging from large-scale patterns that affect the whole globe to detailed studies of [local contexts](/source/Local_history), small communities, [family histories](/source/Family_history), particular individuals, or specific events.[136] Closely related to microhistory is the genre of [historical biography](/source/Historical_biography), which recounts an individual's life in its historical context and the legacy it left.[137]

[Public history](/source/Public_history) involves activities that present history to the [general public](/source/General_public). It usually happens outside the traditional academic settings in contexts like [museums](/source/Museum), [historical sites](/source/Historical_site), [heritage tourism](/source/Heritage_tourism), and popular media.[138]

## Evolution of the discipline

Before the invention of writing, the preservation and transmission of historical knowledge were limited to oral traditions.[139] Early forms of historical writing mixed facts with mythological elements, such as the *[Epic of Gilgamesh](/source/Epic_of_Gilgamesh)* from [ancient Mesopotamia](/source/Ancient_Mesopotamia) and the *[Odyssey](/source/Odyssey)*, an [ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greece) text attributed to [Homer](/source/Homer).[140] Published in the 5th century BCE, the *[Histories](/source/Histories_(Herodotus))* by [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus)[p] was one of the foundational texts of the Western historical tradition, putting more emphasis on rational and evidence-based inquiry than the stories of Homer and other poets.[142] [Thucydides](/source/Thucydides) followed and further refined Herodotus's approach but focused more on particular political and military developments in contrast to the wide scope and [ethnographic](/source/Ethnographic) elements of Herodotus's work.[143] [Roman](/source/Ancient_Rome) historiography was heavily influenced by Greek traditions. It often included not only historical facts but also [moral judgements](/source/Ethics) of [historical figures](/source/Historical_figure).[q] Early Roman historians used an [annalistic](/source/Annalistic) style, arranging past events by year with little commentary, while later ones preferred a more narrative and analytical approach.[145]

[Sima Qian](/source/Sima_Qian)'s *[Shiji](/source/Shiji)* or *Records of the Grand Historian* was a foundational work in [Chinese historiography](/source/Chinese_historiography).[146]

[Another complex tradition of historical writing](/source/Chinese_historiography) emerged in [ancient China](/source/Ancient_China), with early precursors starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE. It considered annals the highest form of historical writing and emphasized verification through sources. This tradition was associated with [Confucian philosophy](/source/Confucian_philosophy) and closely tied to the government in the form of the [ruling dynasty](/source/Dynasties_of_China), each responsible for writing the [official history of its predecessor](/source/Twenty-Four_Histories). Chinese historians established a coherent and systematic method for recording historical events earlier than other traditions.[147] Of particular influence was the work of [Sima Qian](/source/Sima_Qian), whose meticulous research method and inclusion of alternative viewpoints shaped subsequent historiographical standards.[148] In [ancient India](/source/Ancient_India), [historical narratives](/source/Indian_historiography) were closely associated with [religion](/source/Religion_in_India). They often mixed factual accounts with supernatural elements, as seen in works like the *[Mahabharata](/source/Mahabharata)*.[149]

In Europe during the [medieval period](/source/Medieval_period), history was primarily documented by the [clergy](/source/Clergy) in the form of chronicles. [Christian](/source/Christianity) historians drew from [Greco-Roman](/source/Greco-Roman) and [Jewish](/source/Jewish) traditions and reinterpreted the past from a religious perspective as a narrative highlighting God's divine plan.[150] Influential contributions shaping this tradition were made by the historians [Eusebius of Caesarea](/source/Eusebius_of_Caesarea) and [Bede](/source/Bede) and by the theologian [Augustine of Hippo](/source/Augustine_of_Hippo).[151] In the Islamic world, historical writing was similarly influenced by religion, interpreting the past from a [Muslim](/source/Muslim) perspective. It placed great importance on the [chain of transmission](/source/Isnad) to preserve the authority of historical accounts.[152] [Al-Tabari](/source/Al-Tabari) wrote a comprehensive history, spanning from the creation of the world to his present day. [Ibn Khaldun](/source/Ibn_Khaldun) reflected on philosophical issues underlying the practice of historians, such as universal patterns shaping historical changes and the limits of historical truth.[153]

With the emergence of the [Tang dynasty](/source/Tang_dynasty) (618–907 CE) in China, historical writing became increasingly institutionalized as a bureau for the writing of history was established in 629 CE. The bureau oversaw the establishment of [Veritable Records](/source/Veritable_Records), a comprehensive compilation serving as the basis of the standard national history. Tang dynasty historians emphasized the difference between actual events that occurred in the past and the way these events are documented in historical texts.[154] Historical writing in the [Song dynasty](/source/Song_dynasty) (960–1279 CE) happened in a variety of historical genres, including encyclopaedias, biographies, and historical novels, while history became a standard subject in the [Chinese educational system](/source/Imperial_examination).[155] Influenced by the Chinese model, a [tradition of historical writing emerged in Japan](/source/Historiography_of_Japan) in the 8th century CE. Like in China, historical writing was closely related to the [imperial household](/source/Imperial_House_of_Japan), but Japanese historians placed less importance on critical source evaluation than their Chinese counterparts.[156]

During the [Renaissance](/source/Renaissance) and the [early modern period](/source/Early_modern_period) (approximately 1500 to 1800), the different historical traditions came increasingly into contact with each other.[157] Starting in 14th-century Europe, the Renaissance led to a shift away from medieval religious outlooks towards a renewed interest in the earlier classical tradition of Greece and Rome. [Renaissance humanists](/source/Renaissance_humanism) used sophisticated text criticism to scrutinize earlier religious historical works, which contributed to the [secularization](/source/Secularization) of historical writing. During the 15th to 17th centuries, historians placed greater emphasis on the [didactic](/source/Didactic) role of history, using it to promote the established order or argue for a return to an idealized vision of the past. As the invention of the [printing press](/source/Printing_press) made written documents more accessible and affordable, interest in history expanded outside the [clergy](/source/Clergy) and [nobility](/source/Nobility). At the same time, [empiricist](/source/Empiricist) thought associated with the [Scientific Revolution](/source/Scientific_Revolution) questioned the possibility of arriving at universal historical truths.[158] During the [Age of Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment) in the 18th century, historical writing was influenced by [rationalism](/source/Rationalism) and [scepticism](/source/Scepticism). Aiming to challenge traditional authority and dogma through reason and empirical methods, historians tried to uncover deeper patterns and meaning in the past, while the scope of historical inquiry expanded with an increased focus on societal and economic topics as well as [comparisons between different cultures](/source/Comparative_history).[159]

In China during the [Ming dynasty](/source/Ming_dynasty) (1368–1644), public interest in historical writings and their availability also increased. In addition to the continuation of the Veritable Records by official governmental historians, non-official works by private scholars flourished. These scholars tended to use a more creative style and sometimes challenged orthodox accounts.[160] In the Islamic world, new traditions of historical writings emerged in the [Safavid](/source/Safavid_Empire), [Mughal](/source/Mughal_Empire), and [Ottoman Empires](/source/Ottoman_Empire).[161] Meanwhile, in the [Americas](/source/Americas), European explorers recorded and interpreted indigenous narratives, which had been passed down through oral and [pictographic](/source/Pictographic) practices. These views sometimes contested traditional European perspectives.[162]

[Leopold von Ranke](/source/Leopold_von_Ranke) revolutionized the standards of historical scholarship by introducing a thorough evaluation of primary sources.[163]

Historical writing was transformed in the 19th century as it became more [professional](/source/Professionalization) and science-oriented. Following the work of [Leopold von Ranke](/source/Leopold_von_Ranke), a systematic method of source criticism was widely accepted while [academic institutions](/source/Academic_institution) dedicated to history were established in the form of university departments, professional associations, and journals.[164] In tune with this scientific outlook, [Auguste Comte](/source/Auguste_Comte) formulated the school of [positivism](/source/Positivism) and aimed to discover general laws of history, similar to the [laws of nature](/source/Scientific_law) studied by physicists.[165] Building on the philosophy of [Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel](/source/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel), [Karl Marx](/source/Karl_Marx) proposed one such general law in his theory of [historical materialism](/source/Historical_materialism), arguing that economic forces and [class struggle](/source/Class_struggle) are the fundamental drivers of historical change.[166] Another influential development was the spread of European historiographical methods, which became the dominant approach to the academic study of the past worldwide.[167]

In the 20th century, traditional historical assumptions and practices were challenged while the scope of historical research broadened.[168] The [*Annales* school](/source/Annales_school) used insights from [sociology](/source/Sociology), [psychology](/source/Psychology), and [economics](/source/Economics) to study long-term developments.[169] [Authoritarian regimes](/source/Authoritarian_regime), like [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany), the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union), and China, manipulated historical narratives for [ideological](/source/Ideological) purposes.[170] Various historians covered unconventional perspectives, focusing on the experiences of [marginalized groups](/source/Marginalized_groups) through approaches such as [history from below](/source/History_from_below), [microhistory](/source/Microhistory), [oral history](/source/Oral_history), and [feminist history](/source/Feminist_history).[171] [Postcolonialism](/source/Postcolonialism) aimed to undermine the hegemony of the Western approach and [postmodernism](/source/Postmodernism) rejected the claim to a single universal truth in history.[172] [Intellectual historians](/source/Intellectual_history) examined the historical development of ideas.[173] In the second half of the century, renewed attempts to write [histories of the world](/source/World_history_(field)) as a whole gained momentum, while technological advances fostered the growth of [quantitative](/source/Quantitative_history) and [digital history](/source/Digital_history).[174]

## Related fields

### Historiography

Main article: [Historiography](/source/Historiography)

[Ibn Khaldun](/source/Ibn_Khaldun) was an influential figure in Islamic historiography.[175]

Historiography is the study of the methods and development of historical research. Historiographers examine what historians do, resulting in a [metatheory](/source/Metatheory) in the form of a history of history. Some theorists use the term *historiography* in a different sense to refer to written accounts of the past.[176]

A central topic in historiography as a metatheory focuses on the standards of [evidence](/source/Evidence) and reasoning in historical inquiry. Historiographers examine and codify how historians use sources to construct narratives about the past, including the analysis of the interpretative assumptions from which they proceed. Closely related issues include the [style](/source/Writing_style) and [rhetorical](/source/Rhetorical) presentation of works of history.[177]

By comparing the works of different historians, historiographers identify schools of thought based on shared research methods, assumptions, and styles.[178] For example, they examine the characteristics of the [*Annales* school](/source/Annales_school), like its use of quantitative data from various disciplines and its interest in economic and social developments taking place over extended periods.[179] Comparisons also extend to whole eras from ancient to modern times. This way, historiography traces the development of history as an academic discipline, highlighting how the dominant methods, themes, and research goals have changed over time.[180]

### Philosophy of history

Main article: [Philosophy of history](/source/Philosophy_of_history)

The philosophy of history[r] investigates the theoretical foundations of history. It is interested both in the past itself as a series of interconnected events and in the academic field studying this process. Insights and approaches from various branches of philosophy are relevant to this endeavour, such as [metaphysics](/source/Metaphysics), [epistemology](/source/Epistemology), [hermeneutics](/source/Hermeneutics), and [ethics](/source/Ethics).[182]

In examining history as a process, philosophers explore the basic entities that make up historical phenomena. Some approaches rely primarily on the beliefs and actions of individual humans, while others include [collective](/source/Collective) and other general entities, such as [civilizations](/source/Civilization), [institutions](/source/Institution), [ideologies](/source/Ideologies), and social forces.[183] A related topic concerns the nature of [causal mechanisms](/source/Causality) connecting historic events with their causes and consequences.[184] One view holds that there are general laws of history that determine the course of events, similar to the [laws of nature](/source/Scientific_law) studied in the [natural sciences](/source/Natural_sciences). According to another perspective, causal relations between historic events are unique and shaped by contingent factors.[185] Historically, some philosophers have suggested that the general direction of the course of history follows large patterns. According to one proposal, history is cyclic, meaning that on a sufficiently large scale, individual events or general trends [repeat](/source/Historic_recurrence). Another such theory asserts that history is a linear, [teleological](/source/Teleological) process moving towards a predetermined goal.[186][s]

The topics of philosophy of history and historiography overlap as both are interested in the standards of [historical reasoning](/source/Historical_thinking). Historiographers typically focus more on describing specific methods and developments encountered in the study of history. Philosophers of history, by contrast, tend to explore more general patterns, including evaluative questions about which methods and assumptions are correct.[188] Historical reasoning is sometimes used in philosophy and other disciplines as a method to explain phenomena. This approach, known as [historicism](/source/Historicism), argues that understanding something requires knowledge of its unique history or how it evolved. For instance, historicism about [truth](/source/Truth) states that truth depends on historical circumstances, meaning that there are no transhistorical truths. Historicism contrasts with approaches that seek a timeless and universal understanding of their subject matter.[189]

#### Historical objectivity

Diverse debates in the philosophy of history focus on the possibility of an [objective](/source/Objectivity_(science)) account of history. Various theorists argue that this ideal is not achievable, pointing to the [subjective](/source/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)) nature of [interpretation](/source/Interpretation_(philosophy)), the narrative aspect of history, and the influence of personal values and biases on the perspective and actions of both historic individuals and historians. According to one view, some particular facts are objective, for example, facts about when a drought occurred or which army was defeated. However, this view does not ensure general objectivity since historians have to interpret and synthesize facts to arrive at an overall narrative describing large trends and developments.[190] As a result, some historians, such as [G. M. Trevelyan](/source/G._M._Trevelyan) and [Keith Jenkins](/source/Keith_Jenkins), assert that all history is biased, arguing that historical narratives are never free of subjective presuppositions and value judgements.[191]

Some outlooks associated with realism, [empiricism](/source/Empiricism), and reconstructionism,[192] conceptualize history as the search for truth or knowledge, which they see as recoverable through rigorous evaluation and careful interpretation of evidence.[193][t] Other scholars critique this view, emphasising the subjective and partial nature of historical knowledge.[u] [Perspectivists](/source/Perspectivism) claim that historical perspectives are inherently subjective, as they require selecting particular sources and inquiries, and ascertaining what information can be regarded as historical fact. They argue that statements can only be objective within or relative to one of several competing historical perspectives.[198] A stronger [scepticist](/source/Skepticism) or [relativist](/source/Relativism) outlook states that no historical knowledge can be proven objective.[199][v] This emphasis on subjectivities has been extended by [postmodernist](/source/Postmodernism) theories that suggest that it is impossible to know the past objectively, adding that meaning is created through human-made texts, the language of which "constitute our world as we perceive it".[201][w] Neo-realists have responded to this trend by reemphasising the centrality of empiricist methodologies to historical analysis. They acknowledge the influence of subjective evaluations but contend that historical truth is reachable nonetheless.[203][x]

### Education

History is a standard school subject in most countries.[204]

History is part of the public school [curriculum](/source/Curriculum) in most countries.[204] Early history education aims to make students interested in the past and familiarize them with fundamental concepts of historical thought. By fostering a basic historical awareness, it seeks to instill a [sense of identity](/source/Personal_identity) by helping them understand their cultural roots.[205] It often takes a narrative form by presenting children with simple stories, which may focus on historic individuals or the origins of local holidays, festivals, and food.[206] More advanced history education encountered in [secondary school](/source/Secondary_school) covers a broader spectrum of topics, ranging from ancient to modern history, at both local and global levels. It further aims to acquaint students with historical research methodologies, including the abilities to interpret and critically evaluate historical claims.[207] History is part of the social science or humanities curriculum at most universities. In addition to teaching students, faculty typically have research roles.[208]

History teachers employ a variety of [teaching methods](/source/Teaching_methods). They include narrative presentations of historical developments, questions to engage students and prompt [critical thinking](/source/Critical_thinking), and discussions on historical topics. Students work with historical sources directly to learn how to analyse and interpret evidence, both individually and in group activities. They engage in historical writing to develop the skills of articulating their thoughts clearly and persuasively. [Assessment](/source/Educational_assessment) through oral or written tests aims to ensure that learning goals are reached.[209] Traditional methodologies in history education often present numerous facts, like dates of significant events and names of historical figures, which students are expected to memorize. Some modern approaches, by contrast, seek to foster a more active engagement and a deeper interdisciplinary understanding of general patterns, focusing not only on what happened but also on why it happened and its lasting historical significance.[210]

History education in [state schools](/source/State_school) serves a variety of purposes. A key skill is historical literacy, the ability to comprehend, critically analyse, and respond to historical claims. By making students aware of significant developments in the past, they can become familiar with various contexts of human life, helping them understand the present and its diverse cultures. At the same time, history education can foster a sense of [cultural identity](/source/Cultural_identity) by connecting students with their heritage, traditions, and practices, for example, by introducing them to iconic elements ranging from national landmarks and monuments to historical figures and traditional festivities.[211] Knowledge of a shared past and cultural heritage can contribute to the formation of a [national identity](/source/National_identity) and prepares students for active [citizenship](/source/Citizenship). This political aspect of history education may spark disputes about which topics school [textbooks](/source/Textbook) should cover. In various regions, it has resulted in so-called *history wars* over the curriculum.[212] It can lead to a biased treatment of controversial topics in an attempt to present their national heritage in a favourable light.[213][y]

[Informal education](/source/Informal_education) provided by exhibitions of historic artefacts in museums is part of [public history](/source/Public_history).[215]

In addition to the [formal education](/source/Formal_education) provided in public schools, history is also taught in [informal settings](/source/Informal_education) outside the classroom. [Public history](/source/Public_history) takes place in locations like [museums](/source/Museum) and memorial sites, where selected artefacts are often used to tell specific stories.[215] It includes [popular history](/source/Popular_history), which aims to make the past accessible and appealing to a wide audience of non-specialists in media such as books, television programmes, and online content.[216] Informal history education also happens in [oral traditions](/source/Oral_tradition) as narratives about the past are transmitted across generations.[217]

### Other fields

History employs an interdisciplinary [methodology](/source/Methodology), drawing on findings from fields such as [archaeology](/source/Archaeology), [geology](/source/Geology), [genetics](/source/Genetics), [anthropology](/source/Anthropology), and [linguistics](/source/Linguistics).[218][z] Archaeologists study human-made historical artefacts and other forms of [material culture](/source/Material_culture). Their findings provide crucial insights into past human activities and cultural developments.[220] The interpretation of archaeological evidence presents challenges that differ from standard historical work with written documents. At the same time, it offers new possibilities by presenting information that was not recorded, allowing historians to access the past of non-literate societies and marginalized groups within literate societies by studying the remains of their material culture. Before the advent of modern archaeology in the 19th century, [antiquarianism](/source/Antiquarianism) laid the groundwork for this discipline and played a vital role in preserving historical artefacts.[221]

Geology and other [earth sciences](/source/Earth_sciences) help historians understand the environmental contexts and physical processes that affected past societies, including [climate](/source/Climate) conditions, landscapes, and natural events.[222] Genetics provides key information about the evolutionary origins of humans as a species, [human migration](/source/Human_migration), [ancestry](/source/Ancestry), and [demographic](/source/Demographic) changes.[223] Anthropologists investigate [human culture](/source/Human_culture) and behaviour, such as [social structures](/source/Social_structure), [belief systems](/source/Belief_system), and ritual practices. This knowledge offers contexts for the interpretation of historical events.[224] [Historical linguistics](/source/Historical_linguistics) studies the development of languages over time, which can be crucial for the interpretation of ancient documents and can also provide information about migration patterns and cultural exchanges.[225] Historians further rely on evidence from various other fields belonging to the [physical](/source/Physical_sciences), [biological](/source/Biological_sciences), and [social sciences](/source/Social_sciences) as well as the [humanities](/source/Humanities).[226]

In virtue of its relation to [ideology](/source/Ideology) and national identity, history is closely connected to [politics](/source/Politics) and historical theories can directly impact political decisions. For example, [irredentist](/source/Irredentist) attempts by one state to annex territory of another state often rely on historical theories claiming that the disputed territory belonged to the first state in the past.[227] History also plays a central role in so-called *historical religions*, which base some of their core doctrines on historical events. For instance, [Christianity](/source/Christianity) is often categorized as a historical religion because it is centred around historical events surrounding [Jesus Christ](/source/Jesus_Christ).[228] History is relevant to many fields through the study of their past, including the [history of science](/source/History_of_science), [mathematics](/source/History_of_mathematics), [philosophy](/source/History_of_philosophy), and [art](/source/History_of_art).[229]

## See also

- [History portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History)

- [Glossary of history](/source/Glossary_of_history)

- [Outline of history](/source/Outline_of_history)

## References

### Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Some authors restrict the term *history* to the factual series of past events and use the term *[historiography](/source/Historiography)* for the study of those events. Others use the term *history* for the study and representation of the past. They characterize historiography as a [metatheory](/source/Metatheory) studying the methods and historical development of this academic discipline.[5]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Some theorists identify [protohistory](/source/Protohistory) as a distinct period after prehistory that spans from the invention of writing to the first attempts to record history.[6]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Big History, formulated by the historian David Christian in the late 1980s, reaches back even further to the Big Bang, covering the cosmological development of the universe and the biological evolution of life in addition to human history.[9]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Early historians, such as Herodotus and Thucydides, already criticized the accounts of Homer and other poets as fantastic and inaccurate.[14]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** [Historical revisionism](/source/Historical_revisionism), a related outlook, seeks to overturn established perspectives on history. This can take a variety of forms, from the introduction of new evidence and methods which counter current thinking, to criticizing the value or significance of historical events or actors. Some theorists use the term *revisionism* in a neutral sense for any rejection or reinterpretation of mainstream views. Others associate it with practices that disregard genuine evidence and incorporate intensely sceptical and [relativist](/source/Relativism) views to justify pseudohistorical perspectives, attempting to discredit established knowledge of historical events through epistemic criticism.[21]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Understood in a narrow sense, the historical method is sometimes limited to the evaluation or criticism of sources.[29]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** The exact definitions of *primary source* and *secondary source* are disputed and there is not always consensus on how a particular source should be categorized. For example, if a person was not present at a riot but reports on it shortly after it happened, some historians consider this report a primary source while others see it as a secondary source.[37]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** [Leopold von Ranke](/source/Leopold_von_Ranke)'s emphasis on source evaluation significantly influenced the practice of historical research.[40]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Historians consider the context and time of the document to understand the meanings of the terms it uses. For example, if a document uses the word *awful*, they have to decide whether it expresses the modern meaning 'terrible' or the historical meaning 'worthy of awe'.[42]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** This becomes particularly challenging if different sources provide seemingly contradictory information.[44]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** The creativity and imagination needed for this step is one of the reasons why some theorists understand history as an [art](/source/The_arts) rather than a [science](/source/Science).[45]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** For example, [Martha Washington](/source/Martha_Washington) burned all private letters between her and her husband [George Washington](/source/George_Washington), leaving decades worth of silences on their relationship.[52] Another cause of silences, the existence of a [taboo](/source/Taboo), such as a taboo against [homosexuality](/source/Homosexuality), can have the effect that little information on the topic is recorded.[51] The practice of erasing names of deceased people considered enemies from public record is known as *[damnatio memoriae](/source/Damnatio_memoriae)*.[53]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** There are disagreements about when exactly each period starts and ends. Alternative subdivisions may use overlapping or radically different time frames.[64]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** New diseases and European military aggression and exploitation had severe consequences in the form of a drastic loss of life and cultural disruption among Indigenous communities in the Americas.[74]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** Emphasizing the central relation between geography and history, [Jules Michelet](/source/Jules_Michelet) wrote in the 1869 preface of his *Histoire de France*: "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".[80]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-157)** Herodotus is traditionally considered the "father of history" but has also been called the "father of lies" because not all of his accounts were reliable.[141]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-161)** This aspect is also found to some degree in works of Greek historians, including Herodotus and [Polybius](/source/Polybius).[144]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-199)** *Historical theory* is a closely related term sometimes used as a synonym.[181]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-206)** Some philosophers have followed [Francis Fukuyama](/source/Francis_Fukuyama) in arguing that the "[end of history](/source/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man)" has already arrived based on the claim that the ideological evolution of humanity has reached its endpoint.[187]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-214)** The German historian [Leopold von Ranke](/source/Leopold_von_Ranke) was among the most important proponents of this scientific approach in the 19th century.[194] Key modern scholars taking this view include Sir [Geoffrey Elton](/source/Geoffrey_Elton), [Arthur Marwick](/source/Arthur_Marwick) and [E. P. Thompson](/source/E._P._Thompson).[193]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-218)** These critiques rest on arguments including that: it is impossible to recover the totality of the past; as events have already passed, accounts cannot be verified against events but against other accounts; historical writing is mediated and constructed by the historian and the process of narrative construction involves interpretation and selective readings;[195] and evidence itself is necessarily subjective as its content is mediated through its maker and its survival through processes of selection.[196] From this viewpoint, hindsight and modern theorizing also allow historians to piece together evidence and put forward interpretations that are only visible after the fact and do so from a biased perspective, meaning that history as the known past is a human creation.[197]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-222)** Among the proponnents of the more relativist viewpoint was [E. H. Carr](/source/E._H._Carr), whose *[What Is History?](/source/What_Is_History%3F)* (1961) examined how historical and social contexts impact the way historians choose and analyse facts.[200]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-225)** Some scholars argue that recognising the subjective nature of historical sources has the benefit of opening up new areas of research and new ways of engaging with historical subjects; it also provides new approaches for analysing sources, critiquing dominant narratives, and allowing historians to engage with different concepts.[202]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-227)** Scholars advocating for this view include [Richard J. Evans](/source/Richard_J._Evans).[203]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-239)** For example, some [Japanese high school history textbooks have faced various criticisms](/source/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies) for downplaying Japan's colonial and wartime activities.[214]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-245)** They are sometimes grouped under the label *[auxiliary sciences of history](/source/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history)*.[219]

### Citations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** - [Kragh 1987](#CITEREFKragh1987), p. [41](https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41) - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 1. History and its representation - [Collingwood 1967](#CITEREFCollingwood1967), [§ 4. History and the Philosophy of History](https://books.google.com/books?id=MWDxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133) - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 193–194 - [Collingwood 1993](#CITEREFCollingwood1993), p. [9](https://books.google.com/books?id=pTucAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 1. History and its representation - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 140–143 - [Munslow 2001](#CITEREFMunslow2001) - [Evans 2001](#CITEREFEvans2001)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** - [Tucker 2011](#CITEREFTucker2011), pp. [xii, 2](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA2) - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), p. [5](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5) - [Evans 2002](#CITEREFEvans2002), pp. [1–2](https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1) - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 193–194 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 140–143

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** - [Evans 2002](#CITEREFEvans2002), pp. [1–2](https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1) - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), p. 196

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** - [Tucker 2011](#CITEREFTucker2011), pp. [xii, 2](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA2) - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), p. [5](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [Kipfer 2000](#CITEREFKipfer2000), pp. [457–458](https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C&pg=PA457)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), p. [300](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA300) - [Renfrew 2008](#CITEREFRenfrew2008), p. [172](https://books.google.com/books?id=4CooTRuA3kAC&pg=PA172)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [299–300](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA299) - [Ackermann et al. 2008](#CITEREFAckermannSchroederTerryUpshur2008), p. xvii - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. [17–18](https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17) - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), pp. [v, 1](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto4_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto4_11-1) [Hesketh 2023](#CITEREFHesketh2023), pp. 1–4, 41

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [114–115](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114) - [Parrott & Hake 1983](#CITEREFParrottHake1983), pp. 121–122 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 50–52 - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 196–197

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 50–52 - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 196–197, 415–416

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto1_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto1_15-1) - [Allchin 2004](#CITEREFAllchin2004), pp. 179–180 - [Välimäki & Aali 2020](#CITEREFVälimäkiAali2020), p. [57](https://books.google.com/books?id=3kmHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** - [Southgate 2005](#CITEREFSouthgate2005), pp. [xi–xii, 1, 57](https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 50–52

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** - [Lefkowitz 2008](#CITEREFLefkowitz2008), pp. 353–354 - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [21–24](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21) - [Shankman & Durrant 2003](#CITEREFShankmanDurrant2003), p. [96](https://books.google.com/books?id=oTn7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [120–121](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120) - [Southgate 2005](#CITEREFSouthgate2005), pp. [11–12, 57–58](https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA11) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 26, 50–52

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [121–122](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 50–52

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), p. [121](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121) - [Southgate 2005](#CITEREFSouthgate2005), pp. [38–39, 175–176](https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA38) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 50–51

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** - [Jenkins 1995](#CITEREFJenkins1995), p. [53](https://books.google.com/books?id=mW_rXrXGXa8C&pg=PA53) - [Haviland 1997](#CITEREFHaviland1997), p. [6](https://books.google.com/books?id=khYVsKMvQZIC&pg=PA6)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Evans2002p2_23-0)** [Evans 2002](#CITEREFEvans2002), p. 2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** [Southgate 2005](#CITEREFSouthgate2005), pp. [xi–xii 49–51, 175–176](https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** - [Tucker 2008](#CITEREFTucker2008), pp. 1–10 - [Evans 1999](#CITEREFEvans1999), pp. 238–243 - [Buchanan 2010](#CITEREFBuchanan2010) - [Fronza 2018](#CITEREFFronza2018), p. [4](https://books.google.com/books?id=vWBODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** [Brown & Sinclair 2024](#CITEREFBrownSinclair2024), pp. [417–418](https://books.google.com/books?id=bCDgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA417)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), p. [22](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 193–195 - [Stevenson 2010](#CITEREFStevenson2010), p. [831](https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA831) - [HarperCollins 2022](#CITEREFHarperCollins2022) - [Joseph & Janda 2008](#CITEREFJosephJanda2008), p. [163](https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163) - [HarperCollins 2003](#CITEREFHarperCollins2003), p. 99 - [OED Staff 2024](#CITEREFOED_Staff2024)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** - [HarperCollins 2022](#CITEREFHarperCollins2022) - [Joseph & Janda 2008](#CITEREFJosephJanda2008), p. [163](https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163) - [Stevenson 2010](#CITEREFStevenson2010), p. [831](https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA831)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** - [Joseph & Janda 2008](#CITEREFJosephJanda2008), p. [163](https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163) - [Hoad 1993](#CITEREFHoad1993), p. 217 - [Cresswell 2021](#CITEREFCresswell2021), § History - [OED Staff 2024](#CITEREFOED_Staff2024)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 195–196 - [HarperCollins 2022](#CITEREFHarperCollins2022)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** - [Berkhofer 2022](#CITEREFBerkhofer2022), pp. [10–11](https://books.google.com/books?id=bNnpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 141

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), p. 268

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** - [Fazal 2023](#CITEREFFazal2023), p. 140 - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 1–2 - [Ahlskog 2020](#CITEREFAhlskog2020), pp. 1–2 - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), pp. [9–10](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9) - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), p. 268

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), pp. [19–20](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19) - [Bhat 2019](#CITEREFBhat2019), p. 203

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), p. [35](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 57–58 - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 143–144

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), p. [36](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 54–58 - [Storey 2013](#CITEREFStorey2013), p. 32

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [59–60](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), p. [37](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 57–58

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), p. [37](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 57–59

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 57

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 56–57

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), pp. [40–45](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40) - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [59–60](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 56

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 87

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), pp. [70–71](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 59, 87–88 - [Topolski 2012](#CITEREFTopolski2012), p. [432](https://books.google.com/books?id=OMZ9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA432) - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 84–86

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 90–91 - [Gil & Marsen 2022](#CITEREFGilMarsen2022), p. [24](https://books.google.com/books?id=9RRoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT24)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), pp. [70–71](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 59, 87–88, 91–92 - [Topolski 2012](#CITEREFTopolski2012), p. [432](https://books.google.com/books?id=OMZ9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA432) - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 84–86

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 140, 171 - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), p. 71

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 141

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** - [Berkhofer 2008](#CITEREFBerkhofer2008), pp. [49–50](https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 139–143

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 142–143 - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 1. History and its representation

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 140

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), p. [78](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78) - [Lucas 2004](#CITEREFLucas2004), pp. [50–51](https://books.google.com/books?id=T-bmSSHFA9oC&pg=PA50) - [Christian 2015](#CITEREFChristian2015), pp. 5–6

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto_62-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto_62-1) [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), pp. [77–78](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** [Oberg 2019](#CITEREFOberg2019), p. [17](https://books.google.com/books?id=aHpzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT17)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** [Hedrick 2000](#CITEREFHedrick2000), p. xii

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 244–245 - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 81, 92–93

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 13–14, 88 - [Berkhofer 2008](#CITEREFBerkhofer2008), pp. [49–50](https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49) - [Lloyd 2011](#CITEREFLloyd2011), pp. [371–372](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA371)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), p. 13 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 166, 185

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 22, 185 - [Berkhofer 2008](#CITEREFBerkhofer2008), pp. [45, 78](https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 13–14 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 27, 224–225

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 110–111 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 121, 133

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 113–114 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 238

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 108–109 - [Lemon 1995](#CITEREFLemon1995), p. 112 - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 34–35 - [Veysey 1979](#CITEREFVeysey1979), p. 1

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), p. [78](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78) - [Christian 2008](#CITEREFChristian2008), pp. [97–99](https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA97) - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), p. 34

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** - [Van Nieuwenhuyse 2020](#CITEREFVan_Nieuwenhuyse2020), p. [375](https://books.google.com/books?id=bhLbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375) - [Christian 2008](#CITEREFChristian2008), pp. [98–99](https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA98) - [Stearns 2001](#CITEREFStearns2001), Table of Contents - [Christian 2015](#CITEREFChristian2015), p. 7

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** - [Christian 2015](#CITEREFChristian2015), pp. 5–7 - [Northrup 2015](#CITEREFNorthrup2015), pp. 110–111

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** - [Christian 2015](#CITEREFChristian2015), pp. 5–6 - [Northrup 2015](#CITEREFNorthrup2015), pp. 110–111

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** - [Hsu 1993](#CITEREFHsu1993), p. [161](https://books.google.com/books?id=EJeNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161) - [Arcodia & Basciano 2021](#CITEREFArcodiaBasciano2021), p. [xv](https://books.google.com/books?id=h4NSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** [Northrup 2015](#CITEREFNorthrup2015), p. 111

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), pp. [27, 43–44](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), pp. [1, 10](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1) - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 17–20 - [Aldenderfer 2011](#CITEREFAldenderfer2011), p. [4](https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA4)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** - [Christian 2015](#CITEREFChristian2015), p. 2 - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 17–20 - [Wragg-Sykes 2016](#CITEREFWragg-Sykes2016), pp. 195, 199, 211, 221

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** - [Aldenderfer 2011](#CITEREFAldenderfer2011), p. [1](https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1) - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), p. [v](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 19–32 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 1–2, 89–90 - [Ackermann et al. 2008](#CITEREFAckermannSchroederTerryUpshur2008), pp. xxix–xxxix

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 33–36 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 193–194, 291–292

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), p. 36 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), p. 401

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 36–39 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 401–402

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** [Pozdnyakova et al. 2018](#CITEREFPozdnyakovaGolikovPetersMorozova2018), p. [12](https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-91)** - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 39–46 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 537–538, 677–678, 817–818

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 108–109 - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 34, 46–47

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** - [Diamond 1999](#CITEREFDiamond1999), pp. [22, 25–32](https://books.google.com/books?id=PWnWRFEGoeUC&pg=PA22) - [Darby 2002](#CITEREFDarby2002), p. [14](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14) - [Baker 2003](#CITEREFBaker2003), p. [23](https://books.google.com/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PA23) - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 34, 46–47

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** - [Darby 2002](#CITEREFDarby2002), p. [14](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14) - [Michelet 1871](#CITEREFMichelet1871), p. [v](https://books.google.be/books?id=7CkJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 108–109 - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 46–47

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** [Ackermann et al. 2008](#CITEREFAckermannSchroederTerryUpshur2008), pp. 373–374

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** - [Fisher 2014](#CITEREFFisher2014), p. [127](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127) - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), p. [12](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12) - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 17–20

1. **[^](#cite_ref-99)** - [Iliffe 2007](#CITEREFIliffe2007), p. 5 - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 24–25

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** [Asante 2024](#CITEREFAsante2024), p. 92

1. **[^](#cite_ref-101)** - [Shillington 2018](#CITEREFShillington2018), pp. [93–94](https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93) - [Iliffe 2007](#CITEREFIliffe2007), pp. 2, 42–45

1. **[^](#cite_ref-102)** - [Shillington 2018](#CITEREFShillington2018), p. [103](https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103) - [Iliffe 2007](#CITEREFIliffe2007), pp. 131–132

1. **[^](#cite_ref-103)** [Iliffe 2007](#CITEREFIliffe2007), pp. 193–195

1. **[^](#cite_ref-104)** - [Shillington 2018](#CITEREFShillington2018), p. [417](https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA417) - [Iliffe 2007](#CITEREFIliffe2007), pp. 242, 253, 260, 267–268

1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), p. [15](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15) - [Headrick 2009](#CITEREFHeadrick2009), p. [6](https://books.google.com/books?id=qG2tPzkN6HUC&pg=PA6) - [Wragg-Sykes 2016](#CITEREFWragg-Sykes2016), p. 199

1. **[^](#cite_ref-106)** - [Mason 2005](#CITEREFMason2005), pp. 17–18 - [Murphey & Stapleton 2019](#CITEREFMurpheyStapleton2019), pp. 10–13 - [Cotterell 2011](#CITEREFCotterell2011), pp. [xiii, 3–4](https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR13) - [AASA 2011](#CITEREFAASA2011), pp. 3–4 - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 24–25

1. **[^](#cite_ref-107)** - [Cotterell 2011](#CITEREFCotterell2011), pp. [xiii–xiv](https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR13) - [AASA 2011](#CITEREFAASA2011), pp. 3–4

1. **[^](#cite_ref-auto3_108-0)** - [Cotterell 2011](#CITEREFCotterell2011), pp. [256–257](https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PA256) - [Mason 2005](#CITEREFMason2005), pp. 77–78

1. **[^](#cite_ref-109)** - [Mason 2005](#CITEREFMason2005), pp. 111–112, 167–168 - [Murphey & Stapleton 2019](#CITEREFMurpheyStapleton2019), pp. 282–283 - [Cotterell 2011](#CITEREFCotterell2011), pp. [xvii–xviii](https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR17) - [Rana 2012](#CITEREFRana2012), pp. [13–14](https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-110)** - [Murphey & Stapleton 2019](#CITEREFMurpheyStapleton2019), p. 445 - [Mason 2005](#CITEREFMason2005), p. 1 - [Rana 2012](#CITEREFRana2012), pp. [13–14](https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Roberts_1997_Importance_111-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Roberts_1997_Importance_111-1) [Roberts 1997](#CITEREFRoberts1997), § The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Greeks, § An Attempt to Summarize

1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), p. [12](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** - [Roberts 1997](#CITEREFRoberts1997), § The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Rise of Roman Power, § Empire - [Black 2021](#CITEREFBlack2021), § What is Europe?

1. **[^](#cite_ref-114)** - [Roberts 1997](#CITEREFRoberts1997), § Decline and Fall in the West, § Christiandom - [Black 2021](#CITEREFBlack2021), § What is Europe?

1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** - [Roberts 1997](#CITEREFRoberts1997), § Launching Modern History 1500–1800 - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 36–39 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 401–402

1. **[^](#cite_ref-116)** - [Roberts 1997](#CITEREFRoberts1997), § The European Age - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 39–42 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 677–678

1. **[^](#cite_ref-117)** - [Roberts 1997](#CITEREFRoberts1997), § Europe's Twentieth Century: The Era of European Civil War - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), p. 44 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 677–678

1. **[^](#cite_ref-118)** - [Roberts 1997](#CITEREFRoberts1997), § Europe in the Cold War and After, § European Integration - [Alcock 2002](#CITEREFAlcock2002), pp. [266–268](https://books.google.com/books?id=5FmHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA266) - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 39–46 - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 677–678, 817–818 - [Andrén 2022](#CITEREFAndrén2022), pp. 298, 304

1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** - [Fisher 2014](#CITEREFFisher2014), p. [127](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127) - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), p. [12](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** - [Ackermann et al. 2008](#CITEREFAckermannSchroederTerryUpshur2008), pp. xvii–xix - [Fernández-Armesto 2003](#CITEREFFernández-Armesto2003), § Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy' - [Dorling Kindersley 2018](#CITEREFDorling_Kindersley2018), pp. [94–95](https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** - [Fernández-Armesto 2003](#CITEREFFernández-Armesto2003), § Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy' - [Dorling Kindersley 2018](#CITEREFDorling_Kindersley2018), pp. [94–95](https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** - [Fernández-Armesto 2003](#CITEREFFernández-Armesto2003), § Colonial Americas: Divergence and its Limits, § The Independence Era - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 36–38 - [Dorling Kindersley 2018](#CITEREFDorling_Kindersley2018), p. [95](https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA95)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** - [Fernández-Armesto 2003](#CITEREFFernández-Armesto2003), § The Independence Era - [Raab & Rinke 2019](#CITEREFRaabRinke2019), p. [20](https://books.google.com/books?id=gQuWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** - [Fernández-Armesto 2003](#CITEREFFernández-Armesto2003), § The American Century - [Bulliet et al. 2015](#CITEREFBullietCrossleyHeadrickHirsch2015), pp. 817–818

1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), p. [12](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12) - [Lawson 2024](#CITEREFLawson2024), p. [57](https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57) - [d'Arcy 2012](#CITEREFd'Arcy2012), § Indigenous Exploration and Colonization of the Region

1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** - [Lawson 2024](#CITEREFLawson2024), pp. [32, 57](https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32) - [d'Arcy 2012](#CITEREFd'Arcy2012), § Indigenous Exploration and Colonization of the Region

1. **[^](#cite_ref-127)** - [Lawson 2024](#CITEREFLawson2024), pp. [59–60, 85–86](https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59) - [d'Arcy 2012](#CITEREFd'Arcy2012), § The Intersection of European and Indigenous Worlds, § The Impact of Pre-Colonial European Influences, § European Settler Societies and Plantation Colonies

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** - [d'Arcy 2012](#CITEREFd'Arcy2012), § Times of Anxiety: World Wars, Pandemic, and Economic Depression, § Post-War Themes: The Nuclear Pacific, Decolonization, and the Search for Identity - [Lawson 2024](#CITEREFLawson2024), pp. [xii, 2, 96](https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR12)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 34–35 - [Yurdusev 2003](#CITEREFYurdusev2003), p. [24](https://books.google.com/books?id=Mb6DDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 109 - [Gardiner 1988](#CITEREFGardiner1988), pp. 1–3

1. **[^](#cite_ref-130)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 109, 122 - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 34–35 - [Gardiner 1988](#CITEREFGardiner1988), pp. 1–3

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 109–110 - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 35–36

1. **[^](#cite_ref-132)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), p. 110 - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [16–17, 33–34, 41](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [21–25](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-133)** [Devries 2004](#CITEREFDevries2004)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-134)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 112–113 - [Watt et al. 1988](#CITEREFWattAdamsBullenBrauer1988), pp. 131–133

1. **[^](#cite_ref-135)** - [Howard et al. 1988](#CITEREFHowardBondStaggChandler1988), pp. 4–5 - [Morillo 2017](#CITEREFMorillo2017), [§ 1. An Introduction to Military History](https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 122–124 - [Coleman et al. 1988](#CITEREFColemanFloudBarkerDaunton1988), pp. 31–32

1. **[^](#cite_ref-137)** - [Samuel et al. 1988](#CITEREFSamuelBreuillyClarkHopkins1988), pp. 48–51 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 125–127 - [Stearns 2021](#CITEREFStearns2021)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-138)** - [Collinson et al. 1988](#CITEREFCollinsonBrookeNormanLake1988), pp. 58–59 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 101, 236–237, 286 - [Burke 2019](#CITEREFBurke2019), [§ Introduction](https://books.google.com/books?id=hKukDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 272–273 - [Collini et al. 1988](#CITEREFColliniSkinnerHollingerPocock1988), pp. 105–106, 109–110

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** - [Santinello & Piaia 2010](#CITEREFSantinelloPiaia2010), pp. [487–488](https://books.google.com/books?id=gC2J3V7_TPUC&pg=PA487) - [Verene 2008](#CITEREFVerene2008), pp. [6–8](https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** - [Porter et al. 1988](#CITEREFPorterShapinSchafferYoung1988), pp. 78–79 - [Williams 2024](#CITEREFWilliams2024), § Lead section

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** [Potts et al. 1988](#CITEREFPottsHouseHopeGretton1988), pp. 96–104

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** [Hughes 2016](#CITEREFHughes2016), p. [1](https://books.google.com/books?id=-WZNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 101, 112–113, 124–125, 127, 129 - [Yapp et al. 1988](#CITEREFYappBaylyClarence-SmithAbel1988), pp. 155, 158 - [Antonellos & Rantall 2017](#CITEREFAntonellosRantall2017), p. 115 - [Buchanan 2024](#CITEREFBuchanan2024), Lead section - [Ramsay 2008](#CITEREFRamsay2008), p. [283](https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv9yAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA283)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-145)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 244–245 - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 81, 92–93 - [Zaagsma 2023](#CITEREFZaagsma2023), § Introduction - [Jordanova 2000](#CITEREFJordanova2000), pp. 49–50

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** [Wong 2005](#CITEREFWong2005), pp. 416–417

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** - [Sitton, Mehaffy & Davis 2011](#CITEREFSittonMehaffyDavis2011), p. [4](https://books.google.com/books?id=xcwc7iAa1vkC&pg=PA4) - [Abrams 2016](#CITEREFAbrams2016), [2. The Peculiarities of Oral History](https://books.google.com/books?id=bluaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29) - [Miller 2024](#CITEREFMiller2024), pp. [157–158](https://books.google.com/books?id=SjOvU2iJ6JwC&pg=PA157) - [Thomson 2012](#CITEREFThomson2012), p. [80](https://books.google.com/books?id=BnEnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** - [Zhao 2023](#CITEREFZhao2023), pp. 9–10 - [Birke, Butter & Köppe 2011](#CITEREFBirkeButterKöppe2011), p. [7](https://books.google.com/books?id=VcgLgAedZ-IC&pg=PA7)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-149)** - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 13–14, 113–114 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 27, 224–225, 238 - [Veysey 1979](#CITEREFVeysey1979), p. 1

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto5_150-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto5_150-1) - [Christian 2015](#CITEREFChristian2015), p. 3 - [Stearns 2010](#CITEREFStearns2010), pp. 11–13, 17–20

1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** - [Bod 2013](#CITEREFBod2013), p. [260](https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260) - [O'Hara 2019](#CITEREFO'Hara2019), p. [176](https://books.google.com/books?id=We7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 113–115 - [De Armond 2023](#CITEREFDe_Armond2023), p. [75](https://books.google.com/books?id=r0nCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-153)** - [Glassberg 1996](#CITEREFGlassberg1996), pp. 7–8 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. xiv–xv - [Stanton 2017](#CITEREFStanton2017), p. [224](https://books.google.com/books?id=tV41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-154)** - [Fagan & Durrani 2019](#CITEREFFaganDurrani2019), [§ Written Records, Oral History, and Archaeology](https://books.google.com/books?id=dB24DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 1–3, 295

1. **[^](#cite_ref-155)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [20–21](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Lefkowitz 2008](#CITEREFLefkowitz2008), pp. 353–354

1. **[^](#cite_ref-156)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [22–23](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-158)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [21–23](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Jensen](#CITEREFJensen), § 1. Ancient through Medieval - [Lefkowitz 2008](#CITEREFLefkowitz2008), pp. 354–355

1. **[^](#cite_ref-159)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [23–24](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23) - [Jensen](#CITEREFJensen), § 1. Ancient through Medieval - [Lefkowitz 2008](#CITEREFLefkowitz2008), p. 356

1. **[^](#cite_ref-160)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), p. [26](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26) - [Comber 2006](#CITEREFComber2006), pp. 38–39

1. **[^](#cite_ref-162)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [28–30, 34](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28) - [Comber 2006](#CITEREFComber2006), pp. 38–40, 42–43

1. **[^](#cite_ref-163)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [40–41](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40) - [Lo 1998](#CITEREFLo1998)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-164)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [35–39, 41–42](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35) - [Morgan 2006](#CITEREFMorgan2006), pp. 14–15

1. **[^](#cite_ref-165)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [39–43](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-166)** - [Vašíček 2008](#CITEREFVašíček2008), pp. 33–34 - [Bayly 2006](#CITEREFBayly2006), pp. 664–665 - [Singh 2008](#CITEREFSingh2008), pp. [18–19](https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA18)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-167)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [49–50](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Breisach 2005](#CITEREFBreisach2005), § Christian Traditional Historiography

1. **[^](#cite_ref-168)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [49–52, 55](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Breisach 2005](#CITEREFBreisach2005), § Christian Traditional Historiography

1. **[^](#cite_ref-169)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [56–57](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Breisach 2005](#CITEREFBreisach2005), § Islamic Traditional Historiography - [Morgan 2006](#CITEREFMorgan2006), pp. 9–10

1. **[^](#cite_ref-170)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [57, 60](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Breisach 2005](#CITEREFBreisach2005), § Islamic Traditional Historiography - [Morgan 2006](#CITEREFMorgan2006), pp. 11, 14

1. **[^](#cite_ref-171)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [64–65](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64) - [Breisach 2005](#CITEREFBreisach2005), § Chinese Traditional Historiography

1. **[^](#cite_ref-172)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [68–69, 84](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-173)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [67–68](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67) - [Breisach 2005](#CITEREFBreisach2005), § Japanese Traditional Historiography

1. **[^](#cite_ref-174)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), p. [84](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-175)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [78, 89, 124](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78) - [Breisach 2005](#CITEREFBreisach2005), § The Age of Anthropocentric Historiography - [Jensen](#CITEREFJensen), § 2. Humanism through Renaissance - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [26–27](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-176)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [129–130, 134, 166–167](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129) - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), pp. [46–51](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-177)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [99–100](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99) - [Mittag 2012](#CITEREFMittag2012), pp. [27–28](https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27) - [Ng 2012](#CITEREFNg2012), pp. [60–62](https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-178)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [101–106](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101) - [Quinn 2020](#CITEREFQuinn2020), pp. [1–4, 8–10](https://books.google.com/books?id=GhIMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-179)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [5, 106–114](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-180)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [176–177](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-181)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [174–177](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174) - [Jensen](#CITEREFJensen), § 5. 19th Century Scientific Historiography - [Moloughney & Zarrow 2012](#CITEREFMoloughneyZarrow2012), p. [2](https://books.google.com/books?id=cs89EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-182)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Jensen](#CITEREFJensen), § 5. 19th Century Scientific Historiography - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [184–185](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-183)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [187–189](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187) - [Jensen](#CITEREFJensen), § 4. 19th Century Teleological Systems

1. **[^](#cite_ref-184)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [5–6, 196–197, 215–216](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-185)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [216–217, 279–280](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-186)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [229–230](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-187)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [239–240, 242–245](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA239)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-188)** - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006) - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [232, 247–249, 255–256](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-189)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [262–264, 268–269](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA262)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-190)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [251–252](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA251) - [Collini et al. 1988](#CITEREFColliniSkinnerHollingerPocock1988), pp. 105–107

1. **[^](#cite_ref-191)** - [Moore 2006](#CITEREFMoore2006), pp. 918–919 - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), pp. [6, 297–300](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6) - [Wright 2006](#CITEREFWright2006)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-192)** [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), p. [60](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-193)** - [Woolf 2019](#CITEREFWoolf2019), p. [3](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3) - [Tucker 2011](#CITEREFTucker2011), pp. [xii, 2](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA2) - [Ritter 1986](#CITEREFRitter1986), pp. 188–189 - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History

1. **[^](#cite_ref-194)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History - [Lloyd 2011](#CITEREFLloyd2011), pp. [371, 374](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA371)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-195)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History - [Cheng 2012](#CITEREFCheng2012), pp. [1–2](https://books.google.com/books?id=5Jot-bWsBS0C&pg=PA1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-196)** - [Howell & Prevenier 2001](#CITEREFHowellPrevenier2001), pp. 110–111 - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 121, 133 - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History

1. **[^](#cite_ref-197)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History - [Bentley 2006](#CITEREFBentley2006), pp. xi, xv - [Cheng 2012](#CITEREFCheng2012), pp. [1–2](https://books.google.com/books?id=5Jot-bWsBS0C&pg=PA1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-198)** [Paul 2015](#CITEREFPaul2015), pp. xv, 2–3, 12–13

1. **[^](#cite_ref-200)** - [Carr 2006](#CITEREFCarr2006), Lead section - [Jensen](#CITEREFJensen), Lead section - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), Lead section, § 1. History and its representation - [Paul 2015](#CITEREFPaul2015), p. 10

1. **[^](#cite_ref-201)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), Lead section, § 1. History and its representation - [Paul 2015](#CITEREFPaul2015), p. 10

1. **[^](#cite_ref-202)** - [Stanford 1998](#CITEREFStanford1998), pp. [85–87](https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA85) - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 3.3 Causation in history

1. **[^](#cite_ref-203)** - [Carr 2006](#CITEREFCarr2006), § 2. "Critical" Philosophy of History: Philosophical Reflection on Historical Knowledge - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 3.1 General laws in history?, § 3.3 Causation in history

1. **[^](#cite_ref-204)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 2.2 Does history possess directionality? - [Stanford 1998](#CITEREFStanford1998), pp. [74–75](https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74) - [Paul 2015](#CITEREFPaul2015), p. 10 - [Kleingeld 2006](#CITEREFKleingeld2006), p. xxi

1. **[^](#cite_ref-205)** - [Lemon 2003](#CITEREFLemon2003), pp. 390–391 - [Jackson & Xidias 2017](#CITEREFJacksonXidias2017), p. [21](https://books.google.com/books?id=kEkrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-207)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 4. Historiography and the philosophy of history - [Heller 2016](#CITEREFHeller2016), [§ 14. The Specificity of Philosophy of History](https://books.google.com/books?id=TFf7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT190)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-208)** - [Lemon 2003](#CITEREFLemon2003), p. 125 - [Stanford 1998](#CITEREFStanford1998), p. [155](https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155) - [Carr 2006](#CITEREFCarr2006), § 4. Historicity, Historicism and the Historicization of Philosophy - [Vision 2023](#CITEREFVision2023), § VI Truth Epistemologized: 6. Historicism

1. **[^](#cite_ref-209)** - [Little 2020](#CITEREFLittle2020), § 3.2 Historical objectivity - [Carr 2006](#CITEREFCarr2006), § 2. "Critical" Philosophy of History: Philosophical Reflection on Historical Knowledge - [Stanford 1998](#CITEREFStanford1998), pp. [50–53](https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50) - [Paul 2015](#CITEREFPaul2015), p. 10 - [Carr 1990](#CITEREFCarr1990), pp. 7–8, 21–22 - [Evans 1999](#CITEREFEvans1999), pp. 1–4

1. **[^](#cite_ref-210)** - [Dray 2021](#CITEREFDray2021), p. [58](https://books.google.com/books?id=4NEVEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58) - [Wineburg 2018](#CITEREFWineburg2018), p. [56](https://books.google.com/books?id=PIZuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56) - [Fasolt 2013](#CITEREFFasolt2013), p. [xix](https://books.google.com/books?id=4RdTAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR19) - [Trevelyan 1947](#CITEREFTrevelyan1947), pp. 1–2 - [Groot 2016](#CITEREFGroot2016), p. [173](https://books.google.com/books?id=ayt-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173) - [Jenkins 2003](#CITEREFJenkins2003), pp. [xi–xii, 44–45](https://books.google.com/books?id=nCyJ26nIuRgC&pg=PR11)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-211)** [Donnelly & Norton 2012](#CITEREFDonnellyNorton2012), pp. 35–39

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto6_212-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto6_212-1) [Jenkins 2003](#CITEREFJenkins2003), pp. 16–18

1. **[^](#cite_ref-213)** [Donnelly & Norton 2012](#CITEREFDonnellyNorton2012), pp. 35–36

1. **[^](#cite_ref-215)** [Jenkins 2003](#CITEREFJenkins2003), pp. 12–15

1. **[^](#cite_ref-216)** - [Carr 1990](#CITEREFCarr1990), pp. 16–19 - [Donnelly & Norton 2012](#CITEREFDonnellyNorton2012), pp. 112–113

1. **[^](#cite_ref-217)** [Jenkins 2003](#CITEREFJenkins2003), p. 15

1. **[^](#cite_ref-219)** [Kragh 1987](#CITEREFKragh1987), pp. 56–57

1. **[^](#cite_ref-220)** - [Kragh 1987](#CITEREFKragh1987), pp. 58–60 - [Tucker 2008](#CITEREFTucker2008), pp. 3–4

1. **[^](#cite_ref-221)** [Davies 1990](#CITEREFDavies1990), p. 160

1. **[^](#cite_ref-223)** [Donnelly & Norton 2012](#CITEREFDonnellyNorton2012), p. 100

1. **[^](#cite_ref-224)** [Summerfield 2019](#CITEREFSummerfield2019), § Introduction

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-DonnellyNorton104-106_226-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-DonnellyNorton104-106_226-1) [Donnelly & Norton 2012](#CITEREFDonnellyNorton2012), pp. 104–106

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Metzger_2018_2_228-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Metzger_2018_2_228-1) [Metzger & Harris 2018](#CITEREFMetzgerHarris2018), p. 2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-229)** - [Hughes, Cox & Godard 2013](#CITEREFHughesCoxGodard2013), pp. [4–5, 10–11](https://books.google.com/books?id=33guAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4) - [Metzger & Harris 2018](#CITEREFMetzgerHarris2018), p. 3 - [Levstik & Thornton 2018](#CITEREFLevstikThornton2018), pp. 476–477 - [Cooper 1995](#CITEREFCooper1995), pp. 3–4

1. **[^](#cite_ref-230)** - [Levstik & Thornton 2018](#CITEREFLevstikThornton2018), p. 477 - [Cooper 1995](#CITEREFCooper1995), pp. 110–112

1. **[^](#cite_ref-231)** - [Sharp et al. 2021](#CITEREFSharpDallimoreBedfordKerby2021), pp. [66–67, 71](https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66) - [Hunt 2006](#CITEREFHunt2006), p. 49 - [Phillips 2008](#CITEREFPhillips2008), pp. 34, 48–50

1. **[^](#cite_ref-232)** - [Simmonds 1989](#CITEREFSimmonds1989) - [Maguire 1984](#CITEREFMaguire1984)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-233)** - [van Hover & Hicks 2018](#CITEREFvan_HoverHicks2018), pp. 407–408 - [Metzger & Harris 2018](#CITEREFMetzgerHarris2018), pp. 6–7 - [Hunt 2006](#CITEREFHunt2006), p. 36 - [Grant 2018](#CITEREFGrant2018), pp. 422–428

1. **[^](#cite_ref-234)** - [Metzger & Harris 2018](#CITEREFMetzgerHarris2018), p. 6 - [Cooper 1995](#CITEREFCooper1995), p. 2 - [Liu et al. 2024](#CITEREFLiuWangZhangZhu2024), p. 623

1. **[^](#cite_ref-235)** - [Metzger & Harris 2018](#CITEREFMetzgerHarris2018), pp. 3, 6–7 - [Sharp et al. 2021](#CITEREFSharpDallimoreBedfordKerby2021), p. [49](https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49) - [Hunt 2006](#CITEREFHunt2006), pp. 6–7 - [Miguel-Revilla et al. 2024](#CITEREFMiguel-RevillaLópez-TorresOrtuño-MolinaMolina-Puche2024), pp. 1–2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-236)** - [Sharp et al. 2021](#CITEREFSharpDallimoreBedfordKerby2021), p. [49](https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49) - [Zajda 2015](#CITEREFZajda2015), pp. 5–6

1. **[^](#cite_ref-237)** - [Girard & Harris 2018](#CITEREFGirardHarris2018), p. 258 - [Schneider 2008](#CITEREFSchneider2008), pp. 107–108

1. **[^](#cite_ref-238)** [Schneider 2008](#CITEREFSchneider2008), pp. 107–108

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto2_240-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto2_240-1) - [Stoddard 2018](#CITEREFStoddard2018), pp. 631–632 - [Clark & Grever 2018](#CITEREFClarkGrever2018), p. 181

1. **[^](#cite_ref-241)** - [Clark & Grever 2018](#CITEREFClarkGrever2018), pp. 181, 184 - [Korte & Paletschek 2014](#CITEREFKortePaletschek2014), pp. [7–8](https://books.google.com/books?id=S6DJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-242)** - [Leavy 2011](#CITEREFLeavy2011), p. [4](https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zk6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4) - [Abrams 2016](#CITEREFAbrams2016), [2. The Peculiarities of Oral History](https://books.google.com/books?id=bluaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT37)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-243)** - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), p. [v](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5) - [Kamp et al. 2020](#CITEREFKampLegêneRossumRümke2020), p. [36](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36) - [Manning 2020](#CITEREFManning2020), pp. [1–2](https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1) - [Norberg & Deutsch 2023](#CITEREFNorbergDeutsch2023), p. [15](https://books.google.com/books?id=_VXGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15) - [Aldenderfer 2011](#CITEREFAldenderfer2011), p. [1](https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-244)** [Renier 2016](#CITEREFRenier2016), pp. [111–112](https://books.google.com/books?id=xU77CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-246)** - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), pp. [v, 1, 15](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 11, 55

1. **[^](#cite_ref-247)** [Gaskell & Carter 2020](#CITEREFGaskellCarter2020), pp. 1–5

1. **[^](#cite_ref-248)** [Manning 2020](#CITEREFManning2020), pp. [2–3](https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-249)** - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), pp. [4, 10, 13–16](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4) - [Relethford 2012](#CITEREFRelethford2012), p. [237](https://books.google.com/books?id=AuSvIa2xNHQC&pg=PA237)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-250)** - [Tuniz & Vipraio 2016](#CITEREFTunizVipraio2016), pp. [v, 1, 11, 19](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5) - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 34, 205

1. **[^](#cite_ref-251)** - [Tosh 2002](#CITEREFTosh2002), pp. 90, 186–187 - [Lewis 2012](#CITEREFLewis2012), § The Disciplines of Space and Time

1. **[^](#cite_ref-252)** [Manning 2020](#CITEREFManning2020), p. [3](https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-253)** - [Southgate 2005](#CITEREFSouthgate2005), pp. [xi, 21](https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11) - [Arnold 2000](#CITEREFArnold2000), p. [121](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121) - [White & Millett 2019](#CITEREFWhiteMillett2019), pp. 419–421

1. **[^](#cite_ref-254)** - [Wiles 1978](#CITEREFWiles1978), pp. 4–6 - [Johnson 2024](#CITEREFJohnson2024), [§ 10. Historiography and History](https://books.google.com/books?id=CTEeEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT226) - [Law 2012](#CITEREFLaw2012), p. [1](https://books.google.com/books?id=vdZshKnGRCMC&pg=PA1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-255)** - [Porter et al. 1988](#CITEREFPorterShapinSchafferYoung1988), pp. 78–79 - [Verene 2008](#CITEREFVerene2008), pp. [6–8](https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6) - [Potts et al. 1988](#CITEREFPottsHouseHopeGretton1988), pp. 96–104

### Sources

- Abrams, Lynn (2016). [*Oral History Theory*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bluaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29) (2nd ed.). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-27798-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27798-9).

- Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008). [*Encyclopedia of World History 1: The Ancient World, Prehistoric Eras to 600 CE*](https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofworldhistory_201912). Facts on File. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8160-6386-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6386-4).

- Ahlskog, Jonas (2020). [*The Primacy of Method in Historical Research: Philosophy of History and the Perspective of Meaning*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkYHEAAAQBAJ). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-000-28524-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-28524-6).

- Alcock, A. (2002). [*A Short History of Europe: From the Greeks and Romans to the Present Day*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5FmHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Palgrave Macmillan. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/9780230597426](https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230597426). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-59742-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59742-6).

- Aldenderfer, Mark (2011). ["Era 1: Beginnings of Human Society to 4000 BCE"](https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1). *World History Encyclopedia*. Vol. 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 1–327. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-85109-930-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-930-6).

- Allchin, Douglas (2004). ["Pseudohistory and Pseudoscience"](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9). *Science & Education*. **13** (3): 179–195. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2004Sc&Ed..13..179A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Sc&Ed..13..179A). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3ASCED.0000025563.35883.e9).

- Andrén, Mats (2022). [*Thinking Europe: A History of the European Idea since 1800*](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv36cj83p). Vol. 46. Berghahn Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-80073-570-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80073-570-5). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv36cj83p](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv36cj83p).

- Antonellos, Steven; Rantall, Jayne (2017). ["Indigenous History: A Conversation"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26532936). *Australasian Journal of American Studies*. **36** (2): 115–128. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [26532936](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26532936).

- Arcodia, Giorgio Francesco; Basciano, Bianca (2021). ["Periodization of Chinese History"](https://books.google.com/books?id=h4NSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15). *Chinese Linguistics: An Introduction*. Oxford University Press. p. xv. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780198847830.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198847830.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-884783-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884783-0).

- Arnold, John (2000). [*History: A Very Short Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/actrade/9780192853523.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780192853523.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-285352-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285352-3).

- Asante, Molefi Kete (2024). [*The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony*](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003351306/history-africa-molefi-kete-asante) (4 ed.). Routledge. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9781003351306](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003351306). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-003-81615-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-81615-7).

- Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia (AASA) (2011). [*Towards a Sustainable Asia: The Cultural Perspectives*](https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-16669-3). China Science Publishing & Media and Springer Science+Business Media. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-642-16669-3](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-16669-3). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-7-03-029011-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-03-029011-3).

- Baker, Alan R. H. (2003). [*Geography and History: Bridging the Divide*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PA1). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-28885-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28885-9).

- Bayly, C. A. (2006). "Modern Indian Historiography". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). *Companion to Historiography*. Routledge. pp. 663–677. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780203991459](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203991459). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-97023-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97023-0).

- Bentley, Michael (2006). "General Introduction: The Project of Historiography". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). *Companion to Historiography*. Routledge. pp. xi–xvi. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780203991459](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203991459). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-97023-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97023-0).

- Berkhofer, R. (2008). [*Fashioning History: Current Practices and Principles*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Springer. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/9780230617209](https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230617209). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-61720-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61720-9).

- Berkhofer, Robert F. (2022). [*Forgeries and Historical Writing in England, France, and Flanders, 900–1200*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bNnpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10). Boydell Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctv24tr8rg](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv24tr8rg). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78327-691-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78327-691-2). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv24tr8rg](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv24tr8rg).

- Bhat, P. Ishwara (2019). "Historical Legal Research". *Idea and Methods of Legal Research*. Oxford University Press India. pp. 198–229. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780199493098.003.0007](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780199493098.003.0007). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-909830-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-909830-9).

- Birke, Dorothee; Butter, Michael; Köppe, Tilmann (2011). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=VcgLgAedZ-IC&pg=PA7). *Counterfactual Thinking - Counterfactual Writing*. de Gruyter. pp. 1–11. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9783110268669](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110268669). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-11-026866-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-026866-9).

- Black, Jeremy (2021). [*A History of Europe: From Pre-History to the 21st Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=iKgjEAAAQBAJ). Arcturus Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-3988-0986-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3988-0986-4).

- Bod, Rens (2013). [*A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-966521-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966521-1).

- Breisach, Ernst (2005). ["Historiography: An Overview"](https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/historiography-overview). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Religion* (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. pp. 4024–4035. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-02-865981-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865981-7).

- Brown, Alexander; Sinclair, Adriana (2024). [*Hate Speech Frontiers: Exploring the Limits of the Ordinary and Legal Concepts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bCDgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA418). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-009-35714-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-35714-2).

- Buchanan, Ian (2010). ["Revisionism"](https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810105729649). *A Dictionary of Critical Theory*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-953291-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953291-9).

- Buchanan, Robert Angus (2024). ["History of Technology"](https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Retrieved 25 November 2024.

- [Bulliet, Richard](/source/Richard_Bulliet); [Crossley, Pamela](/source/Pamela_Kyle_Crossley); [Headrick, Daniel](/source/Daniel_R._Headrick); Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman; Northrup, David (2015). [*The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqOCwAAQBAJ). Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-285-44567-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-285-44567-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240429050129/https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqOCwAAQBAJ) from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2022.

- Burke, Peter (2019). [*What Is Cultural History?*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hKukDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8) (3 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5095-2224-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-2224-8).

- [Carr, Edward Hallett](/source/E._H._Carr) (1990) [1961]. [*What Is History?*](https://archive.org/details/EdwardHallettCarrWhatIsHistoryPenguinBooks1990) (2 ed.). Penguin. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-013584-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013584-8).

- Carr, David (2006). ["Philosophy of History"](https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-history). In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott – Presupposition* (2 ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. pp. 386–399. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-02-865787-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865787-5).

- Cheng, Eileen Ka-May (2012). [*Historiography: An Introductory Guide*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5Jot-bWsBS0C&pg=PA1). Continuum. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4411-7767-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-7767-4).

- Christian, David (2008). [*This Fleeting World: A Short History of Humanity*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA102). Berkshire Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-933782-04-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933782-04-1).

- Christian, David (2015). ["Introduction and Overview"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799). In Christian, David (ed.). *The Cambridge World History*. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–38. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CBO9781139194662](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139194662). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-76333-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76333-2).

- Clark, Anna; Grever, Maria (2018). ["Historical Consciousness"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch7). In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). *The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 177–201. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781119100812.ch7](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119100812.ch7). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-119-10081-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10081-2).

- Coleman, D. C.; Floud, Roderick; Barker, T. C.; Daunton, M. J.; Crafts, N. F. R. (1988). ["What Is Economic History ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_4). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 31–41. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_4](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_4). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- [Collingwood, R. G.](/source/R._G._Collingwood) (1967). ["The Nature and Aims of a Philosophy of History"](https://archive.org/details/essaysinphilosop0000unse_l9z1/page/n9/mode/2up). *Essays in the Philosophy of History*. University of Texas Press. pp. 34–56. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [17517213](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17517213).

- Collingwood, R. G. (1993). [*The Idea of History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pTucAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-285306-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285306-6).

- Collini, Stefan; Skinner, Quentin; Hollinger, David A.; Pocock, J. G. A.; Hunter, Michael (1988). ["What Is Intellectual History ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_10). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 105–119. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_10](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_10). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- *Collins Latin Concise Dictionary*. HarperCollins. 2003. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-06-053690-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-053690-9).

- Collinson, Patrick; Brooke, Christopher; Norman, Edward; Lake, Peter; Hempton, David (1988). ["What Is Religious History ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_6). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 58–68. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_6](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_6). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- Comber, Michael (2006). "Re-reading the Roman Historians". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). *Companion to Historiography*. Routledge. pp. 38–52. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-97023-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97023-0).

- Cooper, Hilary (1995). *History in the Early Years*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-10100-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10100-4).

- Cotterell, Arthur (2011). [*Asia: A Concise History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PA1). John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-470-82959-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-82959-2).

- Cresswell, Julia (2021). [*Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins*](https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198868750.001.0001/acref-9780198868750) (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-886875-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-886875-0).

- d'Arcy, Paul (2012). ["Oceania and Australasia"](https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34513/chapter-abstract/292859287). In Bentley, Jerry H. (ed.). *Oxford Handbook of World History*. Oxford University Press. pp. 546–563. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235810.013.0031](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199235810.013.0031). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-923581-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923581-0).

- Darby, Henry Clifford (2002). [*The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14). University of Exeter Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-85989-699-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85989-699-3).

- Davies, R. W. (1990) [1961]. ""From E. H. Carr's Files: Notes towards a Second Edition of *What Is History?*". In Carr, Edward Hallett; Davies, R. W. (eds.). *What Is History?* (2 ed.). Penguin. pp. 157–184. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-013584-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013584-8).

- De Armond, Thea (2023). ["Toward a Prosopography of Archaeology form the Margins"](https://books.google.com/books?id=r0nCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75). In Moshenska, Gabriel; Lewis, Clare (eds.). *Life-writing in the History of Archaeology: Critical Perspectives*. UCL Press. pp. 73–90. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-80008-450-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80008-450-6).

- Devries, Kelly (2004). ["Catapult"](https://books.google.com/books?id=xq_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT594). In Bradford, James C. (ed.). *International Encyclopedia of Military History*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-95033-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-95033-0).

- Diamond, Jared (1999). [*Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PWnWRFEGoeUC&pg=PA1). W. W. Norton & Company. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-393-06922-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06922-8).

- Donnelly, Mark; Norton, Claire (2012). *Doing History*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-136-65694-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-65694-1).

- Dorling Kindersley (2018). [*Timelines of Everything: From Woolly Mammoths to World Wars*](https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94). Dorling Kindersley. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-241-42807-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-42807-8).

- Dray, William (2021). [*On History and Philosophers of History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4NEVEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58). Brill. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-45157-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-45157-5).

- Evans, Richard J. (1999). *In Defence of History*. W. W. Norton & Company. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-393-04687-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04687-8).

- Evans, Richard J. (2001). ["The Two Faces of E. H. Carr"](https://archives.history.ac.uk/history-in-focus/Whatishistory/evans10.html). *History in Focus* (2). University of London – Institute of Historical Research.

- Evans, Richard J. (2002). ["Prologue: What Is History? – Now"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). In Cannadine, D. (ed.). *What Is History Now?*. Springer. pp. 1–18. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/9780230204522_1](https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230204522_1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-20452-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-20452-2).

- Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2019). [*World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dB24DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54) (10th ed.). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-429-77280-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-77280-1).

- Fasolt, Constantin (2013). [*The Limits of History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4RdTAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR19). University of Chicago Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-11564-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-11564-1).

- Fazal, Tanweer (2023). "'Documents of Power': Historical Method and the Study of Politics". *Studies in Indian Politics*. **11** (1): 140–149. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/23210230231166179](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F23210230231166179).

- Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2003). *The Americas: A Hemispheric History*. Random House. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-58836-302-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-302-2).

- Fisher, Michael H. (2014). [*Migration: A World History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-976434-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976434-1).

- Fronza, Emanuela (2018). [*Memory and Punishment: Historical Denialism, Free Speech and the Limits of Criminal Law*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vWBODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4). Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-6265-234-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6265-234-7).

- Gardiner, Juliet (1988). ["Introduction"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_1). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 1–3. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- Gaskell, Ivan; Carter, Sarah Anne (2020). ["Introduction: Why History and Material Culture?"](https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28036/chapter/211920648). In Gaskell, Ivan; Carter, Sarah Anne (eds.). *The Oxford Handbook of History and Material Culture*. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–13. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341764.002.0008](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199341764.002.0008) (inactive 1 July 2025). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-934176-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934176-4).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_July_2025))

- Gil, Jeffrey; Marsen, Sky (2022). [*Exploring Language in Global Contexts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9RRoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT24). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-000-59387-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-59387-7).

- Girard, Brian; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). ["Global and World History Education"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch10). In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). *The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 253–279. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781119100812.ch10](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119100812.ch10). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-119-10081-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10081-2).

- Glassberg, David (1996). "Public History and the Study of Memory". *The Public Historian*. **18** (2): 7–23. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3377910](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3377910). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3377910](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3377910).

- Grant, S. G. (2018). ["Teaching Practices in History Education"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch16). In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). *The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 419–448. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781119100812.ch16](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119100812.ch16). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-119-10081-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10081-2).

- Groot, Jerome de (2016). [*Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Popular Culture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ayt-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-27796-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27796-5).

- Haviland, Beverly (1997). [*Henry James' Last Romance: Making Sense of the Past and the American Scene*](https://books.google.com/books?id=khYVsKMvQZIC&pg=PA6). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-56338-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56338-3).

- Headrick, Daniel R. (2009). [*Technology: A World History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qG2tPzkN6HUC&pg=PA6). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-971366-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971366-0).

- Hedrick, Charles W. (2000). *History and Silence: Purge and Rehabilitation of Memory in Late Antiquity*. University of Texas Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-292-73121-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-73121-3).

- Heller, Agnes (2016). [*A Theory of History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=TFf7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT190). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-26882-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-26882-6).

- Hesketh, Ian (2023). *A History of Big History*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-009-04156-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-04156-0).

- ["History"](https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=history&submit.x=58&submit.y=14). *American Heritage Dictionary*. HarperCollins. 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2024.

- Hoad, T. F. (1993). *The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-283098-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283098-2).

- Howard, Michael; Bond, Brian; Stagg, J. C. A.; Chandler, David; Best, Geoffrey; Terrine, John (1988). ["What Is Military History ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 4–17. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_2). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). [*From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1). Cornell University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8014-8560-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8560-2).

- Hsu, Cho-yun (1993). ["Chinese Periodization"](https://books.google.com/books?id=EJeNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161). In Stearns, Peter N. (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Social History*. Routledge. pp. 161–163. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-58347-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-58347-7).

- Hughes, J. Donald (2016). [*What Is Environmental History?*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-WZNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Polity. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7456-8844-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-8844-2).

- Hughes, Pat; Cox, Kath; Godard, Gillian (2013). [*Primary History Curriculum Guide*](https://books.google.com/books?id=33guAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-12742-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-12742-9).

- Hunt, Martin (2006). "Why Learn History?". In Hunt, Martin (ed.). *A Practical Guide to Teaching History in the Secondary School*. Routledge. pp. 3–14. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780203029831](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203029831). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-19967-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-19967-9).

- Iliffe, John (2007). *Africans: The History of a Continent* (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-86438-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86438-1).

- Jackson, Ian; Xidias, Jason (2017). [*An Analysis of Francis Fukuyama's The End of History and the Last Man*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kEkrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-351-35127-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-35127-0).

- Jenkins, Keith (1995). [*On 'What Is History?': From Carr and Elton to Rorty and White*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mW_rXrXGXa8C&pg=PA53). Psychology Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-09725-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-09725-3).

- Jenkins, Keith (2003). [*Rethinking History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nCyJ26nIuRgC&pg=PA44) (3 ed.). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-40827-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-40827-6).

- Jensen, Anthony K. ["History, Philosophy of"](https://iep.utm.edu/history/). *Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Retrieved 30 November 2024.

- Johnson, Peter (2024). [*R. G. Collingwood and Christianity: Faith, Philosophy and Politics*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CTEeEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT226). Bloomsbury Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-350-46543-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-46543-5).

- Jordanova, Ludmilla (2000). *History in Practice*. Arnold Publishers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-340-66331-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-66331-8).

- Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard (2008). ["On Language, Change, and Language Change - Or, Of History, Linguistics, and Historical Linguistics"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163). In Joseph, Brian; Janda, Richard (eds.). *The Handbook of Historical Linguistics*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–180. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9780470756393.ch](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470756393.ch). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-470-75633-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75633-1).

- Kamp, Jeannette; Legêne, Susan; Rossum, Matthias van; Rümke, Sebas (2020). [*Writing History!: A Companion for Historians*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Amsterdam University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-485-3762-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-485-3762-4).

- Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). [*Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C&pg=PA457). Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-306-46158-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46158-3).

- Kleingeld, Pauline (2006). "Editor's Introduction". *Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and History*. Yale University Press. pp. xv–xxiv. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-300-11794-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11794-3).

- Korte, Barbara; Paletschek, Sylvia (2014). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=S6DJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7). In Korte, Barbara; Paletschek, Sylvia (eds.). *Popular History Now and Then: International Perspectives*. transcript Verlag. pp. 7–12. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-8394-2007-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8394-2007-2).

- Kragh, Helge (1987). [*An Introduction to the Historiography of Science*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-38921-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38921-1).

- Law, David R. (2012). [*The Historical-Critical Method: A Guide for the Perplexed*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vdZshKnGRCMC&pg=PA1). Continuum. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-567-40012-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-40012-3).

- Lawson, Stephanie (2024). [*Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-009-42758-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-42758-6).

- Leavy, Patricia (2011). [*Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zk6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-539509-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539509-9).

- [Lefkowitz, Mary](/source/Mary_Lefkowitz) (2008). ["Historiography and Myth"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444304916.ch31). In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). *A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 353–361. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781444304916.ch31](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444304916.ch31). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4443-0491-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-0491-6).

- Lemon, Michael C. (1995). *The Discipline of History and the History of Thought*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-12346-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12346-4).

- Lemon, M. C. (2003). *Philosophy of History: A Guide for Students*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-71746-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-71746-0).

- Levstik, Linda S.; Thornton, Stephen J. (2018). ["Reconceptualizing History for Early Childhood Through Early Adolescence"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch18). In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). *The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 473–501. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781119100812.ch18](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119100812.ch18). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-119-10081-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10081-2).

- Lewis, Martin W. (2012). Bentley, Jerry H. (ed.). *Geographies*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-923581-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923581-0).

- Little, Daniel (2020). ["Philosophy of History"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/). *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2024.

- Liu, Fangfang; Wang, Yiyun; Zhang, Zeyu; Zhu, Linkai; Li, Guang (2024). "Interdisciplinary Curriculum Design and Quasi-Experimental AI-Study of Junior High School History from the Perspective of Core Competencies". In Feng, Yongjun; Bhattacharjya, Aniruddha; Diao, Junfeng; Ghlamallah, Nahed Rajaa (eds.). *Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Internet, Education and Information Technology (IEIT 2024)*. Springer. pp. 622–628. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2991/978-94-6463-574-4_71](https://doi.org/10.2991%2F978-94-6463-574-4_71). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-6463-574-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6463-574-4).

- Lloyd, Christopher (2011). ["Historiographic Schools"](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA1). In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). *A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 371–380. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781444304916.ch33](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444304916.ch33). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4443-5152-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5152-1).

- Lo, Yuet Keung (1998). "Sima Qian [Ssu-ma Ch'ien] (145–85 BC)". In Woolf, D.R. (ed.). *A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing: K-Z*. Vol. 2. Garland Publishing. p. 835. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8153-1514-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-1514-8).

- Lucas, Gavin (2004). [*The Archaeology of Time*](https://books.google.com/books?id=T-bmSSHFA9oC&pg=PA50). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-38427-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-38427-3).

- Maguire, John Michael (1984). *History Department Chairpersons: Characteristics And Administrative/Leadership Role* (Thesis). The Florida State University.

- Manning, Patrick (2020). [*Methods for Human History: Studying Social, Cultural, and Biological Evolution*](https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-030-53882-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-53882-8).

- Mason, Colin (2005). *A Short History of Asia* (2 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4039-3611-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3611-0).

- Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (2018). ["Introduction"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch0). In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). *The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–10. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781119100812.ch0](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119100812.ch0). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-119-10081-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10081-2).

- Michelet, Jules (1871). "Préface de 1869". [*Histoire de France*](https://books.google.com/books?id=7CkJAAAAQAAJ) (in French). Vol. 1. Librairie Internationale. pp. i–xxxviii.

- Miguel-Revilla, Diego; López-Torres, Esther; Ortuño-Molina, Jorge; Molina-Puche, Sebastián (2024). ["Cultural Heritage and Iconic Elements for History Education: A Study with Primary Education Prospective Teachers in Spain"](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-024-04123-w). *Humanities and Social Sciences Communications*. **11** (1) 1590. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/s41599-024-04123-w](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-024-04123-w).

- Miller, Bruce Granville (2024). [*Oral History on Trial: Recognizing Aboriginal Narratives in the Courts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SjOvU2iJ6JwC&pg=PA157). UBC Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7748-2073-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-2073-8).

- Mittag, Achim (2012). ["Chinese Official Historical Writing under the Ming and Qing"](https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27). In Rabasa, José; Sato, Masayuki; Tortarolo, Edoardo; Woolf, Daniel (eds.). *The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800*. Oxford University Press. pp. 24–42. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.003.0002](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aosobl%2F9780199219179.003.0002). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-162944-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-162944-0).

- Moloughney, Brian; Zarrow, Peter (2012). ["Making History Modern: The Transformation of Chinese Historiography, 1895–1937"](https://books.google.com/books?id=cs89EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2). In Moloughney, Brian; Zarrow, Peter (eds.). *Transforming History: The Making of a Modern Academic Discipline in Twentieth-Century China*. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-962-996-479-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-996-479-5).

- Moore, R. I. (2006). "World History". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). *Companion to Historiography*. Routledge. pp. 918–936. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-97023-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97023-0).

- Morgan, David (2006). "The Evolution of Two Asian Historiographical Traditions". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). *Companion to Historiography*. Routledge. pp. 9–19. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-97023-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97023-0).

- Morillo, Stephen (2017). *What Is Military History?*. John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5095-1764-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-1764-0).

- Munslow, Alun (2001). ["What History Is"](https://archives.history.ac.uk/history-in-focus/Whatishistory/munslow6.html). *History in Focus* (2). University of London – Institute of Historical Research.

- Murphey, Rhoads; Stapleton, Kristin (2019). *A History of Asia*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-351-23189-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-23189-3).

- Ng, On-cho (2012). ["Private Historiography in Late Imperial China"](https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ). In Rabasa, José; Sato, Masayuki; Tortarolo, Edoardo; Woolf, Daniel (eds.). *The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800*. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–79. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.003.0004](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aosobl%2F9780199219179.003.0004). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-162944-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-162944-0).

- Norberg, Matilda Baraibar; Deutsch, Lisa (2023). [*The Soybean Through World History: Lessons for Sustainable Agrofood Systems*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_VXGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-000-90347-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-90347-8).

- Northrup, David R. (2015). ["From Divergence to Convergence: Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces in History"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799). In Christian, David (ed.). *The Cambridge World History*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 110–131. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CBO9781139194662](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139194662). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-76333-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76333-2).

- O'Hara, Phillip Anthony (2019). ["History of Institutional Economics"](https://books.google.com/books?id=We7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176). In Sinha, Ajit; Thomas, Alex M. (eds.). *Pluralistic Economics and Its History*. Taylor & Francis. pp. 171–190. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780429278860-12](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429278860-12). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-000-00183-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-00183-9).

- Oberg, Barbara B. (2019). [*Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World*](https://books.google.com/books?id=aHpzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT17). University of Virginia Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8139-4260-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-4260-5).

- OED Staff (2024). ["History, n."](https://www.oed.com/dictionary/history_n) *Oxford English Dictionary Online*. Oxford University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/OED/9602520444](https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOED%2F9602520444).

- Parrott, Linda J.; Hake, Don F. (1983). ["Toward a Science of History"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2741978). *The Behavior Analyst*. **6** (2): 121–132. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/BF03392391](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03392391). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2741978](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2741978). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [22478582](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22478582).

- Paul, Herman (2015). *Key Issues in Historical Theory*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-138-80272-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-80272-8).

- Phillips, Ian (2008). *Teaching History: Developing as a Reflective Secondary Teacher*. Sage. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4462-4538-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-4538-5).

- Porter, Roy; Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon; Young, Robert M.; Cooter, Roger; Crosland, Maurice (1988). ["What Is the History of Science ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 69–81. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_7). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- [Potts, Alex](/source/Alexander_Potts); House, John; Hope, Charles; Gretton, Tom (1988). ["What Is the History of Art ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_9). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 96–104. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_9](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_9). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- Pozdnyakova, Ulyana A.; Golikov, Vyacheslav V.; Peters, Irina A.; Morozova, Irina A. (2018). ["Genesis of the Revolutionary Transition to Industry 4.0 in the 21st Century and Overview of Previous Industrial Revolutions"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12). In Popkova, Elena G.; Ragulina, Yulia V.; Bogoviz, Aleksei V. (eds.). *Industry 4.0: Industrial Revolution of the 21st Century*. Springer. pp. 11–20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-319-94310-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-94310-7).

- Quinn, Sholeh A. (2020). [*Persian Historiography across Empires: The Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GhIMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-108-90170-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-90170-3).

- Raab, Josef; Rinke, Stefan (2019). ["Introduction: history and society in the Americas from the 16th to the 19th century. The bigger picture"](https://books.google.com/books?id=gQuWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20). In Kaltmeier, Olaf; Raab, Josef; Foley, Mike; Nash, Alice; Rinke, Stefan; Rufer, Mario (eds.). *The Routledge Handbook to the History and Society of the Americas*. Routledge. pp. 15–33. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-351-13869-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-13869-7).

- Ramsay, John G. (2008). ["Education, History of"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv9yAwAAQBAJ). In Provenzo, Eugene F. (ed.). *Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education*. Sage. pp. 283–288. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4522-6597-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-6597-1). Retrieved 3 May 2023.

- Rana, Pradumna B. (2012). ["Regional Economic Integration in Asia: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives"](https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13). In Rana, Pradumna B. (ed.). *Renaissance Of Asia: Evolving Economic Relations Between South Asia And East Asia*. World Scientific. pp. 13–50. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1142/9789814366519_0002](https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789814366519_0002). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-981-4458-19-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4458-19-1).

- Relethford, John H. (2012). [*Human Population Genetics*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AuSvIa2xNHQC&pg=PA237). John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-470-46467-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-46467-0).

- [Renfrew, Colin](/source/Colin_Renfrew) (2008). [*Prehistory: The Making of the Human Mind*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4CooTRuA3kAC&pg=PA172). Random House. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-58836-808-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-808-9).

- Renier, G. J. (2016). [*History: Its Purpose and Method*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xU77CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-24117-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-24117-1).

- Ritter, Harry (1986). *Dictionary of Concepts in History*. Greenwood Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-22700-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-22700-4).

- Roberts, J. (1997). *The Penguin History of Europe*. Penguin. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-192509-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-192509-7).

- Samuel, Raphael; Breuilly, John; Clark, J. C. D.; Hopkins, Keith; Cannadine, David (1988). ["What Is Social History ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_5). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 42–57. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_5](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_5). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- Santinello, Giovanni; Piaia, Gregorio (1 December 2010). [*Models of the History of Philosophy: Volume II: From Cartesian Age to Brucker*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gC2J3V7_TPUC). Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-481-9507-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9507-7). Retrieved 25 May 2023.

- Schneider, Claudia (2008). "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective". *The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science*. **617** (1): 107–122. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0002716208314359](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002716208314359).

- Shankman, Steven; Durrant, Stephen (2003). [*The Siren and the Sage: Knowledge and Wisdom in Ancient Greece and China*](https://books.google.com/books?id=oTn7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96). Wipf and Stock Publishers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-7252-0845-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7252-0845-2).

- Sharp, Heather; Dallimore, Jonathon; Bedford, Alison; Kerby, Martin; Goulding, James; Güttner, Darius von; Heath, Treesa Clare; Zarmati, Louise (2021). [*Teaching Secondary History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-108-96998-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-96998-7).

- Shillington, Kevin (2018). [*History of Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93). Bloomsbury Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-137-52481-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-52481-2).

- Simmonds, John C. (1989). "History Curriculum and Curriculum Change in Colleges and Universities of the United States: A Study of Twenty-Three History Departments in 1988". *The History Teacher*. **22** (3): 293–316. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/492866](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F492866).

- Singh, Upinder (2008). [*A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA18). Pearson Education India. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-317-1677-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1677-9).

- Sitton, Thad; Mehaffy, George L.; Davis, O. L. (2011). [*Oral History: A Guide for Teachers (and Others)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xcwc7iAa1vkC&pg=PA4). University of Texas Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-292-78582-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-78582-3).

- Southgate, Beverley C. (2005). [*What Is History For?*](https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA1). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-35098-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35098-3).

- Stanford, Michael (1998). [*An Introduction to the Philosophy of History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-631-19941-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19941-0).

- Stanton, Cathy (2017). ["Between Pastness and Presentism: Public History and Local Food Activism"](https://books.google.com/books?id=tV41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224). In Gardner, James B.; Hamilton, Paula (eds.). *The Oxford Handbook of Public History*. Oxford University Press. pp. 217–238. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199766024.013.12](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199766024.013.12). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-067378-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-067378-9).

- Stearns, Peter N. (2001). *The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged*. Houghton Mifflin. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-395-65237-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-65237-4).

- Stearns, Peter N. (2010). [*World History: The Basics*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-136-88817-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-88817-5).

- Stearns, Peter N. (2021). ["Social History"](https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199756384/obo-9780199756384-0131.xml). *Oxford Bibliographies*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0131](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199756384-0131). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-975638-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975638-4). Retrieved 24 November 2024.

- Stevenson, Angus (2010). [*Oxford Dictionary of English*](https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA831). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-957112-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957112-3).

- Stoddard, Jeremy D. (2018). ["Learning History Beyond School"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch24). In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). *The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 631–656. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781119100812.ch24](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119100812.ch24). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-119-10081-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10081-2).

- Storey, William Kelleher (2013). *Writing History: A Guide for Students* (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-983004-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983004-6).

- Summerfield, Penny (2019). *Histories of the Self: Personal Narratives and Historical Practice*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-429-94529-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-94529-8).

- Thomson, Alistair (2012). ["Memory and Remembering in Oral History"](https://books.google.com/books?id=BnEnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80). In Ritchie, Donald A. (ed.). *The Oxford Handbook of Oral History*. Oxford University Press. pp. 77–95. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195339550.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195339550.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-999636-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-999636-0).

- Topolski, Y. (2012). [*Methodology of History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OMZ9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA432). D. Reidel Publishing Company. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-010-1123-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-1123-5).

- Tosh, John (2002). [*The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ). Pearson Education. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-582-77254-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77254-0).

- Trevelyan, G. M. (1947). "Bias in History". *History*. **32** (115): 1–15. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1468-229X.1947.tb00181.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-229X.1947.tb00181.x).

- Tucker, Aviezer (2008). "Historiographic Revision and Revisionism". In Kopeček, Michal (ed.). *Past in the Making: Historical Revisionism in Central Europe After 1989*. [Central European University Press](/source/Central_European_University_Press). pp. 1–16. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9786155211423](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9786155211423). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-6-155-21142-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-6-155-21142-3).

- Tucker, Aviezer (2011). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA1). In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). *A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–6. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781444304916.ch1](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444304916.ch1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4443-5152-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5152-1).

- Tuniz, Claudio; Vipraio, Patrizia Tiberi (2016). [*Humans: An Unauthorized Biography*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Springer. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-31021-3). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-319-31021-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-31021-3).

- Välimäki, Reima; Aali, Heta (2020). ["The Ancient Finnish Kings and their Swedish Archenemy: Nationalism, Conspiracy Theories, and Alt-Right Memes in Finnish Online Medievalism"](https://books.google.com/books?id=3kmHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57). In Fugelso, Karl (ed.). *Politics and Medievalism*. Vol. 3. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 55–78. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84384-625-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-625-3). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv24cns6q](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv24cns6q).

- van Hover, Stephanie; Hicks, David (2018). ["History Teacher Preparation and Professional Development"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch15). In Metzger, Scott Alan; Harris, Lauren McArthur (eds.). *The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 389–418. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781119100812.ch15](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119100812.ch15). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-119-10081-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10081-2).

- Van Nieuwenhuyse, Karel (2020). ["From Knowing the National Past to Doing History"](https://books.google.com/books?id=bhLbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375). In Berg, Christopher W.; Christou, Theodore M. (eds.). *The Palgrave Handbook of History and Social Studies Education*. Springer. pp. 355–386. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-030-37210-1_14](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-37210-1_14). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-030-37210-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-37210-1).

- Vašíček, Zdeněk (2008). ["Philosophy of History"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444304916.ch3). In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). *A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 26–43. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781444304916.ch3](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444304916.ch3). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4443-0491-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-0491-6).

- Verene, Donald Phillip (20 June 2008). [*The History of Philosophy: A Reader's Guide*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC). Northwestern University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8101-5197-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-5197-0). Retrieved 25 May 2023.

- Veysey, Laurence (1979). "The 'New' Social History in the Context of American Historical Writing". *Reviews in American History*. **7** (1): 1–12. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2700953](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2700953). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2700953](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2700953).

- Vision, Gerald A. (2023). [*Modern Anti-Realism and Manufactured Truth*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT142). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-003-80838-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-80838-1).

- Watt, D. C.; Adams, Simon; Bullen, Roger; Brauer, Kinley; Iriye, Akira (1988). ["What Is Diplomatic History ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 131–142. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_12). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- White, W. George; Millett, Bruce (2019). Kobayashi, Audrey (ed.). *International Encyclopedia of Human Geography*. Elsevier. pp. 419–426. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-08-102296-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-102296-2).

- Wiles, Maurice (1978). "In What Sense is Christianity a 'Historical' Religion?". *Theology*. **81** (679): 4–14. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0040571X7808100102](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0040571X7808100102).

- Williams, L. Pearce (2024). ["History of Science"](https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Retrieved 24 November 2024.

- Wineburg, Sam (2018). [*Why Learn History (When It's Already on Your Phone)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PIZuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56). University of Chicago Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-35735-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35735-5).

- Wong, R. Bin (2005). "Comparative History". *Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History*. Berkshire Publishing. pp. 630–635. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9743091-0-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9743091-0-1). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [jj.9941129](https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.9941129).

- Woolf, Daniel (2019). [*A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-108-42619-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42619-0).

- Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca (2016). ["Threshold 6"](https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ). *Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now*. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 180–223. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-241-22590-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-22590-5). Retrieved 4 May 2024.

- Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). ["Historiography"](https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853). *A Dictionary of World History*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-280700-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280700-7).

- Yapp, M. E.; Bayly, C. A.; Clarence-Smith, Gervase; Abel, Christopher; Johnson, Gordon; Fyfe, Christopher (1988). ["What Is Third World History ... ?"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_14). In Gardiner, Juliet (ed.). *What Is History Today ... ?*. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 155–167. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_14](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_14). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-19161-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-19161-1).

- Yurdusev, A. (2003). [*International Relations and the Philosophy of History: A Civilizational Approach*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Mb6DDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24). Springer. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1057/9781403938404](https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781403938404). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4039-3840-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3840-4).

- Zaagsma, Gerben (2023). "Digital History and the Politics of Digitization". *Digital Scholarship in the Humanities*. **38** (2): 830–851. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/llc/fqac050](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fllc%2Ffqac050).

- Zajda, Joseph (2015). ["Globalisation and the Politics of Education Reforms: History Education"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9729-0_1). *Nation-Building and History Education in a Global Culture*. Springer. pp. 1–14. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-94-017-9729-0_1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-9729-0_1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-017-9729-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-9729-0).

- Zhao, Helen (2023). "Counterfactual History: Three Worries and Replies". *Journal of the Philosophy of History*. **17** (1): 9–30. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/18722636-12341487](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18722636-12341487).

## External links

- [Internet History Sourcebooks Project](http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/) See also [Internet History Sourcebooks Project](/source/Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project) (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use)

Listen to this article (1 hour and 0 minutes)

[This audio file](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-History-article.ogg) was created from a revision of this article dated 23 July 2025 (2025-07-23), and does not reflect subsequent edits.

([Audio help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help) · [More spoken articles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles))

Links to related articles v t e Historiography Historians list / by area of study History historians historicity history theories of history Historical sources Types Primary sources Secondary sources Tertiary sources Sources Annals Archives Artifacts Archaeological site Chronicles Codices Deeds Facsimiles Features Hieroglyphs Logbooks Manuscripts Cartulary Illuminated Rotulus Oral tradition Palimpsest Papyri Religious texts Scrolls War diaries Service records Fields of study By scale Big History World history Human history Local history Microhistory By source Archival science / Library and information science (template) Books / Writing systems Chorography Chronology dating Diplomatics Encyclopaedistics Epigraphy Genealogy Heraldry Numismatics (Money) Onomastics Oral history preservation Phaleristics Philology Postage stamps Prosopography Sigillography Toponymy Vexillology By topic Anthropology / Paleoanthropology Counterfactual Cultural Ecology / Environment / Geography Economic Business Capitalism Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought Thought Intellectual Geistesgeschichte Linguistics Maritime Medieval churches Military Political Constitutional Diplomatic Social Feminism Gender Indigenous Labour LGBTQ Rural Quantitative Urban Women Methodology Case study Periodization Historical eras Tarikh Three-age system Approaches, schools Annales school History of mentalities Nouvelle histoire Historiometry / Cliometrics Comparative historical research Critical Decoloniality Feminist Historical anthropology Historical determinism Historism Historical-critical method Humanistic Indiscipline of history [pt] Leninist Marxist Historical materialism Nationalist Ancestral civilisation Nationalization of history People's history Subaltern Studies Pop history Quantitative history Revisionist Transnational Whig Great Man theory Concepts General Change and continuity Historic preservation Historical recurrence Historical significance Historicity Historiology [es] Theory of history [de] Philosophy Specific Black legend Coloniality and decolonization of knowledge Dark Ages (historiography) Historical negationism Historian's fallacy / Presentism Invented tradition Modernisation theory Myth of the flat earth Narratives Paradigm shift Precursorism Pax list Thirty-year rule Transhistoricity Translatio imperii / Translatio studii Vaticinium ex eventu Periodization of modern history Age of Discovery Age of Enlightenment European Civil War / Second Thirty Years' War Long 18th / 19th century Renaissance Continuity thesis By country or region Africa African historiography Egypt Pyramid construction techniques Black Egypt Thesis [es] Ethiopia Morocco Greater Morocco Rwanda Double genocide theory Maafa Americas Canada Metropolitan-hinterland thesis Residential schools Staples thesis Indigenous population history Latin America Argentina May Revolution / Causes Revisionist [es] Peru Iquicha Royalism Colonial Spanish America Casta United States African-American history Nadir of American race relations Neoabolitionism Reconstruction era Consensus history Cyclical theory Frontier thesis Political history Eras Progressive-era historians Eurasia Albania Dealbanisation Austria Habsburg myth Balhae Belarus Bulgaria Byzantine Empire [de] Early [ru] Croatia Europe Ancient [ru] Medieval [ru] New Age [ru] Georgia Aryan Kartli Greek Ages of Man Iran 2,500-year celebration Japan Korea Nationalist Goguryeo controversies North Macedonia Philippines Early settlements Portugal Lusotropicalism Romania Great Union Serbia Kosovo Myth Sweden Götaland theory Switzerland Taiwan Ukraine Executed Renaissance Vietnam Nam tiến Trưng sisters Ancient Rome Catilinarian conspiracy Christianization Constantinian shift Expansion Fall of Western Rome Prosopography Succession Byzantine succession Moscow, third Rome Ottoman claim Problem of two emperors China 5000-year civilization assertion Archaeology Wunu School [zh] Century of humiliation Conquest dynasty "Chineseness" debate New Qing History Golden ages Hua–Yi distinction Four Barbarians Sinocentrism Self-Strengthening Movement Sprouts of capitalism Tibetan sovereignty debate France Cordon sanitaire Frankish Interregnum [fr] Grand Siècle Legendary Saracen [fr] Location of Alésia [fr] Lyon [fr] Vichy France Germany Alltagsgeschichte Borussian myth Historikerstreit Sonderweg Strukturgeschichte [de] Sybel-Ficker controversy Vergangenheitsbewältigung India Greater Magadha Indocentrism Indigenous Aryanism Ireland Great Famine "More Irish than the Irish themselves" Revisionism Revolutionary period Italy Fascist Italy Fourth Italian War of Independence Historiae Patriae Monumenta Historical Series of the Bank of Italy Italians, the good people Rerum italicarum scriptores Revisionism of Risorgimento Southern question Neo-Bourbonism Poland Golden Liberty Sarmatism Deluge Partitions Polish People's Republic [pl] Russia Anti-Normanism Pre-Revolutionary Russia [ru] Skeptic School [ru] Soviet Union October Revolution Soviet famine of 1930–1933 Causes of the Holodomor Holodomor genocide question Holodomor in modern politics Spain Black legend / White legend Hispanism Carlism in the Francoist era Convivencia Inquisition Limpieza de sangre controversy [es] Reconquista Islamic revolution of Spain [es] Revisionist Colonies or Provinces Spanish decline [es] Ser de España Turkey Kemalist Ottoman Empire Ghaza thesis Decline thesis United Kingdom Poor Laws Scotland Kingdom of Alba Westminster Stone Storm over the gentry Suffragette Campaign Tudor myth Ricardians Winter of Discontent British Empire Cambridge School Porter–MacKenzie debate Second colonial occupation Oceania Australia Colonial Australia By war, conflict v t e Military historiography Military history List of military museums Pre-18th century conflicts Albigensian Crusade Catharism debate Crusades Islamic views Eighty Years' War Origins Fall of Babylon Gallic Wars Late Bronze Age collapse Dorian invasion Sea Peoples Peloponnesian War 18th and 19th century conflicts Coalition Wars (1792–1815) French Revolution Causes War in the Vendée Napoleonic era Invasion of Russia Waterloo American Civil War Origins Turning point Franco-Prussian War Causes Paris Commune Great Game Indian Rebellion of 1857 Causes Paraguayan War War of 1812 Origins War of the Pacific Causes World War I Causes (Color books / Fischer thesis) Late Ottoman genocides (Causes of the Armenian genocide) Patriotic consent Persian famine of 1917–1919 Powder keg of Europe Schlieffen Plan Spirit of 1914 / 1917 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Germany imposed this on Russia in 1918 Treaty of Versailles Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II Causes "Blitzkrieg" concept Broad vs. narrow front German resistance to Nazism Nazi foreign policy debate Eastern Front Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact Soviet offensive plans Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia Winter War Background Spirit The Holocaust Auschwitz bombing debate Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe Functionalism–intentionalism debate In relation to the Armenian genocide / Herero and Nama genocide / Nakba Pope Pius XII Pius Wars "Polish death camp" Responsibility Slovakia Uniqueness Pacific War Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki "Battle for Australia" Bengal famine Second Sino-Japanese War Nanjing Massacre Western Front Battle of France Guilty Men Résistancialisme Vichy France Cold War Origins 1948 Palestine war Palestinian expulsion and flight / Ongoing Nakba Zionism as settler colonialism New Historians Malayan Emergency Causes Algerian War Six-Day War Origins Iranian revolution Causes Iran–Iraq War Falklands War Sovereignty dispute Sri Lankan civil war Origins Post-Cold War Russo-Georgian War Background Responsibility Syrian revolution Causes Related Conflict thesis Gunpowder and gun transmission War and genocide Category By person Political leaders Adolf Hitler Alexander the Great Amin al-Husseini Aurangzeb Cato the Younger Che Guevara Chiang Ching-kuo [zh] Chiang Kai Shek [zh] Constantine the Great Gregory Palamas Horatio Nelson Hypatia Jiang Zemin [zh] Joseph Stalin [ru] José de San Martín Juan Manuel de Rosas Klemens von Metternich Leonid Brezhnev Louis Riel Mao Zedong [zh] Muammar Gaddafi Napoleon Neville Chamberlain Pedro II of Brazil Simon Bolivar Cult of personality [es] Bolivarianism Saladin Sun Yat-sen [zh] Thomas Aquinas Thomas Jefferson Ulysses S. Grant Warren G. Harding Yuan Shikai [zh] Zhou Enlai [zh] Zhuge Liang [zh] Historical rankings Australia Canada Modern Germany Netherlands United Kingdom United States Others Jane Austen The Beatles Charles Darwin Jesus Historicity Religious perspectives Christianity Judaism Islam Resurrection Søren Kierkegaard H. P. Lovecraft Madonna Muhammad Historicity Judaism Medieval Christianity Friedrich Nietzsche Robert Falcon Scott William Shakespeare Socrates J. R. R. Tolkien The Lord of the Rings Other topics Bears in antiquity Crisis of historiography [pt] Feudalism Library of Alexandria Nationalism in the Middle Ages Professionalization and institutionalization of history Salons Western European colonialism and colonization Desacralization of knowledge Economics Industrial Revolution Great Recession Great Depression School of Thoughts Historical school of economics English historical school of economics Religion Avestan geography Early Christianity Background Historical reliability of the Gospels Primacy of Peter Opposition to Papal supremacy Proto-orthodox Christianity Early Islam Criticism of the Quran Succession to Muhammad Islamic golden age Kharijites Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church Second Vatican Council Hermeneutics of the Second Vatican Council Hesychast controversy Protestant Reformation Proto-Protestantism Criticism of Protestantism Protestant work ethic Jesuit historiography Modern Jewish history Wissenschaft des Judentums Schools of thought Biblical criticism Catholic theology Panbabylonism Urreligion Perennial Religionsgeschichtliche Schule Roman Revisionist school of Islamic studies Science / Technology Merton thesis Protestant Ethic and Capitalism Heroic theory of invention and scientific development Gunpowder and gun transmission Torsion mangonel myth Organizations, publications Heritage registers Historical society (list) History institutes History journals template Related Commemorative plaque Documentary film Hagiography Historical fiction Historical realism Historiographic metafiction Historical geographic information system Category Multimedia v t e Time Key concepts Past Present Future Eternity Measurement and standards Chronometry UTC Universal Time TAI Unit of time Orders of magnitude (time) Measurement systems Italian six-hour clock Thai six-hour clock 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Relative hour Daylight saving time Chinese Decimal Hexadecimal Hindu Jain Metric Roman Sidereal Solar Time zone Calendars Main types Solar Lunar Lunisolar Gregorian Julian Hebrew Islamic Solar Hijri Chinese Hindu Panchang Maya List Clocks Main types astronomical astrarium atomic quantum hourglass marine sundial watch 24-hour wristwatch mechanical stopwatch water-based Cuckoo clock Digital clock Grandfather clock History Timeline Chronology History Astronomical chronology Big History Calendar era Deep time Periodization Regnal year Timeline Philosophy of time A series and B series B-theory of time Chronocentrism Duration Endurantism Eternal return Eternalism Event Moving spotlight theory Perdurantism Presentism Temporal finitism Temporal parts "The Unreality of Time" Religion Mythology Ages of Man Destiny Immortality Dreamtime Kāla Time and fate deities Father Time Wheel of time Kalachakra Human experience and use of time Chronemics Generation time Mental chronometry Music tempo time signature Rosy retrospection Tense–aspect–mood Time management Yesterday – Today – Tomorrow Time in science Geology Geological time age chron eon epoch era period Geochronology Geological history of Earth Physics Absolute space and time Arrow of time Chronon Coordinate time Instant Proper time Spacetime Theory of relativity Time domain Time translation symmetry Time reversal symmetry Other fields Chronological dating Chronobiology Circadian rhythms Clock reaction Glottochronology Time geography Related Leap year Memory Moment Sabbath Space System time Tempus fugit Time capsule Time immemorial Time travel Time value of money Category Commons v t e Humanities Disciplines Anthropology Archaeology Classical studies History Language arts Literature Poetry Rhetoric Law Performing arts Dance Music Theatre Philosophy Religious studies Visual arts Filmmaking Painting Sculpture Interdisciplinary fields Digital Environmental Health Medical Public Themes Abductive reasoning Aesthetics Antipositivism The arts Beauty Belles-lettres Bildung Creativity Critical theory Criticism Cultural literacy Culture High Pop General knowledge Hermeneutics Historicism Historism Human condition Humanitas Liberal arts education Trivium Quadrivium Metaphysics Ontology Moral character Self-realization Self-reflection Wisdom Work of art Journals American Journal of Archaeology Daedalus History of Humanities Humanitas Humanities and Social Sciences Communications Journal of Controversial Ideas Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Leonardo Nova Religio Revue des Études Arméniennes Teaching Philosophy more... Academia Arts and Humanities Research Council Human science Geisteswissenschaft Humanities, arts, and social sciences Master of Humanities Moscow University for the Humanities National Endowment for the Humanities National Humanities Medal Related Criticism of mass culture Educational essentialism Humanism Anti Renaissance Humanities in the United States List of people considered a founder in a humanities field Outline of the humanities Philistinism Studia Humanitatis v t e Social sciences Outline History Index Primary Anthropology archaeology Biological cultural social Economics microeconomics macroeconomics econometrics mathematical Geography physical human technical integrated History cultural auxiliary sciences economic human military political social Law jurisprudence legal history legal systems public law private law Linguistics semiotics Political science international relations comparative philosophy public policy public administration Psychology abnormal cognitive developmental personality social Sociology criminology demography internet rural urban Interdisciplinary Administration business public Anthrozoology Area studies Business studies Cognitive science Communication studies Community studies Criminology Critical animal studies Cultural studies Development studies Education Environmental social science studies Food studies Gender studies Global studies Historical sociology History of technology Human ecology Information science International studies Linguistics Management Media studies Philosophies science economics history psychology social science Planning land use regional urban Political ecology Political economy Political sociology Public health Regional science Science and technology studies Science studies historical Quantum social science Social work Vegan studies List List of social science journals Other categorizations Behavioural sciences Geisteswissenschaft Human science Humanities Category v t e Social philosophy Concepts Advocacy/activism Agency Anomie Convention Cosmopolitanism Customs Cultural heritage Culturalism Inter Mono Multi Culture Counter Emotion regime Familialism History Honour Human nature Identity Formation Ideology Institutions Invisible hand Loyalty Modernity Morality Public Mores National character Natural law Organization Personhood Reification Ressentiment Rights Sittlichkeit Social alienation Social norms Spontaneous order Stewardship Traditions Values Family Worldview Schools Budapest School Catholic social teaching Distributism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Social Frankfurt School Personalism Philosophers Ancient Aristotle Confucius Laozi Mencius Mozi Plato Polybius Socrates Xunzi Medieval Al-Ghazali Al-Farabi Aquinas Augustine Avempace Ibn Khaldun Maimonides Ibn Tufayl Early modern Bruni Calvin Erasmus Guicciardini Locke Luther Machiavelli Milton Montaigne Müntzer 18th and 19th centuries Arnold Bentham Bonald Burke Carlyle Comte Condorcet Emerson Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Hegel Helvétius Herder Hume Jefferson Kant Kierkegaard Le Bon Le Play Marx Mill Nietzsche Owen Renan Rousseau Royce Ruskin Smith Spencer de Staël Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Vico Vivekananda Voltaire 20th and 21st centuries Adorno Agamben Arendt Aron Badiou Baudrillard Bauman Benoist Berlin Butler Camus de Beauvoir Debord Deleuze Dewey Du Bois Durkheim Eco Evola Fanon Foucault Fromm Gandhi Gehlen Gentile Gramsci Guénon Habermas Han Heidegger Hoppe Irigaray Kirk Kołakowski Kropotkin Land Lasch Lenin MacIntyre Marcuse Maritain Negri Niebuhr Nussbaum Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Polanyi Radhakrishnan Röpke Santayana Scruton Shariati Simmel Skinner Sombart Sowell Spengler Strauss Taylor Voegelin Walzer Weber Weil Zinn Žižek Works De Officiis (44 BC) Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) A Vindication of Natural Society (1756) Democracy in America (1835–1840) Civilization and Its Discontents (1930) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (1935) The Second Sex (1949) One-Dimensional Man (1964) The Society of the Spectacle (1967) The History of Sexuality (1976) The Culture of Narcissism (1979) A Conflict of Visions (1987) The Closing of the American Mind (1987) Gender Trouble (1990) The Malaise of Modernity (1991) Intellectuals and Society (2010) See also Agnotology Critical theory Cultural criticism Cultural pessimism Ethics Historism Historicism Humanities Philosophy of culture Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Political philosophy Social criticism Social science Social theory Sociology Value theory Category v t e Chronology Key topics Archaeology Astronomy Geology History Big History Paleontology Time Periods Eras Epochs Calendar eras Human Era Ab urbe condita Anno Domini / Common Era Anno Mundi Bosporan era Bostran era Byzantine era Seleucid era Era of Caesar (Iberia) Before Present Hijri Egyptian Sothic cycle Hindu units of time (Yuga) Jain units of time (Avasarpiṇī) Mesoamerican Long Count Short Count Tzolkʼin Haabʼ Regnal year Anka year Canon of Kings English and British regnal year Lists of kings Limmu Era names Chinese Japanese Korean Vietnamese Calendars Pre-Julian / Julian Pre-Julian Roman Original Julian Proleptic Julian Revised Julian Gregorian Gregorian Proleptic Gregorian Old Style and New Style dates Adoption of the Gregorian calendar Dual dating Astronomical Lunisolar (Hebrew, Hindu) Solar Lunar (Islamic) Astronomical year numbering Others Chinese sexagenary cycle Geologic Calendar Iranian ISO week date Mesoamerican Maya Aztec Winter count New Earth Time Astronomic time Cosmic Calendar Ephemeris Galactic year Metonic cycle Milankovitch cycles Geologic time Concepts Deep time Geological history of Earth Geological time units Standards Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) Methods Chronostratigraphy Geochronology Isotope geochemistry Law of superposition Luminescence dating Samarium–neodymium dating Chronological dating Absolute dating Amino acid racemisation Archaeomagnetic dating Dendrochronology Ice core Incremental dating Lichenometry Paleomagnetism Radiometric dating Lead–lead Potassium–argon Radiocarbon Uranium–lead Tephrochronology Luminescence dating Thermoluminescence dating Relative dating Fluorine absorption Nitrogen dating Obsidian hydration Seriation Stratigraphy Genetic methods Molecular clock Linguistic methods Glottochronology Related topics Chronicle New Chronology Synchronoptic view Timeline Year zero Floruit Terminus post quem ASPRO chronology v t e Theories of history Annales Conceptual Cultural Economic Environmental Gender Historicism Marxist Macrohistory Microhistory Postcolonial Politics Postmodern Psychohistory Social List of historians History Big History v t e Historiography Historians list / by area of study History historians historicity history theories of history Historical sources Types Primary sources Secondary sources Tertiary sources Sources Annals Archives Artifacts Archaeological site Chronicles Codices Deeds Facsimiles Features Hieroglyphs Logbooks Manuscripts Cartulary Illuminated Rotulus Oral tradition Palimpsest Papyri Religious texts Scrolls War diaries Service records Fields of study By scale Big History World history Human history Local history Microhistory By source Archival science / Library and information science (template) Books / Writing systems Chorography Chronology dating Diplomatics Encyclopaedistics Epigraphy Genealogy Heraldry Numismatics (Money) Onomastics Oral history preservation Phaleristics Philology Postage stamps Prosopography Sigillography Toponymy Vexillology By topic Anthropology / Paleoanthropology Counterfactual Cultural Ecology / Environment / Geography Economic Business Capitalism Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought Thought Intellectual Geistesgeschichte Linguistics Maritime Medieval churches Military Political Constitutional Diplomatic Social Feminism Gender Indigenous Labour LGBTQ Rural Quantitative Urban Women Methodology Case study Periodization Historical eras Tarikh Three-age system Approaches, schools Annales school History of mentalities Nouvelle histoire Historiometry / Cliometrics Comparative historical research Critical Decoloniality Feminist Historical anthropology Historical determinism Historism Historical-critical method Humanistic Indiscipline of history [pt] Leninist Marxist Historical materialism Nationalist Ancestral civilisation Nationalization of history People's history Subaltern Studies Pop history Quantitative history Revisionist Transnational Whig Great Man theory Concepts General Change and continuity Historic preservation Historical recurrence Historical significance Historicity Historiology [es] Theory of history [de] Philosophy Specific Black legend Coloniality and decolonization of knowledge Dark Ages (historiography) Historical negationism Historian's fallacy / Presentism Invented tradition Modernisation theory Myth of the flat earth Narratives Paradigm shift Precursorism Pax list Thirty-year rule Transhistoricity Translatio imperii / Translatio studii Vaticinium ex eventu Periodization of modern history Age of Discovery Age of Enlightenment European Civil War / Second Thirty Years' War Long 18th / 19th century Renaissance Continuity thesis By country or region Africa African historiography Egypt Pyramid construction techniques Black Egypt Thesis [es] Ethiopia Morocco Greater Morocco Rwanda Double genocide theory Maafa Americas Canada Metropolitan-hinterland thesis Residential schools Staples thesis Indigenous population history Latin America Argentina May Revolution / Causes Revisionist [es] Peru Iquicha Royalism Colonial Spanish America Casta United States African-American history Nadir of American race relations Neoabolitionism Reconstruction era Consensus history Cyclical theory Frontier thesis Political history Eras Progressive-era historians Eurasia Albania Dealbanisation Austria Habsburg myth Balhae Belarus Bulgaria Byzantine Empire [de] Early [ru] Croatia Europe Ancient [ru] Medieval [ru] New Age [ru] Georgia Aryan Kartli Greek Ages of Man Iran 2,500-year celebration Japan Korea Nationalist Goguryeo controversies North Macedonia Philippines Early settlements Portugal Lusotropicalism Romania Great Union Serbia Kosovo Myth Sweden Götaland theory Switzerland Taiwan Ukraine Executed Renaissance Vietnam Nam tiến Trưng sisters Ancient Rome Catilinarian conspiracy Christianization Constantinian shift Expansion Fall of Western Rome Prosopography Succession Byzantine succession Moscow, third Rome Ottoman claim Problem of two emperors China 5000-year civilization assertion Archaeology Wunu School [zh] Century of humiliation Conquest dynasty "Chineseness" debate New Qing History Golden ages Hua–Yi distinction Four Barbarians Sinocentrism Self-Strengthening Movement Sprouts of capitalism Tibetan sovereignty debate France Cordon sanitaire Frankish Interregnum [fr] Grand Siècle Legendary Saracen [fr] Location of Alésia [fr] Lyon [fr] Vichy France Germany Alltagsgeschichte Borussian myth Historikerstreit Sonderweg Strukturgeschichte [de] Sybel-Ficker controversy Vergangenheitsbewältigung India Greater Magadha Indocentrism Indigenous Aryanism Ireland Great Famine "More Irish than the Irish themselves" Revisionism Revolutionary period Italy Fascist Italy Fourth Italian War of Independence Historiae Patriae Monumenta Historical Series of the Bank of Italy Italians, the good people Rerum italicarum scriptores Revisionism of Risorgimento Southern question Neo-Bourbonism Poland Golden Liberty Sarmatism Deluge Partitions Polish People's Republic [pl] Russia Anti-Normanism Pre-Revolutionary Russia [ru] Skeptic School [ru] Soviet Union October Revolution Soviet famine of 1930–1933 Causes of the Holodomor Holodomor genocide question Holodomor in modern politics Spain Black legend / White legend Hispanism Carlism in the Francoist era Convivencia Inquisition Limpieza de sangre controversy [es] Reconquista Islamic revolution of Spain [es] Revisionist Colonies or Provinces Spanish decline [es] Ser de España Turkey Kemalist Ottoman Empire Ghaza thesis Decline thesis United Kingdom Poor Laws Scotland Kingdom of Alba Westminster Stone Storm over the gentry Suffragette Campaign Tudor myth Ricardians Winter of Discontent British Empire Cambridge School Porter–MacKenzie debate Second colonial occupation Oceania Australia Colonial Australia By war, conflict v t e Military historiography Military history List of military museums Pre-18th century conflicts Albigensian Crusade Catharism debate Crusades Islamic views Eighty Years' War Origins Fall of Babylon Gallic Wars Late Bronze Age collapse Dorian invasion Sea Peoples Peloponnesian War 18th and 19th century conflicts Coalition Wars (1792–1815) French Revolution Causes War in the Vendée Napoleonic era Invasion of Russia Waterloo American Civil War Origins Turning point Franco-Prussian War Causes Paris Commune Great Game Indian Rebellion of 1857 Causes Paraguayan War War of 1812 Origins War of the Pacific Causes World War I Causes (Color books / Fischer thesis) Late Ottoman genocides (Causes of the Armenian genocide) Patriotic consent Persian famine of 1917–1919 Powder keg of Europe Schlieffen Plan Spirit of 1914 / 1917 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Germany imposed this on Russia in 1918 Treaty of Versailles Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II Causes "Blitzkrieg" concept Broad vs. narrow front German resistance to Nazism Nazi foreign policy debate Eastern Front Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact Soviet offensive plans Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia Winter War Background Spirit The Holocaust Auschwitz bombing debate Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe Functionalism–intentionalism debate In relation to the Armenian genocide / Herero and Nama genocide / Nakba Pope Pius XII Pius Wars "Polish death camp" Responsibility Slovakia Uniqueness Pacific War Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki "Battle for Australia" Bengal famine Second Sino-Japanese War Nanjing Massacre Western Front Battle of France Guilty Men Résistancialisme Vichy France Cold War Origins 1948 Palestine war Palestinian expulsion and flight / Ongoing Nakba Zionism as settler colonialism New Historians Malayan Emergency Causes Algerian War Six-Day War Origins Iranian revolution Causes Iran–Iraq War Falklands War Sovereignty dispute Sri Lankan civil war Origins Post-Cold War Russo-Georgian War Background Responsibility Syrian revolution Causes Related Conflict thesis Gunpowder and gun transmission War and genocide Category By person Political leaders Adolf Hitler Alexander the Great Amin al-Husseini Aurangzeb Cato the Younger Che Guevara Chiang Ching-kuo [zh] Chiang Kai Shek [zh] Constantine the Great Gregory Palamas Horatio Nelson Hypatia Jiang Zemin [zh] Joseph Stalin [ru] José de San Martín Juan Manuel de Rosas Klemens von Metternich Leonid Brezhnev Louis Riel Mao Zedong [zh] Muammar Gaddafi Napoleon Neville Chamberlain Pedro II of Brazil Simon Bolivar Cult of personality [es] Bolivarianism Saladin Sun Yat-sen [zh] Thomas Aquinas Thomas Jefferson Ulysses S. Grant Warren G. Harding Yuan Shikai [zh] Zhou Enlai [zh] Zhuge Liang [zh] Historical rankings Australia Canada Modern Germany Netherlands United Kingdom United States Others Jane Austen The Beatles Charles Darwin Jesus Historicity Religious perspectives Christianity Judaism Islam Resurrection Søren Kierkegaard H. P. Lovecraft Madonna Muhammad Historicity Judaism Medieval Christianity Friedrich Nietzsche Robert Falcon Scott William Shakespeare Socrates J. R. R. Tolkien The Lord of the Rings Other topics Bears in antiquity Crisis of historiography [pt] Feudalism Library of Alexandria Nationalism in the Middle Ages Professionalization and institutionalization of history Salons Western European colonialism and colonization Desacralization of knowledge Economics Industrial Revolution Great Recession Great Depression School of Thoughts Historical school of economics English historical school of economics Religion Avestan geography Early Christianity Background Historical reliability of the Gospels Primacy of Peter Opposition to Papal supremacy Proto-orthodox Christianity Early Islam Criticism of the Quran Succession to Muhammad Islamic golden age Kharijites Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church Second Vatican Council Hermeneutics of the Second Vatican Council Hesychast controversy Protestant Reformation Proto-Protestantism Criticism of Protestantism Protestant work ethic Jesuit historiography Modern Jewish history Wissenschaft des Judentums Schools of thought Biblical criticism Catholic theology Panbabylonism Urreligion Perennial Religionsgeschichtliche Schule Roman Revisionist school of Islamic studies Science / Technology Merton thesis Protestant Ethic and Capitalism Heroic theory of invention and scientific development Gunpowder and gun transmission Torsion mangonel myth Organizations, publications Heritage registers Historical society (list) History institutes History journals template Related Commemorative plaque Documentary film Hagiography Historical fiction Historical realism Historiographic metafiction Historical geographic information system Category Multimedia

**History** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects):

- [**Definitions**](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/History) from Wiktionary
- [**Media**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History) from Commons
- [**Quotations**](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/History) from Wikiquote
- [**Texts**](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:History) from Wikisource
- [**Textbooks**](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category:History) from Wikibooks
- [**Resources**](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:History) from Wikiversity
- [**Data**](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309) from Wikidata

Authority control databases International GND FAST National United States 2 France BnF data Japan Czech Republic 2 Spain 2 Latvia Greece Israel Other IdRef Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Yale LUX

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.