# Helkesida

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Group of eukaryotic microorganisms

Sainouroidea Scientific classification Missing taxonomy template (fix): Helkesida Families Sainouroidea Sainouridae Helkesimastigoidea Helkesimastigidae Guttulinopsidae Diversity 24 species

**Helkesida** (formerly known as Sainouroidea)[1] is a group of [microscopic](/source/Microorganism) [protists](/source/Protists) belonging to the [supergroup](/source/Supergroup_(biology)) [Rhizaria](/source/Rhizaria), both discovered through [molecular phylogenetic analyses](/source/Phylogeny). It contains [amoeboid](/source/Amoeboid) [flagellates](/source/Flagellates) with two [flagella](/source/Flagella). They are either free-living, mostly on [fecal matter](/source/Feces), or live inside the [gut](/source/Gastrointestinal_tract) of animals. Among these amoebae, one lineage has independently evolved aggregative [multicellularity](/source/Multicellularity) similarly to [slime moulds](/source/Slime_moulds).[2]

## Biology

The organisms classified as Helkesida commonly have a [gliding motility](/source/Gliding_motility) in which the [cells](/source/Cell_(biology)) glide on their posterior [flagellum](/source/Flagellum). They are ancestrally [amoeboid](/source/Amoeboid) bi-[flagellates](/source/Flagellates) without scales or [theca](/source/Theca).[3] Unlike most [Cercozoa](/source/Cercozoa) which have tubular [mitochondrial cristae](/source/Crista), they can also present flat cristae or discoid cristae. They are the only group within [Rhizaria](/source/Rhizaria) that present discoid mitochondrial cristae.[4]

These organisms have an amorphous apical [centrosome](/source/Centrosome) attached to the nucleus by a [rhizoplast](/source/Rhizoplast). The [kinetid](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kinetid) arises from 2–4 very short [centrioles](/source/Centriole) with dense fibrous roots that attach them to each other and to the nucleus. Their anterior flagellum is reduced to a stub without its 9+2 [axoneme](/source/Axoneme). The centrosome also generates numerous [microtubules](/source/Microtubule) in larger cells. The [Golgi apparatus](/source/Dictyosome) is seen attached to the [nuclear envelope](/source/Nuclear_membrane) and the anterior rhizoplast. They have a microbody attached to the posterior end of the [nucleus](/source/Nucleus_(cell)).[5]

One helkesid genus, *[Guttulinopsis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsis&action=edit&redlink=1)*, represents an independent lineage in which aggregative [multicellularity](/source/Multicellularity) has [evolved](/source/Evolution) to generate "fungi-like" fruiting bodies called [sorocarps](/source/Sorocarp), similarly to [slime moulds](/source/Slime_moulds) such as *[Dictyostelium](/source/Dictyostelium)*.[4]

## Ecology

The helkesid [amoebae](/source/Amoebae) are [bacterivores](/source/Bacterivore) that can be free-living, mostly associated to [fecal environments](/source/Feces), or [endozoic](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/endozoic), associated to [animals](/source/Animal).[6] They thrive in [aerobic conditions](/source/Aerobic_organism) and the [microaerophilic](/source/Microaerophile) [gut environment](/source/Gastrointestinal_tract) of animals. *[Rosculus](/source/Rosculus)* can thrive in [anaerobic](/source/Anaerobic_organism) culture. It is unknown if their preferred habitat is free-living or endozoic.[2]

Some host species can harbor different helkesid genera and species. One animal can be infected by multiple species simultaneously, and one species can also infect different animal hosts. More sampling of hosts, amoebae and molecular data is needed to better understand the life history and ecology of these protists.[2]

## Evolution and systematics

### History

Helkesida is a group initially named Sainouroidea. It was discovered in 2009 as a highly divergent clade within [Cercozoa](/source/Cercozoa) through [phylogenetic analyses](/source/Phylogeny) that used the [sequencing](/source/DNA_sequencing) of [18S ribosomal RNA](/source/18S_ribosomal_RNA) from *[Cholamonas cytrodiopsidis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cholamonas_cytrodiopsidis&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Sainouron acronematica](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sainouron_acronematica&action=edit&redlink=1)* and *[Helkesimastix marina](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastix_marina&action=edit&redlink=1)*. It is a molecularly diverse clade that branches within a group of ancestrally [amoeboid](/source/Amoeboid) bi-[flagellates](/source/Flagellates) that usually lack an outer cell coat, known as [Monadofilosa](/source/Monadofilosa).[5] A 2016 study revealed a previously unknown wide diversity of Sainouroidea in fecal environments. Previous [environmental samplings](/source/Environmental_DNA) excluded sequences from Sainouroidea due to their highly divergent 18S rDNA sequences.[6] A 2018 study described several new genera and species.[2]

The initial name for this group, Sainouroidea, had the *-oidea* suffix for superfamilies, but it was not assigned to any existing classes or orders due to the uncertainty of its phylogenetic position.[5] In a 2018 revision, the class **Helkesea** and order **Helkesida** were created as a substitute for this name. Sainouroidea was then modified to only include one of the three helkesid families, [Sainouridae](/source/Sainouridae). A second superfamily, [Helkesimastigoidea](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastigoidea&action=edit&redlink=1), was created to host the remaining two families, [Helkesimastigidae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastigidae&action=edit&redlink=1) and [Guttulinopsidae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsidae&action=edit&redlink=1).[1]

### Classification

Phylogeny of Helkesida Cholamonas Sainouron Acantholus Homocognata Helkesimastix Puppisaman Olivorum multicellularity Guttulinopsis Rosculus Cladogram of Helkesida, based on a 18S rDNA phylogenetic analysis within a 2018 study.[2] The study names this group "Sainouroidea" due to being published prior to the taxonomic change to Helkesida.[1]

Currently, Helkesida contains 24 [species](/source/Species) distributed in 9 [genera](/source/Genus), 3 [families](/source/Family_(taxonomy))[3] and 2 [superfamilies](/source/Superfamily_(biology)).[1] Additionally, many [OTUs](/source/Operational_taxonomic_unit) found through [environmental sequencing](/source/Environmental_DNA) may represent undescribed clades.[4][6]

- Superfamily Sainouroidea Cavalier-Smith et al. 2009 emend. 2018 - Family [Sainouridae](/source/Sainouridae) Cavalier-Smith 2008 - *[Acantholus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acantholus&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler & Brown 2018[2] - *[Acantholus ambigus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acantholus_ambigus&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler & Brown 2018 - *[Cholamonas](/source/Cholamonas)* Flavin, O'Kelly, Nerad & Wilkinson 2000[7] - *[Cholamonas cytrodiopsidis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cholamonas_cytrodiopsidis&action=edit&redlink=1)* - *[Homocognata](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homocognata&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Silberman & Brown 2018[2] - *[Homocognata vulgaris](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homocognata_vulgaris&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Silberman & Brown 2018 - *[Sainouron](/source/Sainouron)* Sandon 1924[8] - *[Sainouron acronematica](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sainouron_acronematica&action=edit&redlink=1)* Cavalier-Smith et al. 2008[9] - *[Sainouron mikroteron](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sainouron_mikroteron&action=edit&redlink=1)* Sandon 1924

- Superfamily [Helkesimastigoidea](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastigoidea&action=edit&redlink=1) Cavalier-Smith 2018 - Family [Helkesimastigidae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastigidae&action=edit&redlink=1) Cavalier-Smith 2008 - *[Helkesimastix](/source/Helkesimastix)* Woodcock & Lapage 1915[10] - *[Helkesimastix faecicola](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastix_faecicola&action=edit&redlink=1)* Woodcock & Lapage 1915 - *[Helkesimastix major](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastix_major&action=edit&redlink=1)* Woodcock 1921 - *[Helkesimastix marina](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helkesimastix_marina&action=edit&redlink=1)* Cavalier-Smith 2009[5] - Family [Guttulinopsidae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsidae&action=edit&redlink=1) Olive 1970 - *[Guttulinopsis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsis&action=edit&redlink=1)* Olive 1901[11] - *[Guttulinopsis clavata](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsis_clavata&action=edit&redlink=1)* Olive 1901 - *[Guttulinopsis erdosi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsis_erdosi&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Silberman & Brown 2018 - *[Guttulinopsis rogosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsis_rogosa&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Tice, Silberman & Brown 2018 - *[Guttulinopsis stipitata](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsis_stipitata&action=edit&redlink=1)* Olive 1901 - *[Guttulinopsis vulgaris](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guttulinopsis_vulgaris&action=edit&redlink=1)* Olive 1901 - *[Olivorum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olivorum&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Tice, Silberman & Brown 2018[2] - *[Olivorum cimiterus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olivorum_cimiterus&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Tice, Silberman & Brown 2018 - *[Puppisaman](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puppisaman&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler & Brown 2018[2] - *[Puppisaman gallanis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puppisaman_gallanis&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler & Brown 2018 - *[Rosculus](/source/Rosculus)* Hawes 1963[12] - *[Rosculus hawesi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_hawesi&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Tice & Brown 2018 - *[Rosculus incognitus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_incognitus&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler & Brown 2018 - *[Rosculus ithacus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_ithacus&action=edit&redlink=1)* Hawes 1963 - *[Rosculus liberus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_liberus&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler & Brown 2018 - *[Rosculus macrobrachii](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_macrobrachii&action=edit&redlink=1)* Aravindan, Kalavati & Sheeja 2002 - *[Rosculus philanguis](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_philanguis&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Silberman & Brown 2018 - *[Rosculus piscicus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_piscicus&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Silberman & Brown 2018 - *[Rosculus terrestris](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_terrestris&action=edit&redlink=1)* Jousset, Bass & Geisen 2016 - *[Rosculus vulgaris](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosculus_vulgaris&action=edit&redlink=1)* Schuler, Silberman & Brown 2018

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_2018_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_2018_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_2018_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_2018_1-3) [Thomas Cavalier-Smith](/source/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith); Ema E-Yung Chao; Rhodri Lewis (17 April 2018). ["Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cel organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6133090). *[Protoplasma](/source/Protoplasma)*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/S00709-018-1241-1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FS00709-018-1241-1). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0033-183X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-183X). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6133090](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6133090). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29666938](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29666938). [Wikidata](/source/WDQ_(identifier)) [Q53073157](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q53073157).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Aggregative_multicellularity_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Aggregative_multicellularity_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Aggregative_multicellularity_4-2) Brown MW, Kolisko M, Silberman JD, Roger AJ (2012). ["Aggregative Multicellularity Evolved Independently in the Eukaryotic Supergroup Rhizaria"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2012.04.021). *Current Biology*. **22** (12): 1123–1127. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.cub.2012.04.021](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2012.04.021). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [22608512](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22608512). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [17510471](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17510471).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rosculus_ithacus_12-0)** Hawes RS (1963). "On Rosculus ithacus gen. n., sp. n. (Protozoa, Amoebina), with special reference to its mitosis and phylogenetic relations". *Journal of Morphology*. **113** (2): 139–149. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/jmor.1051130202](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmor.1051130202). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [14061990](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14061990). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [40212732](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40212732).

v t e Rhizaria classification Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota (major groups Metamonada Discoba Diaphoretickes Hacrobia Cryptista Rhizaria Alveolata Stramenopiles Plants Amorphea Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animalia Fungi Mesomycetozoea) Cercozoa Granofilosea Cryptofilida Desmothoracidah Leucodictyidaaf Limnofilidaa Chlorarachneaa Chlorarachnida Minorisida Rhabdamoeba Monadofilosa Eoglissa Metromonadea Metopiida Metromonadida Helkeseaaf Helkesida Ventrifilosa Sarcomonadea*af Glissomonadida Katabiidae Paracercomonadida Cercomonadida Imbricatea Krakenida Spongomonadida Marimonadida Variglissida Discocelida Discomonadida Silicofilosea Thaumatomonadidaf Euglyphidat Thecofilosea Ventricleftia Ventricleftida Tectosia Tectofilosida Phaeodariah Phaeogymnocellida Phaeocystida Phaeosphaerida Phaeocalpida Phaeogromida Phaeoconchida Eothecia Cryomonadidaf Ebriaceaf Matazida Endomyxa Marimyxia Gromiidea Gromiidat Reticulosidaa Ascetosporeas Claustrosporida Haplosporida Mikrocytida Paradinida Paramyxida Proteomyxia Vampyrellidea Vampyrellida Phytomyxeam Phagomyxida Plasmodiophorida Marinomyxa Retaria Radiolariah Sticholonchea Taxopodida Acantharea Arthracanthida Chaunocanthida Holocanthida Symphyacanthida Polycystinea Collodaria Nassellaria Spumellaria Orodaria †Entactinaria Foraminiferaa Monothalamea* Allogromiida* Xenophyophorea Astrorhizida* Reticulomyxa Tubothalamea †Fusulinida Miliolida Spirillinida Ammodiscidae Globothalamea Textulariida Rotaliida Robertinida Carterinida Globigerinida †Globotruncanida †Heterohelicida †Guembelitriida Globigerinitoidea incertae sedis Involutinida Lagenida Heterogromia Komokiacea Rhizaria incertae sedis Aquavolonida Tremulida Gymnosphaeridah Labyrinthomyxidae Rhizoplasmidae Myxodictyium Pontomyxa Protomyxa Protogenes Pseudospora Discocelia *paraphyletic †extinct organization type: fflagellates; aamoebae; afamoeboflagellates; ttestate amoebae; hheliozoan amoebae; ssporozoan-like; mfungus-like.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Helkesida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helkesida) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helkesida?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.