# Han-Zhao

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Xiongnu-led dynastic state of China (304–329)

Han-Zhao Former Zhao 漢 (304–319) 趙 (319–329) late 304[a]–329 Han-Zhao before split, c. 317, northern China Han-Zhao (Former Zhao) after split, c. 326 Capital Lishi (304–305) Liting (305–308) Puzi (308–309) Pingyang (309–318) Chang'an (318–329) Shanggui (329) Religion Tengriism, Buddhism Government Monarchy Emperor • 304–310 Liu Yuan • 310 Liu He • 310–318 Liu Cong • 318 Liu Can • 318–329 Liu Yao • 329 Liu Xi History • Established late 304[a] • Liu Yuan's claim of imperial title 2 November 308[2][3] • Name change from Han to Zhao 319 • Liu Yao's capture by Shi Le 21 January 329[4][5] • Disestablished 329 Area 316[6] 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi) Preceded by Succeeded by Western Jin Later Zhao Today part of China

The **Han-Zhao** ([simplified Chinese](/source/Simplified_Chinese_characters): 汉赵; [traditional Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_characters): 漢趙; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Hàn Zhào*; 304–329 AD), or **Former Zhao** ([simplified Chinese](/source/Simplified_Chinese_characters): 前赵; [traditional Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_characters): 前趙; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Qián Zhào*), was a [dynastic state of China](/source/Dynasties_of_China) ruled by the Liu ([Luandi](/source/Luandi)) clan of [Chuge](/source/Chuge)-[Xiongnu](/source/Xiongnu) ethnicity during the [Sixteen Kingdoms](/source/Sixteen_Kingdoms) period of Chinese history.[7] In Chinese historiography, it was given two conditional state titles, the **Northern Han** (北漢; *Běi Hàn*) for the state proclaimed in 304 by [Liu Yuan](/source/Liu_Yuan_(Han-Zhao)), and the **Former Zhao** (前趙; *Qián Zhào*) for the state proclaimed in 319 by [Liu Yao](/source/Liu_Yao). The reference to them as separate states can be misleading, given that when Liu Yao changed the name of the state from "Han" to "Zhao" in 319, he treated the state as having been continuous from when Liu Yuan founded it in 304; instead, he de-established his imperial lineage from the [Han dynasty](/source/Han_dynasty) and claimed ancestry directly from [Modu Chanyu](/source/Modu_Chanyu).

The reason it is also referred to as "Former Zhao" in historiography is to distinguish it from the [Later Zhao](/source/Later_Zhao) founded by [Shi Le](/source/Shi_Le) in 319, which was also known officially as "Zhao". Since both the Former Zhao and Northern Han were ruled by the same family, Chinese scholars often conditionally combined them into a single Han-Zhao regime. Numerous Western texts refer to the two states separately; others referred to the Han state as the "Northern Han" (not to be confused with [Northern Han](/source/Northern_Han) of the [Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period](/source/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period)).

During the Han period, the capital was frequently moved around [Shanxi](/source/Shanxi) before finally settling in [Pingyang](/source/Linfen). The Han was a driving force during the [upheaval of the Five Barbarians](/source/Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians), as they brought the [Disaster of Yongjia](/source/Disaster_of_Yongjia) and demise of the [Western Jin dynasty](/source/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)) by 317. At the height of its power, the Han ruled Shanxi, [Shaanxi](/source/Shaanxi), eastern [Gansu](/source/Gansu), and large parts of [Shandong](/source/Shandong), [Hebei](/source/Hebei), and [Henan](/source/Henan). After [Jin Zhun](/source/Jin_Zhun)'s coup in 318, the empire, which renamed itself to (Former) Zhao in 319, was split into two between [Liu Yao](/source/Liu_Yao) and the warlord, [Shi Le](/source/Shi_Le). Liu Yao moved the capital to the west in [Chang'an](/source/Chang'an), retaining Shaanxi and eastern Gansu, while the eastern portion of the empire fell to Shi Le's [Later Zhao dynasty](/source/Later_Zhao).

## History

### Five Divisions

Following the break-up of the [Xiongnu Empire](/source/Xiongnu_Empire) in the 1st century, the Southern Xiongnu branch surrendered to the Han dynasty and were resettled in the northern border commanderies. Under their *[chanyu](/source/Chanyu)*, the Southern Xiongnu acted as a Han vassal state, providing assistance in defending the frontiers from nomadic forces. They settled down and fully took up agriculture, but kept a few aspects of their former nomadic lifestyle such as [horse breeding](/source/Horse_breeding). Relations with the Han were oftentimes unstable with poor living conditions on the borders and the Chinese court meddling in their politics leading to several rebellions. In 188, just as the Han dynasty was about to fall into political turmoil, the Southern Xiongnu collapsed after dissenters within their ranks –allied with the rebelling [Xiuchuge](/source/Xiuchuge) people– expelled their Han-backed *chanyu* and dissolved his government.[8]: 14–15

In 216, after the warlord, [Cao Cao](/source/Cao_Cao) unified northern China, he had the exiled *chanyu*, [Huchuquan](/source/Huchuquan) detained as an honoured prisoner at [Ye](/source/Ye_(Hebei)). He then reorganized what remained of the Southern Xiongnu into the Five Divisions around [Taiyuan Commandery](/source/Taiyuan_Commandery) in [Bing province](/source/Bingzhou). Each division was led by a commander, who were nobles from the tribes and were in turn supervised by a Chinese marshal. Huchuquan's uncle, [Qubei](/source/Qubei) was also sent to oversee the Five Divisions. No new *chanyu* was proclaimed after Huchuquan died, and the Five Divisions remained subservient to the [Cao Wei](/source/Cao_Wei) dynasty.

During the [Jiaping era](/source/Cao_Fang) (249–254), the Five Divisions became a concern for the Chinese court as the Commander of the Left Division, [Liu Bao](/source/Liu_Bao) unified them and was mobilizing a great army. The Wei and later the [Western Jin](/source/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)) intervened, gradually forcing them back into five. Five Divisions nobility had to send their children as hostages to the capital, [Luoyang](/source/Luoyang), including Liu Bao's son, [Liu Yuan](/source/Liu_Yuan_(Han-Zhao)). [Sinicization](/source/Sinicization) was evident among the elites; Liu Yuan became proficient in the [Confucianist classics](/source/Chinese_classics) and befriended members of the Chinese aristocracy such as the [Wang clan of Taiyuan](/source/Wang_clan_of_Taiyuan). He was even considered for the post of commander of the Jin forces for the [conquest of Eastern Wu](/source/Conquest_of_Wu_by_Jin) but was later dismissed because of his ethnicity.

Nonetheless, among the Five Divisions, a sense of separate identity from the Chinese was retained. Discontent towards Jin rule and of their subordinate position prompted them to seek an independent or self-governing entity. As one of the elites, [Liu Xuan](/source/Liu_Xuan_(Han-Zhao)), puts it:

“In the past, our ancestors and those of the Han acted like brothers through joy and sorrow. However, since the fall of Han and the rise of Wei and Jin, our titles of *chanyus* hold no value, and we have not gained a foot of land since. Although we have been bestowed with many noble ranks, our [households](/source/Hukou) are all equally low."

After Liu Bao's death, Liu Yuan returned to the Five Divisions and inherited his position. Liu Yuan's lineage is debated by scholars. The traditional view states that he was the grandson of the penultimate *chanyu*, [Yufuluo](/source/Chizhi_Shizhu_Hou), and thus a direct descendant of the imperial [Luandi](/source/Luandi) clan. However, some modern historians have challenged this claim, pointing out discrepancies within the records. Liu Yuan and his family were referred to in several passages as [Chuge](/source/Chuge), also known as the Xiuchuge people that overthrew the Southern Xiongnu *chanyu* in 188. These historians speculate that Liu Yuan had fabricated his lineage to the *chanyu* for legitimacy when he rebelled.[9][10]

### Han (304–319)

The Five Divisions and other non-affiliated *[hu](/source/Hu_(people))* tribes in Bing began staging revolts against the Jin. Their close proximity to the Chinese heartland worried a few ministers in the court, who unsuccessfully pushed for their resettlement outside the frontiers. Developments in the [War of the Eight Princes](/source/War_of_the_Eight_Princes) finally favored the Five Divisions, as infighting between the Jin princes over control of [Emperor Hui](/source/Emperor_Hui_of_Jin) led to civil wars and widespread famines in northern China. In 304, the Five Division's elites contacted Liu Yuan, who was serving as a general under the Prince of Chengdu, [Sima Ying](/source/Sima_Ying) at [Ye](/source/Ye_(Hebei)), and offered him to become their rebellion's leader. Liu Yuan agreed and took advantage of a commission from the desperate Sima Ying who was just being driven out of his base to gather 50,000 warriors. At [Lishi](/source/Lishi_District), Liu Yuan declared himself the Grand *Chanyu*.

Later that year, Liu Yuan proclaimed himself the "King of Han," the same first title used by [Emperor Gaozu of Han](/source/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han). As a descendant of the *chanyu*, Liu Yuan also claimed descent from the [Han dynasty](/source/Han_dynasty), as the *chanyus* used to marry Han princesses through marriage alliances (*[heqin](/source/Heqin)*). By portraying his state as a restoration of the Han, Liu Yuan was able to establish his legitimacy and potentially win over support from the Han Chinese. Liu Yuan honored the emperors of Western, Eastern and [Shu Han](/source/Shu_Han), and in 308, he elevated himself to Emperor of Han.

Anti-Jin sentiment grew as the civil wars continued, leading to more rebellions on the [North China Plain](/source/North_China_Plain). To bolster their numbers, Liu Yuan welcomed these rebels to join his ranks regardless of their ethnicity, such as the Chinese bandit, [Wang Mi](/source/Wang_Mi) and the [Jie](/source/Jie_people) former slave, [Shi Le](/source/Shi_Le). To ensure their loyalty, they were given high ranks and full command over their armies, but this practice also meant that they were also essentially warlords as the Han court had no actual means to restrain them. In 308, the Han conquered Pingyang Commandery, where they moved their capital to Puzi (in modern [Linfen](/source/Linfen), [Shanxi](/source/Shanxi)) and then to Pingyang city (also in modern Linfen), pressuring the Jin as they brought themselves closer to [Luoyang](/source/Luoyang).

Liu Yuan died in 310 and was succeeded by his son [Liu He](/source/Liu_He_(Han-Zhao)). A week into his reign, He attempted to purge all his brothers before one of them, [Liu Cong](/source/Liu_Cong_(Han-Zhao)), retaliated and killed him. He offered the throne to his half-brother, Liu Ai, who rejected it. After, Liu Cong took the throne for himself while appointing Ai as his crown prince. He then intensified his attack on Luoyang, which had been left exposed by the departure of the Jin imperial army and a deadly famine. In 311, Shi Le annihilated the Jin imperial army at the Battle of Ningping, depriving Jin of its main force in the north. Han forces led by [Wang Mi](/source/Wang_Mi), [Huyan Yan](/source/Huyan_Yan) and [Liu Yao](/source/Liu_Yao) then descended upon Luoyang, capturing the defenseless city and Emperor Huai in an event known as the [Disaster of Yongjia](/source/Disaster_of_Yongjia).

Despite the symbolic victory, Jin forces continued to resist in northern China, with [Emperor Min](/source/Emperor_Min_of_Jin) being installed at [Chang'an](/source/Chang'an) in 312. More concerning was Shi Le gaining control of a significant part of the eastern empire after assassinating his fellow warlord, Wang Mi, and absorbing his army. Liu Cong, fearing that Shi Le may outright rebel, did not punish him, while Wang Mi's subordinate, [Cao Ni](/source/Cao_Ni) continued to hold on to the [Shandong](/source/Shandong) region. In the west, Liu Cong heavily entrusted his cousin, Liu Yao, to lead the war against Emperor Min. After several years of campaigning, Liu Yao [captured Chang'an](/source/Fall_of_Chang'an) in 316, ending the Western Jin dynasty. Both Emperor Huai and Min suffered similar fates; they were forced to serve as cupbearers for Liu Cong before they were executed out of fear they would rebel. After Emperor Min's capture, the imperial Sima family reestablished itself as the [Eastern Jin dynasty](/source/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)) in 318 at [Jiankang](/source/Jiankang), south of the [Yangtze river](/source/Yangtze).

Within the Han court, Liu Cong also faced strong dissidence from his own ministers. Records depict him as a hedonistic ruler with a violent temperament, but restrained himself under pressure from his officials during his early reign. In his later reign, he had the unusual practice of having [three empresses](/source/Liu_Cong's_later_empresses) at a time, and he entrusted political affairs to his [eunuchs](/source/Eunuchs_in_China) and [consort kins](/source/Consort_kin), which severely divided the court. He also began empowering his eldest son, [Liu Can](/source/Liu_Can), threatening Liu Ai's position as crown prince. This power struggle culminated in a brutal purge in 317 orchestrated by Liu Can and Liu Cong's consort kins which saw Liu Ai and several prominent ministers executed.

After Liu Cong's death in 318, his successor, Liu Can and the rest of the imperial family in Pingyang were massacred in a coup by a powerful consort kin, [Jin Zhun](/source/Jin_Zhun). Jin Zhun declared himself [Heavenly King](/source/Heavenly_King) of Han and invited the Eastern Jin court to assist him, but was ignored. Meanwhile, both Liu Yao and Shi Le combined their forces to oppose Jin Zhun. During the campaign, Liu Yao was acclaimed the new emperor by surviving Han officials fleeing from Pingyang. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the alliance, and Jin Zhun and his family were all killed.

### Former Zhao (319–329)

With the rebellion crushed, tension arose between Liu Yao and Shi Le. As Shi Le had cultivated a powerful base on the North China Plain, Liu Yao was convinced that he would take advantage of Han's vulnerability to launch a surprise rebellion. When Shi Le sent his envoy to congratulate him, Liu Yao had the envoy executed, which prompted Shi Le to declare independence. The empire was thus divided into two, with Liu Yao controlling the west and Shi Le controlling the east. As Pingyang had been devastated by the rebellion, Liu Yao shifted the capital to his base in Chang'an.

Unlike his predecessors, Liu Yao distanced the state away from the framing of Han restoration and appealed more to his Xiongnu ancestry. He renamed the state to Zhao (since one of Liu Yao's previous title was Prince of [Zhongshan](/source/Zhongshan_Kingdom_(Han_dynasty)), and Zhongshan was in the ancient state of [Zhao](/source/Zhao_(state))), and honoured his ancestor, [Modu Chanyu](/source/Modu_Chanyu), but still saw his state as a continuation of Liu Yuan's Han. Soon after, Shi Le also named his state Zhao, leading to historiographers to distinguish the two states as Former Zhao and Later Zhao.

During his early reign, Liu Yao expanded westwards while Shi Le dealt with his own matters in the east. In [Longxi](/source/Longxi_Commandery), he defeated the forces of [Sima Bao](/source/Sima_Bao), the last claimant to the Jin throne in the north, and later survived a major tribal rebellion by the [Di](/source/Di_(Five_Barbarians)) and [Qiang](/source/Qiang_(historical_people)), leading to the relocation of nearly 200,000 of their people to Chang'an. Liu Yao then defeated [Chen An](/source/Chen_An), a warlord in Longxi who nominally submitted to Former Zhao, before going on to force the [Former Liang](/source/Former_Liang) into submission and invading [Chouchi](/source/Chouchi) by 323. At its prime, the Former Zhao's army reportedly numbered at around 285,000 strong. Despite the state's new positioning, Liu Yao maintained interest in integrating with Chinese culture, as evident by his opening of an [Imperial University](/source/Taixue) in Chang'an taught by [Confucian](/source/Confucianism) scholars.

War between the two Zhaos eventually broke out in 324, and in 328, Liu Yao led his forces to secure the [Henan](/source/Henan) region from Later Zhao. Liu Yao and Shi Le's forces came head to head at the [Battle of Luoyang](/source/Battle_of_Luoyang_(328%E2%80%93329)), and during the battle, Liu Yao, supposedly drunk, fell off his horse during a retreat and was captured by Later Zhao soldiers. He was then executed as his crown prince, [Liu Xi](/source/Liu_Xi_(Han-Zhao)), hastily succeeded him in Chang'an. In 329, Liu Xi was driven out of his capital and finally killed at [Shanggui](/source/Shanggui) by Later Zhao forces. The Han-Zhao dynasty ended, and the Later Zhao would rule most of northern China for the next 20 years.

## Government

When Liu Yuan established the Han, he retained most of the imperial Chinese government offices such as [Grand Marshal](/source/Grand_marshal), [Minister of Works](/source/Ministry_of_Works_(imperial_China)) and [Minister Over the Masses](/source/Situ_(office)). However, he also introduced the Xiongnu-inspired office of the Grand Chanyu. While he initially claimed the title along with the King of Han, Liu Yuan later deferred the Grand Chanyu position to his son, Liu Cong, establishing an independent administrative institution known as the *chanyutai* (單于台; "Office of the Chanyu"). The role of the Grand Chanyu was primarily to manage the affairs of the tribes, thus separating the administrative systems of the Han Chinese and non-Chinese. The *chanyutai* was later adopted by many of the Sixteen Kingdoms, either as a permanent function or on a temporary basis, including the Later Zhao and Chinese regimes such as the [Ran Wei](/source/Ran_Wei) and [Northern Yan](/source/Northern_Yan).[11]

In 314, while reorganizing the government, Liu Cong created the offices of the Left and Right Director of Retainers to manage the 200,000 Chinese households along with the Left and Right Assistant *Chanyu* to govern the 100,000 tribes, who were collectively known as the "Six [Yi](/source/Dongyi)" or "Six Barbarians". Modern scholars have noted that the Xiongnu, specifically from the Five Divisions and Chuge branches, were not included in the "Six Yi"; they were instead administrated as part of the Han Chinese.[12][13][14]

## Rulers of Han and Zhao

Temple name Posthumous name Personal Name Duration of reign Era names Han 304–319 Gaozu Guangwen Liu Yuan 304–310 Yuanxi (元熙) 304–308 Yongfeng (永鳳) 308–309 Herui (河瑞) 309–310 – Liu He 7 days in 310 None Liezong Zhaowu Liu Cong 310–318 Guangxing (光興) 310–311 Jiaping (嘉平) 311–315 Jianyuan (建元) 315–316 Linjia (麟嘉) 316–318 – Yin Liu Can a month and days in 318 Hanchang (漢昌) 318 Former Zhao 319–329 – Liu Yao 318–329 Guangchu (光初) 318–329 – Liu Xi 329 None

Note: Liu Xi was Liu Yao's [crown prince](/source/Crown_prince) who was thrust into the leadership role when Liu Yao was captured by [Later Zhao](/source/Later_Zhao)'s emperor [Shi Le](/source/Shi_Le), but he never took the imperial title.

## Rulers' family tree

Han-Zhao emperors family tree Han (Former) Zhao Liu Bao 劉豹 Liu Lu 劉綠 Liu Yannian 刘延年 Liu Yuan 劉淵 (d. 310) Guangwen 光文 (r. 304–310) Liu Xiong 刘雄 Liu Yao 劉曜 (d. 329; r. 318–329) Liu He 劉和 (d./r. 310) Liu Gong 刘恭 d. 310 Liu Cong 劉聰 (d. 318) Zhāowǔdi 昭武皇帝 (r. 310–318) Liu Yu 劉裕 (d. 310) Liu Long 刘隆 (d. 310) Liu Yi 刘乂 (d. 317) Liu Yin 劉胤 (d./r. 329) Liu Xi 劉熙 (d./r. 329) Liu Can 劉粲 (d. 318) Yin 隱帝 (r. 318) Liu Yuangong 劉元公 (d. 318)

## See also

- [Xiongnu](/source/Xiongnu)

- [Disaster of Yongjia](/source/Disaster_of_Yongjia)

- [Fall of Chang'an](/source/Fall_of_Chang'an)

- [Battle of Luoyang (328–329)](/source/Battle_of_Luoyang_(328%E2%80%93329))

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [Sima Guang](/source/Sima_Guang) noted that when [Li Xiong](/source/Li_Xiong) and Liu Yuan declared themselves independent from Jin in 304 differed across various sources. Emperor Hui's biography in *[Book of Jin](/source/Book_of_Jin)* dated this event to the 11th month of that year (corresponding to 14 Dec 304 to 11 Jan 305 in the Julian calendar), after Emperor Hui had entered Chang'an; the *[Chronicles of Huayang](/source/Chronicles_of_Huayang)* recorded that Li Xiong declared independence in the 10th month (14 Nov to 13 Dec 304), with one version dating the event to the 12th month (12 Jan to 10 Feb 305) instead. The *[Zizhi Tongjian](/source/Zizhi_Tongjian)* followed the *Sanshi Guo Chunqiu*, *[Shiliuguo Chunqiu](/source/Shiliuguo_Chunqiu)* and *Jin Chunqiu* in dating Li Xiong and Liu Yuan declaring themselves independent to the 10th month.[1]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** (《帝纪》，李雄、刘渊称王，皆在十一月惠帝入长安后。《华阳国志》，李雄十月称王，一本作十二月。《三十国》、《晋春秋》、《十六国钞》皆在十月。今从之。〉) *Zizhi Tongjian Kaoyi*, vol.04

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["中央研究院網站"](http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/kiwi1/luso.sh?lstype=2&dyna=%A6%E8%AE%CA&king=%C3h%AB%D2&reign=%A5%C3%B9%C5&yy=2&ycanzi=&mm=10&dd=&dcanzi=%A5%D2%A6%A6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** *[Zizhi Tongjian](/source/Zizhi_Tongjian)*, [vol. 86](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7086).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["中央研究院網站"](http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/kiwi1/luso.sh?lstype=2&dyna=%AAF%AE%CA&king=%A6%A8%AB%D2&reign=%ABw%A9M&yy=3&ycanzi=&mm=12&dd=&dcanzi=%A4v%A5f).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** *Zizhi Tongjian*, [vol. 94](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7094).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Rein Taagepera "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.", Social Science History Vol. 3, 115–138 (1979)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rene_8-0)** Grousset, Rene (1970). [*The Empire of the Steppes*](https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/56). Rutgers University Press. pp. [56–57](https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/56). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8135-1304-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-1304-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Taskin_9-0)** Taskin V.S. *"Materials on the history of nomadic peoples in China. 3rd – 5th cc. AD. Issue 2. Jie"*, Moscow, Oriental Literature, 1990, pp. 14–15, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-02-016543-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-02-016543-3)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Tang, Changru (December 2010). "〈魏晋杂胡考 一 屠各〉". *《魏晋南北朝史论丛》* (in Chinese). Beijing: [Commercial Press](/source/Commercial_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9787100074513](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787100074513).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Chen, Yong (2007). ["去卑监国的败局与屠各刘豹的崛起"](http://www.wenxue100.com/BaoKan/79570.thtml). *Wenxue100*. Retrieved 10 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Han, Di (September 2001). "The Title of Chan Yu in the Sixteen Minority States in North China During 304-439" 十六国时期的“单于”制度. *Journal of Inner Mongolia University (Humanities and Social Sciences)*. **33** (5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Xiao, Congrong; Zhang, Yan; Seong, Dongkwon (2025-05-26). ["Analysis of the Multinational Policies of the Han-Zhao State in Ancient China"](https://www.mdpi.com/2313-5778/9/2/57). *Genealogy*. **9** (2): 57. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3390/genealogy9020057](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgenealogy9020057). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2313-5778](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2313-5778).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Huang, Lie (July 1987). *《中国古代民族史研究》* (in Chinese). Beijing: [People's Press)](/source/People's_Press_(Beijing)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Gao, Min (May 1998). *《魏晋南北朝兵制研究》* (in Chinese). Zhengzhou: [Elephant Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elephant_Press&action=edit&redlink=1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9787534721113](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787534721113).

- Chen, Sanping (2012). [*Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ugbWH-5OjegC). Encounters with Asia. University of Pennsylvania Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0812206289](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812206289).

v t e Sixteen Kingdoms History Upheaval of the Five Barbarians Disaster of Yongjia Shi Le's conquest of North China Battle of Xiangguo Battle of Liantai Huan Wen's Expeditions Fu Jian's unification of North China Battle of Fei River Liu Yu's Expeditions Northern Wei's unification of North China The 16 Kingdoms Xiongnu Han-Zhao (304–329) Northern Liang (397–460) Xia (407–431) Di Cheng-Han (304–347) Former Qin (351–394) Later Liang (386–403) Jie Later Zhao (319–351) Xianbei Former Yan (337–370) Later Yan (384–409) Western Qin (385–431) Southern Liang (397–414) Southern Yan (398–410) Qiang Later Qin (384–417) Han Former Liang (318–376) Western Liang (400–421) Northern Yan (407–436) Other states Short-lived Ran Wei (350–352) Duan Qi (350–356) Western Yan (384–394) Zhai Wei (388–392) Huan Chu (403–404) Qiao Shu (405–413) Tribes Yuwen Duan States Chouchi (296–580) Dai (310–376) Northern Wei (386–535) Involved Jin dynasty Jie Xiongnu Qiang Xianbei Di Dingling Goguryeo Key personalities Liu Yuan Liu Cong Shi Le Shi Hu Ran Min Huan Wen Fu Jian Wang Meng Murong Chui Yao Xing Tuoba Gui Tuoba Tao Liu Yu Histories of the Era Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms Book of Jin

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