# Germanic verbs > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Germanic_verbs > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Germanic_verbs.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_verbs > Source revision: 1338656748 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) Verb form derived from common earlier Germanic languages Not to be confused with [German verbs](/source/German_verbs). The [Germanic language family](/source/Germanic_languages) is one of the language groups that resulted from the breakup of [Proto-Indo-European](/source/Proto-Indo-European_language) (PIE). It in turn divided into [North](/source/North_Germanic_languages), [West](/source/West_Germanic_languages) and [East](/source/East_Germanic_languages) Germanic groups, and ultimately produced a large group of medieval and modern languages, most importantly: [Danish](/source/Danish_language), [Norwegian](/source/Norwegian_language), and [Swedish](/source/Swedish_language) (North); [English](/source/English_language), [Dutch](/source/Dutch_language) and [German](/source/German_language) (West); and [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) (East, extinct). The Germanic verb system lends itself to both [descriptive (synchronic)](/source/Descriptive_linguistics) and [historical (diachronic)](/source/Historical_linguistics) comparative analysis. This overview article is intended to lead into a series of specialist articles discussing historical aspects of these verbs, showing how they developed out of PIE, and how they came to have their present diversity. ## Verb types The Germanic verb system carried two innovations over the previous [Proto-Indo-European verb](/source/Proto-Indo-European_verb) system: 1. Simplification to two tenses: present (also conveying future meaning) and past (sometimes called "preterite" and conveying the meaning of all of the following English forms: "I did, I have done, I had done, I was doing, I have been doing, I had been doing"). 1. Development of a new way of indicating the preterite and past participle, using a dental suffix. Later Germanic languages developed further tenses periphrastically, that is, using auxiliary verbs, but the constituent parts of even the most elaborate periphrastic constructions are still only in either present or preterite tenses (or [non-finite forms](/source/Finite_verb), compare *I would have been doing*, an English conditional perfect progressive with *would* in the preterite, the other three parts being non-finite). Germanic verbs fall into two broad types, strong and weak. Elements of both are present in the preterite-present verbs. Despite various irregularities, most verbs fall into one of these categories. Suppletive verbs are completely irregular, being composed of parts of more than one Indo-European verb. There is one verb ([**dōną*](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/d%C5%8Dn%C4%85) 'to do') that is in a category of its own, based on an Indo-European "athematic" form, and having a "weak" preterite but a "strong" passive participle. ### Strong verbs Main article: [Germanic strong verb](/source/Germanic_strong_verb) Strong (or vocalic) verbs display vowel gradation or [ablaut](/source/Indo-European_ablaut), that is, the past tense is marked by a change in the vowel in the stem syllable. Examples include: Modern English: - fall – fell – fallen - sing – sang – sung Old English: - *fallan* – *feoll* – *feollon* – *(ge)fallen* (to fall) - *hātan – hēt – hēton – (ge)hāten* (to be called) Old High German: - *fallan – fiall – fiallun – (gi)fallan* (to fall) - *heizan – hiaz – hiazun – (gi)heizan* (to be called) In the older languages, these verbs may also be [reduplicating](/source/Reduplication), that is, the past tense forms add a prefix with the same consonant as the first consonant of the stem syllable. An example in Gothic is *lētan – laílōt – laílōtum – lētans* (to have). In Proto-Germanic, consonant alternations known as *[grammatischer Wechsel](/source/Grammatischer_Wechsel)* developed, as a result of [Verner's law](/source/Verner's_law). This involves an originally regular change in the consonant at the end of the stem syllable. An example in modern Dutch is *verliezen – verloor – verloren* (to lose) These are the direct descendants of the verb in [Proto-Indo-European](/source/Proto-Indo-European_language), and are paralleled in other [Indo-European languages](/source/Indo-European_languages). Examples include: - *leipō – leloipa – elipon* (Greek: to leave) - *fallō/fallere – fefellī – falsum* (Latin: to cheat) All Indo-European verbs that passed into Germanic as functioning verbs were strong, apart from the small group of irregular verbs discussed below. The preterite of strong verbs are the reflex of the Indo-European perfect. Because the perfect in late Indo-European was no longer simply [stative](/source/Stative_verb), but began to be used especially of stative actions whose source was a completed action in the past (e.g., Greek), this anterior aspect of it was emphasized in a couple of Indo-European daughter languages (e.g., Latin), and so it was with Germanic that the perfect came to be used as a simple past tense. The semantic justification for this change is that actions of stative verbs generally have an implied prior inception. An example of this is the typical and widespread PIE stative **woida* 'I know': one who "knows" something at some point in the past "came to know" it, much as the natural inference from noting someone in a sitting state is that a prior action of becoming seated occurred. The [classical](/source/Ancient_Greek)/[Koine Greek](/source/Koine_Greek) perfect is essentially an early step in the development of the stative aspect to a past tense, being a hybrid of the two that emphasizes the ongoing (present/stative) effects of a past action (e.g., *leloipa* 'I have left"). Apparently it was this latter anterior respect that is responsible for the Indo-European perfect showing up as a past tense in Germanic, Italic, and Celtic. The Indo-European perfect took o-grade in the singular and [zero grade](/source/Zero_grade) in the dual and plural. The Germanic strong preterite shows the expected Germanic development of short *o* to short *a* in the singular and zero grade in the plural; these make up the second and third principal parts of the strong verb. The Indo-European perfect originally carried its own set of personal endings, the remnants of which are seen in the Germanic strong preterite. The reduplication characteristic of the Indo-European perfect remains in a number of verbs (seen most clearly in Gothic), a distinction by which they are grouped together as the seventh class of Germanic strong verbs. ### Weak verbs Main article: [Germanic weak verb](/source/Germanic_weak_verb) Weak (or consonantal) verbs are those that use a dental suffix in the past or "preterite" tense, either -t- or -d-. In [Proto-Germanic](/source/Proto-Germanic), such verbs had no [ablaut](/source/Ablaut)—that is, all forms of all tenses were formed from the same stem, with no vowel alternations within the stem. This meant that weak verbs were "simpler" to form, and as a result strong verbs gradually ceased to be [productive](/source/Productivity_(linguistics)). Already in the earliest attested Germanic languages, strong verbs had become essentially closed classes and almost all new verbs were formed using one of the weak conjugations. This pattern later repeated itself—further sound changes meant that stem alternations appeared in some weak classes in some daughter languages, and these classes generally became unproductive. This happened, for example, in all of the West Germanic languages besides [Old High German](/source/Old_High_German), where [umlaut](/source/Germanic_umlaut) produced stem alternations in Class III weak verbs and, as a result, the class became unproductive and most of its verbs were transferred to other classes. Later, in [Middle English](/source/Middle_English), stem alternations between long and short vowels appeared in Class I weak verbs (examples are "meet" vs. "met" and "hear" vs. "heard"), and the class in its turn became unproductive, leaving the original Class II as the only productive verb class in [Modern English](/source/Modern_English). In Proto-Germanic, there were five main classes of weak verbs: - Class I verbs were formed with a suffix **-j-** (**-i-** in the past), e.g., [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) ***satjan*** "to set" ([Old English](/source/Old_English) ***settan***), **sandjan** "to send" (Old English ***sendan***), ***sōkjan*** "to seek" (Old English ***sēcan***). As shown in the Old English cognates, the **-j-** produced umlaut of the stem vowel in languages other than Gothic and then disappeared in most verbs in old Germanic languages other than Gothic and [Old Saxon](/source/Old_Saxon). (It also resulted in [West Germanic gemination](/source/West_Germanic_gemination) in some verbs, and [palatalization](/source/Palatalization_(sound_change)) of [velar consonants](/source/Velar_consonant) in Old English.) - Class II verbs were formed with a suffix **-ō-** (extended to **-ōja-** in the [Ingvaeonic languages](/source/Ingvaeonic_languages)), e.g., Gothic ***salbōn*** "to anoint", Old English ***sealfian** ← ***salbōjan***, compare "to salve". - Class III stative verbs were formed with a suffix that was **-ja-** or **-ai-** (later **-ē-**) in the present and was null in the past, e.g., Old English ***hebban*** "to have" ← ****habjan***, past tense ***iċ hæfde*** "I had". The West Germanic languages outside of Old High German preserved this conjugation best, but in these languages the conjugation had become vestigial and had only four verbs in it. In other languages, it was merged with the Class III [factitive](/source/Causative) verbs (see below) and significantly modified, e.g., Gothic ***haban***, past tense ***ik habáida***; Old High German ***habēn***, past tense ***ih habēta***. - Class III factitive verbs were formed with a suffix that was **-ā-** or **-ai-** in the present and **-a-** in the past. This class merged with the Class III stative verbs in Gothic, Old High German and (mostly) [Old Norse](/source/Old_Norse), but vanished in the other Germanic languages. - Class IV verbs were formed with a suffix **-n-** (**-nō-** in the past), e.g. Gothic ***fullnan*** "to become full", past tense ***ik fullnōda***. This class vanished in other Germanic languages; however, a significant number of cognate verbs appear as Class II verbs in Old Norse and as Class III verbs in Old High German. ### Preterite-presents The so-called **preterite-present verbs** are a small group of anomalous verbs in the [Germanic languages](/source/Germanic_languages) in which the present tense shows the form of the strong preterite. The preterite of the preterite-present verbs is weak.[1]: 137 As an example, take the third-person forms of modern German *können* "to be able to". *Kann* "can, am/is able to" (present tense) displays the vowel change and lack of a personal ending that would otherwise mark a strong preterite. *Konnte* "could, was able to" (preterite) displays the dental suffix of the weak preterites. #### Sources According to one "widely-held view",[1]: 140 the preterite-present verbs are derived from the Proto-Indo-European [perfect](/source/Perfect_(grammar)). The PIE perfect usually developed into a Germanic past tense. In the case of the preterite-presents, however, it evolved into a present-tense verb. Hence, the preterite-presents have a present-tense meaning on the one hand and a form that resembles that of a preterite or past-tense verb on the other. Reconstructions of this process differ depending on how they interpret the PIE perfect. An example is the PIE perfect ***woide*. It is the ancestor of the Germanic preterite-presents meaning "(s/he) knows", represented here by Gothic *wait*: - If the PIE perfect was stative-resultative, ***woide* can be glossed as "knows as a result of having seen" (the state of knowing results from a past action, i.e., seeing). In *wait*, the meaning "knows" was retained as a present tense. The reference to the past ("having seen") was lost semantically, but it was preserved etymologically in the past-tense form of the preterite-present. However, it is hard to identify similar combinations of past action and present state for some of the other preterite-presents.[1]: 140–141 (The different semantic facets involved in this example can be observed in [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) *oîda* and [Vedic](/source/Vedic) *veda* "I know" and in Latin *vīdī* 'I saw' [probably an old root [aorist](/source/Aorist)]; compare also [Russian](/source/Russian_language) *videtʹ* [to see] and *vedatʹ* [to know]). - If the PIE perfect was purely stative, ***woide* can be glossed as "knows" (the state of knowing). The meaning "knows" was carried over as a present tense into *wait*. In this understanding, the preterite-presents constitute a retention of the non-past nature of the Indo-European perfect.[2]: 151–157 Many linguists, however, do not share this view: "most accounts of the PIE perfect do not treat it as purely stative".[1]: 142 One response to these and other problems has been to argue that the preterite-presents are instead the descendants of a separate PIE stative category, from which the stative-resultative PIE perfect was also derived.[1]: 174–175 This approach allows the preterite-presents to be treated as purely stative in origin without depriving the PIE perfect of a temporal element. #### Preterite-presents in Proto-Germanic The known verbs in [Proto-Germanic](/source/Proto-Germanic) (PGmc): Infinitive Meaning Present verbal descendants Class Present singular Present plural Preterite *witaną "know" Dutch weten, German wissen, Swedish veta, Norwegian Nynorsk vita, English wit I *wait *witun *wissē *lizaną "know" I *lais *lizun *listē *aiganą "have", "own" Dutch eigenen, German eignen, Swedish äga, Norwegian Bokmål eie, Norwegian Nynorsk eige, English owe and ought I *aih *aigun *aihtē *duganą "be useful" Dutch deugen/gedogen, German taugen, Swedish duga, Norwegian duga, English dow II *daug *dugun *duhtē *unnaną "grant" Dutch gunnen, German gönnen, Swedish unna, Norwegian unna III *ann *unnun *unþē *kunnaną "know (how to)", later "can" Dutch kunnen, German können, Norwegian kunne, Swedish kunna, English can III *kann *kunnun *kunþē *þurbaną "need" Dutch (dated) durven, German dürfen, Norwegian Nynorsk turva, Swedish (archaic) torva/tarva, English (dialectal) tharf III *þarf *þurbun *þurftē *durzaną "dare" Norwegian Nynorsk tora, English dare III *dars *durzun *durstē *skulaną "must", later "shall" Dutch zullen, German sollen, Norwegian Nynorsk skulla, Swedish skola, English shall IV *skal *skulun *skuldē *(ga)munaną "think" Icelandic muna, Norwegian Nynorsk muna, English northern dialectal mun IV *(ga)man *(ga)munun *(ga)mundē *ganuganą "be enough", "suffice" German genügen V *ganah *ganugun *ganuhtē *maganą "can", later "may" Dutch mogen, German mögen, Swedish må, English may VI *mag *magun *mahtē *aganą "fear" Norwegian Nynorsk age VI *ag *ōgun *ahtē *(ga)mōtaną "may", later "must" Dutch moeten, German müssen, Swedish måsta, English mote and must VI *(ga)mōt *(ga)mōtun *(ga)mōsē #### Ablaut The present tense has the form of a vocalic (strong) preterite, with vowel-alternation between singular and plural. A new [weak](/source/Germanic_weak_verb) preterite is formed with a dental suffix. The root shape of the preterite (in [zero-grade](/source/Indo-European_ablaut)) serves as the basis for the infinitive and past participle, thus Old English infinitive *witan* and past participle *(ge)witen*; this contrasts with all other Germanic verb types, in which the basis for those forms is the present stem. Proto-Germanic Gothic Old Saxon Old English Old High German German Dutch English Old Norse Icelandic Danish Swedish Norwegian Bokmål/Nynorsk infinitive *witaną witan wizzan wissen weten [to] wit vita vide veta vite/vita present 1st & 3rd sg *wait wēt wāt weiz weiß weet wot veit ved vet vet, veit / veit present 3rd pl *witun witon wizzun wissen weten wit vitu vita (veta)* preterite 1st & 3rd sg *wissǭ, wissē wissa wisse wissa wusste wist wist vissa, vissi vissi vidste visste visste present participle *witandz witands witandi witende wizzanti wissend wetend witting** vitandi vidende vetande vitende/vitande past participle *wissaz (gi)witan (ge)witen giwizzan gewusst geweten wist** vitat*** vitað*** vidst vetat*** visst *(Plural forms have been lost in modern central Swedish, but are retained in some dialects.) **(English gerund and present participle have merged, and often the past participle with the preterite.) ***(Actually, not the past participle but the supine.) #### Personal endings For the most part, the personal endings of the strong preterite are used for the present tense. In fact, in West Germanic the endings of the present tense of preterite-present verbs represent the original Indo-European perfect endings better than that subgroup's strong preterite verbs do: the expected Protogermanic strong preterite second-person singular form ending in *-t* was retained rather than replaced by the endings *-e* or *-i* elsewhere adopted for strong preterites in West Germanic. The endings of the preterite (except for **kunnana*) are the same as the endings of Class I weak verbs. #### Subsequent developments In modern English, preterite-present verbs are identifiable by the absence of an -s suffix on the third-person singular present tense form. Compare, for instance, *he can* with *he sing**s*** (preterite: *he sang*); the present paradigm of *can* is thus parallel with the past tense of a [strong verb](/source/Germanic_strong_verb). (See [English modal verb](/source/English_modal_verb).) In modern German there is also an [ablaut](/source/Indo-European_ablaut) shift between singular *ich kann* (I can) and plural *wir können* (we can). In the older stages of the Germanic languages ([Old English](/source/Old_English_language), [Middle High German](/source/Middle_High_German)) the past tense of strong verbs also showed different ablaut grades in singular and plural. Many of the preterite-present verbs function as [modal verbs](/source/Modal_verb) (auxiliaries which are followed by a [bare infinitive](/source/Infinitive), without "to" in English, and which convey [modality](/source/Linguistic_modality)) and indeed most of the traditional modal verbs are preterite-presents. Examples are English *must* and *shall/should*, German *dürfen* (may), *sollen* (ought), *mögen* (like), and *müssen* (must). The early history of *will* (German *wollen*) is more complicated, as it goes back to an Indo-European [optative mood](/source/Optative_mood), but the result in the modern languages is likewise a preterite-present paradigm. ### Suppletive verbs Main articles: [Indo-European copula](/source/Indo-European_copula) and [Go (verb)](/source/Go_(verb)) A small number of Germanic verbs show the phenomenon of [suppletion](/source/Suppletion), that is, they are made up from more than one stem. In English, there are two of these: *to be* and *to go*. The copula (the verb *to be* and its equivalents in the other languages) has its forms from three or four IE roots (**h₁es-, *bʰuH-, *h₂wes-*, and possibly **h₁er-*. The phenomenon of verb paradigms being composites of parts of different earlier verbs can best be observed in an example from recorded language history. The English verb *to go* was always suppletive, having the past tense *ēode* in Old English (this is believed to represent the original Proto-Germanic situation **gāną* "to go" ~ **ijjǭ* "I went", **ijjēdum* "we went"). In the 15th century, however, this was replaced by a new irregular past tense *went*. In fact *went* is originally the past tense of the verb *to wend* (compare *wend*~*went* with *send*~*sent*); today *wend* has the regular past tense *wended*. In most other modern Germanic languages the verb "go" takes its preterite from the Proto-Germanic verb **ganganą* "to walk" (e.g., German *gehen, ging*; Dutch *gaan, ging*; Swedish *gå, gick*). ### IE optative A special case is **wiljaną* (to want, will), which has its present tense forms from the IE [optative](/source/Optative_mood). Today, the optative survives in the [subjunctive](/source/Subjunctive_mood) of the Germanic languages. In [Faroese](/source/Faroese_language),[3]: 136–137 it is confined to the present tense and used only as a conjunctive. ## Regular and irregular verbs When teaching modern languages, it is usually most useful to have a narrow definition of a "regular verb" and treat all other groups as irregular. See the article [irregular verb](/source/Irregular_verb). Thus for example, most text books for learning English or German treat all strong verbs as irregular, and only the most straightforward weak verb counts as regular. In historical linguistics, however, regular patterns are examined diachronically, and verbs tend only to be described as "irregular" when such patterns cannot be found. Most of the supposedly "irregular" Germanic verbs belong to historical categories that are regular within their own terms. However, the suppletive verbs are irregular by any standard, and for most purposes the preterite-presents can also count as irregular. Beyond this, isolated irregularities occur in all Germanic languages in both the strong and the weak verb system. ## See also ### General - [Verb](/source/Verb) - [Regular verb](/source/Regular_verb) - [Irregular verb](/source/Irregular_verb) - [Copula](/source/Copula_(linguistics)) - [Principal parts](/source/Principal_parts) - [Infinitive](/source/Infinitive) - [Past tense](/source/Past_tense) - [Present tense](/source/Present_tense) - [Future tense](/source/Future_tense) - [Suppletion](/source/Suppletion) ### Specialist subsidiary and related articles - [Germanic weak verb](/source/Germanic_weak_verb) - [Germanic strong verb](/source/Germanic_strong_verb) - [Indo-European copula](/source/Indo-European_copula) - [Go (verb)](/source/Go_(verb)) ### The verb in particular Germanic languages - [English grammar](/source/English_grammar) - [English verbs](/source/English_verbs) - [English irregular verbs](/source/English_irregular_verbs) - [Wiktionary appendix: Irregular English verbs](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Irregular_verbs:English) - [German verbs](/source/German_verbs) - [de:Liste starker Verben (deutsche Sprache)](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_starker_Verben_(deutsche_Sprache)) - [de:Liste starker Verben (bairische Sprache)](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_starker_Verben_(bairische_Sprache)) - [Dutch conjugation](/source/Dutch_conjugation) ### Other aspects of Germanic verbs - [Indo-European ablaut](/source/Indo-European_ablaut) - [Germanic Umlaut](/source/Germanic_Umlaut) - [Verner's law](/source/Verner's_law) - *[Grammatischer Wechsel](/source/Grammatischer_Wechsel)* ## General references - Bennett, William Holmes (1980). *An Introduction to the Gothic Language*. New York: Modern Language Association of America. - Campbell, A. (1959). *Old English Grammar*. London: Oxford University Press. - Gallée, Johan Hendrik (1910). [*Altsächsische Grammatik*](https://archive.org/details/altschsischegram00gall) (in German) (2nd ed.). Halle (Saale): Max Niemeyer Verlag. [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [12005859](https://lccn.loc.gov/12005859). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [3128438](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3128438). [OL](/source/OL_(identifier)) [6541088M](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6541088M). [Wikidata](/source/WDQ_(identifier)) [Q131582014](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131582014). - Gordon, E.V. (1927). *An Introduction to Old Norse*. London: Oxford University Press. - Heuser, Wilhelm (1903). [*Altfriesisches Lesebuch mit Grammatik und Glossar*](https://archive.org/details/altfriesischesle00heusuoft). Heidelberg: Carl Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung. - Kroonen, Guus (2013). [*Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic*](http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=227&pid=24855). [Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series](/source/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary). Vol. 11. [Brill Academic Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-18340-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18340-7). - Ringe, Don (2008). *From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic*. Oxford: OUP. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-955229-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955229-0). - Skeat, Walter William (1868). [*A Moeso-Gothic glossary*](https://archive.org/details/amoesogothicglo00skeagoog). London: Asher & Co. - Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). *Early Germanic Grammar*. San Diego: Academic Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-728270-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-728270-1). - Wright, Joseph (1906). *An Old High German Primer* (Second ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. - Wright, Joseph (1910). [*Grammar of the Gothic Language*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.272068). Oxford: Clarendon Press. - Wright, Joseph; Wright, Elizabeth Mary (1925). *Old English Grammar* (Third ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ## References 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-rajo15_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-rajo15_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-rajo15_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-rajo15_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-rajo15_1-4) Randall, William; Jones, Howard (1 July 2015). "On the early origins of the Germanic preterite presents". *Transactions of the Philological Society*. **113** (2): 137–176. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/1467-968X.12045](https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12045). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1467-968X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-968X). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-rin06_2-0)** [Ringe, Don](/source/Donald_Ringe) (2006). [*From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic*](https://ia801802.us.archive.org/26/items/don-ringe-2006-from-proto-indo-european-to-proto-germanic/DON_RINGE_2006_From_Proto-Indo-European_to_Proto-Germanic.pdf) (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-928413-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928413-9). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [64554645](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/64554645). [OL](/source/OL_(identifier)) [7405151M](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7405151M). [Wikidata](/source/WDQ_(identifier)) [Q131605459](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131605459). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-loc77_3-0)** [Lockwood, W. B.](/source/William_Burley_Lockwood) (1977). [*An Introduction to Modern Faroese*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OGj4rnr0oxYC&pg=PA138) (3rd ed.). Tórshavn: Føroya Skúlabókagrunnur. Retrieved 1 January 2025. v t e Germanic languages According to contemporary philology West Anglo-Frisian Anglic English dialects Old English Middle English Modern English Early Modern English Irish Middle English Fingallian Kildare Yola Scots Early Scots Middle Scots Shetland dialect Frisian Historical forms Old Frisian Middle Frisian East Frisian Ems Saterland Frisian Upgant Frisian Weser Wangerooge Frisian Wursten Frisian Harlingerland Frisian North Frisian Insular Eiderstedt Föhr–Amrum Föhr Amrum Heligolandic Sylt Mainland Bökingharde Mooring Halligen Goesharde Northern Central Southern Karrharde Strand Wiedingharde West Frisian Hindeloopen Schiermonnikoog Westlauwers–Terschellings Mainland West Frisian Clay Frisian Wood Frisian Westereendersk Terschelling Low German Historical forms Old Saxon Middle Low German West Low German Dutch Low Saxon Stellingwarfs Tweants Gronings Drèents Gelders-Overijssels Achterhooks Sallaans Urkers Veluws Northern Low Saxon East Frisian Low Saxon Gronings Hamburg Holsteinisch Oldenburgisch Bremian Schleswigsch Eastphalian Westphalian East Low German Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch Brandenburgisch Central Pomeranian East Pomeranian Low Prussian Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German Low Franconian Historical forms Frankish Old Dutch Middle Dutch Standard variants Dutch Afrikaans (Kaaps) West Low Franconian Central Dutch Hollandic West Flemish French Flemish Zeelandic East Flemish Brabantian Kleverlandish Surinamese Dutch Jersey Dutch Mohawk Dutch Stadsfries/Bildts/Amelands/Midslands East Low Franconian Limburgish Cover groups Bergish Meuse-Rhenish High German (German) Historical forms Old High German Middle High German New High German Early New High German Standard German German Standard German Austrian Standard German Swiss Standard German Non-standard variants and creoles Namibian German Namibian Black German Berlinerisch Unserdeutsch Barossa German Rotwelsch Lotegorisch Yenish Yiddish Eastern Western Scots Yiddish Klezmer-loshn Lachoudisch Central German West Central German Central Franconian Ripuarian Colognian Southeast Limburgish Moselle Franconian Luxembourgish Transylvanian Saxon Hunsrückisch Hunsrik Rhine Franconian Lorraine Franconian Palatine Volga German Pennsylvania Dutch Hessian Central Hessian Amana German East Central German Thuringian Upper Saxon Erzgebirgisch Lusatian Silesian German High Prussian Wymysorys Halcnovian Upper German Alemannic in the broad sense Low Alemannic Alsatian Coloniero High Alemannic Swiss German Highest Alemannic Walser German Swabian Bavarian Northern Bavarian Central Bavarian Viennese German Southern Bavarian South Tyrolean Cimbrian Mòcheno Hutterite German Gottscheerish South Franconian East Franconian Vogtlandian Langobardic North and East North Historical forms Proto-Norse Old Norse Old West Norse Old East Norse Old Gutnish West Norwegian Bergensk Kebabnorsk Sognamål Trøndersk Valdris Vestlandsk Vikværsk Bokmål (written) Nynorsk (written) Old Norwegian Middle Norwegian Faroese Icelandic Old Icelandic Middle Icelandic Greenlandic Norse Norn Shetland dialect East Swedish Swedish dialects Rinkebysvenska Danish Danish dialects Insular Danish Jutlandic South Jutlandic East Danish Bornholmsk Scanian (historically) Southern Schleswig Danish Gøtudanskt Perkerdansk Old Danish Middle Danish Dalecarlian Elfdalian Gutnish Mainland Gutnish Fårö Gutnish East Gothic Crimean Gothic Ostrogoth Visigoth Gepid ? Burgundian Vandalic Herulian ? Skirian ? Philology Language subgroups North East West Elbe (Irminonic) Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) North Sea (Ingvaeonic) Northwest Gotho-Nordic South Reconstructed Proto-Germanic Grammar Ancient Belgian language Diachronic features Grimm's law Verner's law Holtzmann's law Sievers's law Kluge's law Germanic substrate hypothesis West Germanic gemination High German consonant shift Germanic a-mutation Germanic umlaut Germanic spirant law Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law Great Vowel Shift Synchronic features Germanic verb Germanic strong verb Germanic weak verb Preterite-present verb Grammatischer Wechsel Indo-European ablaut Italics indicate extinct languages Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. v t e Verbs of the world's languages Phonologies Orthographies Grammars Adjectives Determiners Nouns Prepositions Pronouns Verbs Indo-European (proto-language) Germanic (strong and weak) English auxiliary modal Dutch conjugation German conjugation Gothic Celtic Irish conjugation Italic Latin conjugation tenses Romance Catalan conjugation auxiliary verbs French conjugation morphology Italian conjugation Occitan conjugation Portuguese conjugation Romanian Sardinian conjugation Spanish conjugation irregularity Slavic Bulgarian conjugation Czech conjugation morphology Macedonian conjugation Slovene Iranian Persian Indo-Aryan Hindustani Sanskrit Other Ancient Greek Armenian Greek pure verbs Uralic Finnish conjugation Hungarian Turkic Turkish Other European Adyghe Basque Georgian conjugation Kabardian Afroasiatic (Derived stem) Arabic Hebrew Tigrinya Niger–Congo Chichewa tenses Sotho deficient verbs Japonic Japanese conjugation Kagoshima dialect godan and ichidan irregular verbs Other East Asian Korean Austronesian Ilocano --- Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Germanic verbs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_verbs) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_verbs?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.