# Georgian era

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Historical period in Britain from 1714 to c. 1830–37

For other uses of "Georgian", see [Georgian (disambiguation)](/source/Georgian_(disambiguation)).

Georgian era 1714 – 1830 (1837) Stuart period Victorian era Painting of King George III and his family by Thomas Stothard (1787) Including Regency era Monarchs George I George II George III George IV William IV Leaders George, Prince of Wales[1] Queen Caroline[1] George, Prince Regent[1] Sir Robert Walpole Lord Wilmington Henry Pelham Duke of Newcastle Duke of Devonshire Lord Bute George Grenville Lord Rockingham Lord Chatham Duke of Grafton Lord North Lord Shelburne Duke of Portland William Pitt the Younger Henry Addington Lord Grenville Spencer Perceval Lord Liverpool George Canning Lord Goderich Duke of Wellington Lord Grey Lord Melbourne Sir Robert Peel

English history Prehistoric Britain until c. 43 AD Roman Britain c. 43–410 Sub-Roman Britain 410–c. 7th century Anglo-Saxon c. 449–1066 Norman/Angevin 1066–1216 Plantagenet 1216–1485 Tudor 1485–1603 Elizabethan 1558–1603 Stuart 1603–1714 Jacobean 1603–1625 Caroline 1625–1649 (Interregnum) 1649–1660 Carolean 1660-1688 Restoration 1660–1688 Georgian era 1714–1837 Regency era c. 1795–1837 Victorian era 1837–1901 Edwardian era 1901–1914 First World War 1914–1918 Interwar Britain 1919–1939 Second World War 1939–1945 Post-war Britain 1945–1979 Social history 1945–1979 Present day 1979–present Social history 1979–present Timeline v t e

The **Georgian era** was a period in [British history](/source/British_history) from 1714 to 1830, named after the [Hanoverian](/source/House_of_Hanover) kings [George I](/source/George_I_of_Great_Britain), [George II](/source/George_II_of_Great_Britain), [George III](/source/George_III) and [George IV](/source/George_IV). The definition of the Georgian era is also often extended to include the relatively short reign of [William IV](/source/William_IV), which ended with his death in 1837. The subperiod that is the [Regency era](/source/Regency_era) is defined by the regency of George IV as Prince of Wales during the illness of his father George III.[2] The term *[Georgian](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Georgian)* is typically used in the contexts of social and political history [and architecture](/source/Georgian_architecture). The term *[Augustan literature](/source/Augustan_literature)* is often used for [Augustan drama](/source/Augustan_drama), [Augustan poetry](/source/Augustan_poetry) and [Augustan prose](/source/Augustan_prose) in the period 1700–1740s. The term *Augustan* refers to the acknowledgement of the influence of Latin literature from the ancient [Roman Republic](/source/Roman_Republic).[3] The term *Georgian era* is not applied to the time of the two 20th-century British kings of this name, [George V](/source/George_V) and [George VI](/source/George_VI). Those periods are simply referred to as *Georgian*.[4]

When Victoria became Queen in 1837 the Georgian era was followed by the [Victorian era](/source/Victorian_era). The Victorians emphasized moral earnestness and propriety, as well as industrial and scientific progress and scientific advancement. There was a growing tension between faith and doubt and more Realism in literature and art (moving away from Romantic idealism).[5]

## Politics

Historians have largely focused on politics, the first [British Empire](/source/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire), and warfare during the Georgian era.[6][7][8]

### The King

On the positive side, George I's accession secured the Protestant succession and prevented a Catholic restoration under the ["Old Pretender" James Stuart](/source/James_Francis_Edward_Stuart). The result was constitutional continuity after the turbulent Stuart period. The king's limited English and disinterest in day-to-day British affairs left a vacuum that was filled by the rise of modern parliamentary democracy. This enabled [Robert Walpole](/source/Robert_Walpole) to seize the initiative and emerge as Britain's first de facto Prime Minister; his new style of cabinet governance filled the royal vacuum.[9] The British economy tripled in size in the 18th century but growth was only 12% during 1720 to 1740.[10][11] There was some expansion of trade and commerce, building on the financial innovations of the previous decades. The [South Sea Bubble of 1720](/source/South_Sea_Company) was a brief setback but it also led to improved financial regulation. The consolidation of Whig party dominance brought political stability and supported policies favoring commercial interests and religious toleration for Protestant dissenters.[12][13]

On the negative side, the king was widely disliked as a foreigner who was far more interested in Hanover than in Britain. This fueled dissent and strengthened the [Jacobite](/source/Jacobitism) plans to overthrow the Hanoverians.[14] Corruption was widespread, as exemplified by the South Sea Bubble scandal that financially ruined many investors, the king himself lost heavily in it. The king's bitter relationship with his son (the future George II) created political factions and instability at court, weakening the monarchy's prestige. George was ridiculed by many of his British subjects as unintelligent and wooden.[15] His mistreatment of his wife, Sophia Dorothea, became something of a scandal.[16] His Lutheran faith, his overseeing both the Lutheran churches in Hanover and the [Church of England](/source/Church_of_England), and the presence of Lutheran preachers in his court caused some consternation among his Anglican subjects.[17]

### Politics to 1815

The political history of the 18th century has been covered in numerous scholarly studies, mostly focused on the struggle between the Crown and Parliament.[18][19][20][21][22][23]

### Politics 1815 to 1830: Whigs and Tories

When the wars with France ended in 1815, political parties were not yet sharply defined nor well organized. In Parliament, and to a lesser extent around the country, there were loose political coalitions that people at the time, and historians today, call "Whigs" and "Tories."[24][25][26]

### Political reform 1830s

## Social change

18th-century London ([Soho Square](/source/Soho_Square))

The era marked immense social change in Britain, with the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution) intensifying [class divisions](/source/Social_class),[27] increasing urbanization[28] and prompting the emergence of rival [political parties](/source/Political_party) like the [Whigs](/source/British_Whig_Party) and [Tories](/source/Tories_(British_political_party)).[29]

In rural areas, the [Agricultural Revolution](/source/British_Agricultural_Revolution) saw huge changes in the movement of people and the decline of small communities, as well as the growth of the cities and the beginnings of an integrated [transportation system](/source/History_of_transport). Nevertheless, as rural towns and villages declined and work became scarce there was a large increase in [emigration](/source/Emigration) to Canada, the [North American colonies](/source/Thirteen_Colonies), and other parts of the [British Empire](/source/British_Empire).

### Evangelical religion and social reform

In England, the evangelical movement inside and outside the [Church of England](/source/Church_of_England) gained strength in the late 18th and early 19th century. The movement challenged the traditional religious sensibility that emphasised a code of honour for the upper class, and suitable behaviour for everyone else, together with faithful observances of rituals. [John Wesley](/source/John_Wesley) (1703–1791) and his followers preached revivalist religion, trying to convert individuals to a personal relationship with Christ through Bible reading, regular prayer, and especially the revival experience. Wesley himself preached 52,000 times, calling on men and women to "redeem the time" and save their souls. Wesley always operated inside the Church of England, but at his death, his followers set up outside institutions that became the [Methodist Church](/source/Methodism).[30] It stood alongside the traditional [Nonconformist](/source/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)) churches, Presbyterians, Congregationalist, Baptists, Unitarians, and Quakers. The Nonconformist churches, however, were less influenced by revivalism.[31]

The Church of England remained dominant in England but it had a growing evangelical, revivalist faction, the "Low Church". Its leaders included [William Wilberforce](/source/William_Wilberforce) and [Hannah More](/source/Hannah_More). It reached the upper class through the [Clapham Sect](/source/Clapham_Sect). It did not seek political reform, but rather the opportunity to save souls through political action by freeing slaves, abolishing the duel, prohibiting cruelty to children and animals, stopping gambling, and avoiding frivolity on the Sabbath; they read the Bible every day. All souls were equal in God's view, but not all bodies, so evangelicals did not challenge the hierarchical structure of English society.[32][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] As R. J. Morris noted in his 1983 article "Voluntary Societies and British Urban Elites, 1780-1850," "[m]id-eighteenth-century Britain was a stable society in the sense that those with material and ideological power were able to defend this power in an effective and dynamic manner," but "in the twenty years after 1780, this consensus structure was broken."[33] Anglican Evangelicalism thus, as historian Lisa Wood has argued in her book *Modes of Discipline: Women, Conservatism, and the Novel After the French Revolution*, functioned as a tool of ruling-class social control, buffering the discontent that in France had inaugurated a revolution; yet it contained within itself the seeds for challenge to gender and class hierarchies.[34]

### Catholic emancipation in 1829

Main article: [Catholic emancipation](/source/Catholic_emancipation)

Catholic emancipation was a series of Parliamentary actions that reduced and finally removed almost all of the restrictions on [Roman Catholics](/source/Roman_Catholic) in Britain and Ireland, culminating in the [Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829](/source/Roman_Catholic_Relief_Act_1829). Many restrictions had been imposed by the [Act of Uniformity](/source/Act_of_Uniformity_1662), the [Test Acts](/source/Test_Act) and the [penal laws](/source/Penal_Laws_(Ireland)). Requirements to [abjure](/source/Abjuration) (renounce) the temporal and spiritual authority of the [pope](/source/Pope) and [transubstantiation](/source/Transubstantiation) placed major burdens on Roman Catholics. Emancipation would allow them to vote and hold office.

According to Norman Lowe, The crisis stemmed from the grievances of Catholics in Ireland. They comprised about 90% of the population, were barred from sitting in Parliament and holding important government offices. Protestant not only held the power, they owned most of the land in Ireland, which they leased out to Catholic farmers. The Irish Catholics felt betrayed, as the [Act of Union 1800](/source/Act_of_Union_1800) had been agreed upon with the promise of granting Catholics full political rights—Catholic Emancipation. George III (and later his son George IV) refused to assent, citing his Coronation Oath to uphold the Protestant religion.[35] The new campaign for emancipation was led by [Daniel O'Connell](/source/Daniel_O'Connell), an Irish Catholic landowner and barrister. He founded the [Catholic Association](/source/Catholic_Association) in 1823, which quickly became powerful, funded by a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month from members, including poor peasants, and supported by Catholic priests. The Association focused on electing pro-emancipation Protestant candidates in by-elections. In the [1828 County Clare by-election](/source/1828_County_Clare_by-election), the crisis came as O’Connell stood against the pro-emancipation Protestant MP, [Vesey Fitzgerald](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vesey_Fitzgerald&action=edit&redlink=1), in a by-election. Although as a Catholic he could not legally take his seat, O'Connell won a triumphant victory, demonstrating the immense Catholic support and the potential for scores of Catholics to win seats at the next general election. This electoral victory created a severe political crisis. There was a fear of widespread violence or even civil war if O'Connell and the potential Catholic MPs were prevented from taking their seats. It also raised the possibility that Catholic MPs might establish a separate parliament in Dublin, leading to the break-up of the Union between Britain and Ireland.[36][37]

Horrified by the prospect of civil war, the Duke of Wellington –Britain's leading general and now prime minister, and [Robert Peel](/source/Robert_Peel) his [Home Secretary](/source/Home_Secretary) reversed their longstanding opposition to emancipation.[38] They decided to concede because they were convinced that only this could avert major conflict. Peel skillfully had the bill for Catholic emancipation passed in the Commons, and Wellington forced its way through the House of Lords. King George IV reluctantly agreed, so in April 1829 emancipation became official.[39] Catholics were now permitted to sit in both Houses of Parliament and hold all important nationwide offices of state, with a handful of exceptions (they could not be king or queen or top official in Ireland). However, as a measure to limit O'Connell's influence, the government simultaneously raised the property qualification for voting. This disenfranchised over 100,000 Catholic voters in Ireland. Even so, O'Connell still won re-election. Wellington and Peel gave the Catholics their main goal and prevented a civil war, but their treatment of O’Connell and the disenfranchisement of many Catholic tenant farmers angered the Irish Catholics. Likewise the Protestants were angry. Peel and Wellington's "betrayal" of their traditional anti-Catholic principles led to a deep split within the Tory coalition. alienating the right-wing 'Ultras' and much of the Tory press. In the next decade Catholic Emancipation was a model for reformers that showed the unwritten British constitution could be changed peacefully by a powerful pressure group from outside Parliament (the Catholic Association). This weakened the Tories and paved the way for the Whigs to come to power in 1830 with their own plans for major parliamentary reform.[40][41]

## An old empire lost, a new one expanded

The Georgian period saw continual warfare, with France the primary enemy. Major episodes included the [Seven Years' War](/source/Seven_Years'_War), known in America as the [French and Indian War](/source/French_and_Indian_War) (1754–1763), the [American Revolutionary War](/source/American_Revolutionary_War) (1775–1783), the [French Revolutionary Wars](/source/French_Revolutionary_Wars) (1792–1802), the [Irish Rebellion of 1798](/source/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798), and the [Napoleonic Wars](/source/Napoleonic_Wars) (1803–1815). The British won most of the wars except for the American Revolution, where the combined weight of the United States, France, Spain and the Netherlands overwhelmed Britain, which stood alone without allies.[42]

The [British Empire](/source/British_Empire) at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815

The loss of the [13 American Colonies](/source/Thirteen_Colonies) was a national disaster. Commentators at home and abroad speculated on the end of Britain as a [great power](/source/Great_power). In Europe, the [wars with France](/source/Napoleonic_Wars) dragged on for nearly a quarter of a century, 1793–1815. Britain organised coalition after coalition, using its superb financial system to subsidise infantry forces, and built up its Navy to maintain control of the seas. Victory over Napoleon at the [Battle of Trafalgar](/source/Battle_of_Trafalgar) (1805) and the [Battle of Waterloo](/source/Battle_of_Waterloo) (1815) under [Admiral Lord Nelson](/source/Horatio_Nelson%2C_1st_Viscount_Nelson) and the [Duke of Wellington](/source/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington) brought a sense of triumphalism and political reaction.[43]

The expansion of empire in Asia was primarily the work of the British [East India Company](/source/East_India_Company), especially under the leadership of [Robert Clive](/source/Robert_Clive).[44] [Captain James Cook](/source/James_Cook) was perhaps the most prominent of the many explorers and geographers using the resources of the Royal Navy to develop the Empire and make many scientific discoveries, especially in Australia and the Pacific.[45] Instead of trying to recover the lost colonies in North America, the British built up in Asia a largely new Second British Empire. That new empire flourished during the [Victorian](/source/Victorian_era) and [Edwardian eras](/source/Edwardian_era) which were to follow.[46]

### The trading nation

Main article: [Economic history of the United Kingdom](/source/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom)

[East Indiaman](/source/East_Indiaman) in the China Seas

The era was prosperous as entrepreneurs extended the range of their business around the globe. By the 1720s Britain was one of the most prosperous countries in the world, and [Daniel Defoe](/source/Daniel_Defoe) boasted:

- we are the most "diligent nation in the world. Vast trade, rich manufactures, mighty wealth, universal correspondence, and happy success have been constant companions of England, and given us the title of an industrious people."[47]

While the other major powers were primarily motivated towards territorial gains, and protection of their dynasties (such as the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, and the [House of Hohenzollern](/source/House_of_Hohenzollern)), Britain had a different set of primary interests. Its main diplomatic goal (besides protecting the homeland from invasion) was building a worldwide trading network for its merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers. This required a hegemonic [Royal Navy](/source/Royal_Navy) so powerful that no rival could sweep its ships from the world's trading routes, or invade the British Isles. The London government enhanced the private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across the world. Each was given a monopoly of trade to the specified geographical region. The first enterprise was the [Muscovy Company](/source/Muscovy_Company) set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included the [East India Company](/source/East_India_Company), and the [Hudson's Bay Company](/source/Hudson's_Bay_Company) in Canada. The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it was re-established as the [Royal African Company](/source/Royal_African_Company) in 1672 and focused on the slave trade. British involvement in each of the four major wars, 1740 to 1783, paid off handsomely in terms of trade. Even the loss of the 13 colonies was made up by a very favourable trading relationship with the new United States of America. British gained dominance in the trade with India, and largely dominated the highly lucrative slave, sugar, and commercial trades originating in West Africa and the West Indies. China would be next on the agenda. Other powers set up similar monopolies on a much smaller scale; only the Netherlands emphasized trade as much as England.[48][49]

The subscription room at [Lloyd's of London](/source/Lloyd's_of_London) in the early 19th century

[Mercantilism](/source/Mercantilism) was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies.[50] Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximise exports from and minimise imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a large and powerful Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country.[51]

Most of the companies earned good profits, and enormous personal fortunes were created in India, but there was one major fiasco that caused heavy losses. The [South Sea Bubble](/source/South_Sea_Bubble) was a business enterprise that exploded in scandal. The [South Sea Company](/source/South_Sea_Company) was a private business corporation supposedly set up much like the other trading companies, with a focus on South America. Its actual purpose was to renegotiate previous high-interest government loans amounting to £31 million through [market manipulation](/source/Market_manipulation) and speculation. It issued stock four times in 1720 that reached about 8,000 investors. Prices kept soaring every day, from £130 a share to £1,000, with insiders making huge paper profits. The Bubble collapsed overnight, ruining many speculators. Investigations showed bribes had reached into high places—even to the king. The future prime minister [Robert Walpole](/source/Robert_Walpole) managed to wind it down with minimal political and economic damage, although some suffering extreme loss fled to exile or committed suicide.[52][53]

## Political and social revolt

An [Old Bailey](/source/Old_Bailey) trial, c. 1808

The beginning of the Georgian era witnessed rioting by [Jacobite](/source/Jacobitism) and [High Church](/source/High_Church) mobs in protest against the Hanoverian succession and which included attacks on the [Dissenters](/source/English_Dissenters)' places of worship. These included the 1714 [coronation riots](/source/Coronation_riots), which occurred on the day of George I's coronation, and the [riots of 1715](/source/1715_England_riots). In response, Parliament passed the [Riot Act](/source/Riot_Act), which granted the authorities greater powers to put down rioting.[54][55]

Although religious toleration was extensive by the standards of continental Europe, hostility to religious minorities was widespread in Britain during the eighteenth century and sometimes expressed itself in rioting.[56] The [Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753](/source/Jewish_Naturalisation_Act_1753) was repealed a year after it had been passed because of widespread opposition and the 1780 [Gordon Riots](/source/Gordon_Riots) in London were directed against Catholics after the [Papists Act 1778](/source/Papists_Act_1778) removed some of their legal disabilities. During the 1791 [Priestley Riots](/source/Priestley_Riots) in Birmingham, the mob targeted Dissenters, including the prominent Radical [Joseph Priestley](/source/Joseph_Priestley).[57]

Life in the streets of London, by [William Hogarth](/source/William_Hogarth)

The [Black Act 1723](/source/Black_Act_1723), sponsored by Robert Walpole, strengthened the criminal code for the benefit of the upper class.[58] It specified over 200 capital crimes, many with intensified punishment. The crime of arson, for example, was expanded to include of burning or the threat of burning haystacks. The legal rights of defendants were something different from today. For example, suspects who refused to surrender within 40 days could be summarily judged guilty and sentenced to execution if apprehended. Local villages were punished if they failed to find, prosecute and convict alleged criminals, due to the increase in crime at the time.[59]

### Social unrest 1815-1820

With the ending of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, Great Britain entered a period of greater economic depression and political uncertainty, characterised by social discontent and unrest. The [Radical](/source/Radicals_(UK)) political party published a leaflet called *The Political Register*, also known as "The Two Penny Trash" to its rivals. The so-called [March of the Blanketeers](/source/Blanketeers) saw 400 [spinners](/source/Spinning_(textiles)) and [weavers](/source/Weaving) march from [Manchester](/source/Manchester) to London in March 1817 to hand the Government a petition. The [Luddites](/source/Luddite) destroyed and damaged machinery in the industrial north-west of England. The [Peterloo Massacre](/source/Peterloo_Massacre) in 1819 began as a protest rally which saw 60,000 people gathering to protest about their living standards. It was quelled by military action and saw eleven people killed and 400 wounded. The [Cato Street Conspiracy](/source/Cato_Street_Conspiracy) of 1820 sought to blow up the [Cabinet](/source/Cabinet_(government)) and then move on to storm the [Tower of London](/source/Tower_of_London) and overthrow the government. This too was thwarted, with the conspirators executed or [transported](/source/Penal_transport) to Australia.[60][61]

## Enlightenment

Further information: [Age of Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment)

Distinguished Men of Science.[62] Use the cursor to see who is who.[63]

Historians have long explored the importance of the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the American Enlightenment,[64] while debating the very existence of the English Enlightenment.

### Scottish Enlightenment

Main article: [Scottish Enlightenment](/source/Scottish_Enlightenment)

English historian [Peter Gay](/source/Peter_Gay) argues that the Scottish Enlightenment "was a small and cohesive group of friends – David Hume, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, and others – who knew one another intimately and talked to one another incessantly".[65] Education was a priority in Scotland, both at the local level and especially in four universities. The Enlightenment culture was based on close readings of new books, and intense discussions that took place daily at such intellectual gathering places in Edinburgh as [The Select Society](/source/The_Select_Society) and, later, [The Poker Club](/source/The_Poker_Club) as well as within Scotland's [ancient universities](/source/Ancient_universities_of_Scotland) ([St Andrews](/source/University_of_St_Andrews), [Glasgow](/source/Glasgow_University), [Edinburgh](/source/Edinburgh_University) and [Aberdeen](/source/Aberdeen_University)).[66] Sharing the [humanist](/source/Humanism) and [rationalist](/source/Rationalism) outlook of the [European Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment) of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority that could not be justified by reason. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing [empiricism](/source/Empiricism) and practicality where the chief values were improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for the individual and society as a whole. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, economics, history, architecture, and medicine. Leaders included [Francis Hutcheson](/source/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)), [David Hume](/source/David_Hume), [Adam Smith](/source/Adam_Smith), [Dugald Stewart](/source/Dugald_Stewart), [Thomas Reid](/source/Thomas_Reid), [William Robertson](/source/William_Robertson_(historian)), [Henry Home, Lord Kames](/source/Henry_Home%2C_Lord_Kames), [Adam Ferguson](/source/Adam_Ferguson), [John Playfair](/source/John_Playfair), [Joseph Black](/source/Joseph_Black) and [James Hutton](/source/James_Hutton).[67][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

### English Enlightenment

[Edward Jenner](/source/Edward_Jenner) performing his first [vaccination](/source/Vaccination) in 1796

The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks and standard surveys make no room for an English Enlightenment. Some European surveys include England, others ignore it but do include coverage of such major intellectuals as [Joseph Addison](/source/Joseph_Addison), [Edward Gibbon](/source/Edward_Gibbon), [John Locke](/source/John_Locke), [Isaac Newton](/source/Isaac_Newton), [Alexander Pope](/source/Alexander_Pope) and [Joshua Reynolds](/source/Joshua_Reynolds).[68]

According to [Derek Hirst](/source/Derek_Hirst), the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established [coffee houses](/source/English_coffeehouses_in_the_17th_and_18th_centuries).[69][70] Education was also a priority in England. English institutions expanded rapidly, including the formation of the [Royal Society](/source/Royal_Society), which is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.[71]

[Roy Porter](/source/Roy_Porter) argues that the reason for the neglect was the assumption that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order.[72] Porter admits that after the 1720s, England could claim thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. Indeed, its leading intellectuals, such as [Edward Gibbon](/source/Edward_Gibbon),[73] [Edmund Burke](/source/Edmund_Burke) and [Samuel Johnson](/source/Samuel_Johnson) were all quite conservative and supported the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England, and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. The coffee-house culture provided an ideal venue for enlightened conversation. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent, and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.[74]

### Science and medicine

The British sponsored numerous scientists who made major discoveries in the small laboratories. [Joseph Priestley](/source/Joseph_Priestley) investigated electricity. Chemist [Henry Cavendish](/source/Henry_Cavendish) identified hydrogen in 1772. [Daniel Rutherford](/source/Daniel_Rutherford) isolated nitrogen in 1774, while Priestley discovered oxygen and ammonia. Antiquarians and archaeologists mapped the past.[75] In medicine, in 1717 [Lady Mary Wortley Montagu](/source/Lady_Mary_Wortley_Montagu) introduced inoculation against smallpox to Britain, and by 1740 it was in wide usage. [Guy's Hospital](/source/Guy's_Hospital) was founded in 1721; the [Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh](/source/Royal_Infirmary_of_Edinburgh) in 1729; [Queen Charlotte's maternity hospital](/source/Queen_Charlotte's_and_Chelsea_Hospital) in 1739 and the [Middlesex Hospital](/source/Middlesex_Hospital) in 1745. Asylums for the mentally ill were established, notably Bethel Hospital in Norwich (1713); a ward for incurable lunatics at Guy's Hospital (1728); and lunatic hospitals in Manchester (1766) and York in (1777)—York was the first to be called an asylum.[76]

## Arts and culture

High culture flourished during the Georgian era.[77] Georgian society and its preoccupations were well portrayed in the novels of writers such as [Daniel Defoe](/source/Daniel_Defoe), [Jonathan Swift](/source/Jonathan_Swift), [Samuel Richardson](/source/Samuel_Richardson), [Henry Fielding](/source/Henry_Fielding), [Laurence Sterne](/source/Laurence_Sterne), [Mary Shelley](/source/Mary_Shelley) and [Jane Austen](/source/Jane_Austen), characterised by the architecture of [Robert Adam](/source/Robert_Adam), [John Nash](/source/John_Nash_(architect)) and [James Wyatt](/source/James_Wyatt) and the emergence of the [Gothic Revival](/source/Gothic_Revival_architecture) style, which hearkened back to a supposed [golden age](/source/Golden_Age) of building design.

The flowering of the arts was most vividly shown in the emergence of the [Romantic](/source/Romanticism) poets, principally through [Samuel Taylor Coleridge](/source/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge), [William Wordsworth](/source/William_Wordsworth), [Percy Bysshe Shelley](/source/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley), [William Blake](/source/William_Blake), [John Keats](/source/John_Keats), [Lord Byron](/source/George_Gordon_Byron%2C_6th_Baron_Byron) and [Robert Burns](/source/Robert_Burns). Their work ushered in a new era of poetry, characterised by vivid and colourful language, evocative of elevating ideas and themes.[78][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

The paintings of [Thomas Gainsborough](/source/Thomas_Gainsborough), Sir [Joshua Reynolds](/source/Joshua_Reynolds) and the young [J. M. W. Turner](/source/J._M._W._Turner) and [John Constable](/source/John_Constable) illustrated the changing world of the Georgian period – as did the work of designers like [Capability Brown](/source/Lancelot_%22Capability%22_Brown), the [landscape designer](/source/Landscape_architecture).

Fine examples of distinctive Georgian architecture are Edinburgh's [New Town](/source/New_Town%2C_Edinburgh), [Georgian Dublin](/source/Georgian_Dublin), [Grainger Town](/source/Grainger_Town) in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/source/Newcastle_upon_Tyne), the Georgian Quarter of [Liverpool](/source/Liverpool) and much of Bristol and [Bath](/source/Bath%2C_Somerset).

The music of [John Field](/source/John_Field_(composer)), [Handel](/source/George_Frideric_Handel), [Haydn](/source/Joseph_Haydn), [Clementi](/source/Muzio_Clementi), [Johann Christian Bach](/source/Johann_Christian_Bach), [William Boyce](/source/William_Boyce_(composer)), [Mozart](/source/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart), [Beethoven](/source/Ludwig_van_Beethoven) and [Mendelssohn](/source/Felix_Mendelssohn) was some of the most popular in England at that time.

### Grand Tour

The height of the [Grand Tour](/source/Grand_Tour) coincided with the 18th century and is associated with Georgian high society. This custom saw young upper-class Englishmen travelling to Italy by way of France and the Netherlands for intellectual and cultural purposes.[79] Notable historian [Edward Gibbon](/source/Edward_Gibbon) remarked of the Grand Tour as useful for intellectual self-improvement.[80] The journey and stay abroad would usually take a year or more. This would eventually lead to the basis for the acquisition and spread of art collections back to England as well as fashions and paintings from Italy.[79] The custom also helped popularise the [macaroni](/source/Macaroni_(fashion)) style that was soon to become [fashionable at the time.](/source/1750%E2%80%931775_in_Western_fashion)[81]

## Ending

Historians debate the exact ending, with the deaths of George IV in 1830 or William IV in 1837 as the usual marker. In most social and cultural trends, the timing varied. The emergence of Romanticism and literature began as early as the 1780s, but religious changes took much longer and were incomplete until around a century later. The 1830s saw important developments such as the emergence of the [Oxford Movement](/source/Oxford_Movement) in religion and the demise of classical architecture. Victorians typically were disapproving of the times of the previous era. By the late 19th century, the "Georgian era" was a byword for a degenerate culture.[82] [Charles Abbey](/source/Charles_Abbey) in 1878 argued that the Church of England:

- partook of the general sordidness of the age; it was an age of great material prosperity, but of moral and spiritual poverty, such as hardly finds a parallel in our history. Mercenary motives were to predominate everywhere, in the Church as well as in the state.[83]

## Timeline

**1714**
- Upon the death of his second cousin **[Queen Anne](/source/Anne%2C_Queen_of_Great_Britain)**, *George Louis, Elector of Hanover*, succeeds as the new King, **[George I](/source/George_I_of_Great_Britain)**, of [Great Britain](/source/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain) and [Ireland](/source/Kingdom_of_Ireland), the former of which had itself been established in 1707. This is the beginning of the [House of Hanover](/source/House_of_Hanover)'s reign over the [British Crown](/source/British_Crown).

**1715**
- The [Whig Party](/source/Whigs_(British_political_party)) wins the [British parliamentary election](/source/1715_British_general_election) for the [House of Commons](/source/House_of_Commons_of_Great_Britain). This party is dominant until 1760.

**1727**
- **George I** dies on 11 June. His son *George, Prince of Wales*, ascends to the throne as **[George II](/source/George_II_of_Great_Britain)**.

*[An Incident in the Rebellion of 1745](/source/An_Incident_in_the_Rebellion_of_1745)*, depicting the [Battle of Culloden](/source/Battle_of_Culloden) of 1746, where British troops defeated the [Jacobite Army](/source/Jacobite_Army_(1745))

**1745**
- The [final Jacobite rising](/source/Jacobite_rising_of_1745) is crushed at the [Battle of Culloden](/source/Battle_of_Culloden) in April 1746.

**1760**
- **George II** dies on 25 October, and his grandson *George, Prince of Wales*, ascends to the throne as **[George III](/source/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom)**.

**1763**
- Britain is [victorious in the Seven Years' War](/source/Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years'_War). The [Treaty of Paris of 1763](/source/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)) grants Britain domain over vast new territories around the world.

**1765**
- The [Stamp Act](/source/Stamp_Act_1765) is passed by the [Parliament of Great Britain](/source/Parliament_of_Great_Britain), causing much unrest in the [Thirteen Colonies](/source/Thirteen_Colonies) in North America.

**1769–1770**
- Australia and New Zealand are claimed as [British](/source/Great_Britain) colonies.

**1773**
- The [Inclosure Act 1773](/source/Inclosure_Act_1773) is put into place by the British Parliament. This act brought about the [enclosure](/source/Enclosure) of land and removing the right of [common land](/source/Common_land) access. This began an internal mass movement of rural poor from the countryside into the cities.

**1775**
- The [American Revolutionary War](/source/American_Revolutionary_War) begins in the Thirteen Colonies, specifically in [Massachusetts](/source/Massachusetts); all royal officials are expelled.

**1776**
- The Thirteen Colonies in North America [declare their independence](/source/U.S._Declaration_of_Independence). King George III is determined to recover them.

British general [John Burgoyne](/source/John_Burgoyne) shown surrendering at Saratoga in 1777

**1777**
- The main British invasion army under Gen. Burgoyne [surrenders at Saratoga](/source/Saratoga_campaign); the French increase their aid to the Americans.

**1778**
- [France](/source/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War) forms in a military alliance with the United States and declares war on Britain. The Netherlands and Spain support France; Britain has no major allies.

**1781**
- The British Army in America under [Lord Cornwallis](/source/Charles_Cornwallis%2C_1st_Marquess_Cornwallis) surrenders to [George Washington](/source/George_Washington) after its defeat in [Yorktown, Virginia](/source/Battle_of_Yorktown_(1781)), in October 1781. The French Navy controls the seas.

**1782**
- [Battle of the Saintes](/source/Battle_of_the_Saintes): Admiral Sir George Rodney defeated a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse, enabling the Royal Navy to control the West Indies.

**1783**
- Great Britain formally recognises the [independence of the original 13 American States](/source/American_Revolution) in the [Treaty of Paris of 1783](/source/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)). The geographical terms are very generous to the Americans, and the expectation that Anglo-American trade will become of major importance.

**1788**
- Australia is settled through [penal transportation](/source/Penal_transportation) to the colony of [New South Wales](/source/New_South_Wales) from 26 January.

**1789**
- [Thomas Robert Malthus](/source/Thomas_Robert_Malthus), an Anglican cleric, authors *[An Essay on the Principle of Population](/source/An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population)*. This work, the origin of [Malthusianism](/source/Malthusianism), posited a need for [population control](/source/Population_control) to avoid poverty and famine or conflict over scarce resources.

[William Pitt the Younger](/source/William_Pitt_the_Younger) addressing the [House of Commons](/source/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom) on the outbreak of [war with France](/source/War_of_the_First_Coalition) in 1793

**1801**
- The [Act of Union 1800](/source/Act_of_Union_1800) comes into effect on 1 January, uniting the Kingdoms of [Great Britain](/source/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain) and of [Ireland](/source/Kingdom_of_Ireland) into the [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](/source/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland).

**1807**
- The [Abolition of the Slave Trade Act](/source/Abolition_of_the_Slave_Trade_Act) became law, making it illegal to engage in the [slave trade](/source/History_of_slavery) throughout the [British Empire](/source/British_Empire), partly as a result of a twenty-year parliamentary campaign by [William Wilberforce](/source/William_Wilberforce).

**1811**
- *George, Prince of Wales*, begins his nine-year period as the [regent](/source/Prince_regent) (he became known as *[George, Prince Regent](/source/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom)*) for George III, who had become delusional. This sub-period of the Georgian era is known as the [Regency era](/source/Regency_era).

**1815**
- [Napoleon](/source/Napoleon) I of France is defeated by the [Seventh Coalition](/source/Hundred_Days) under [The Duke of Wellington](/source/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington) at the [Battle of Waterloo](/source/Battle_of_Waterloo).

**1819**
- The [Peterloo Massacre](/source/Peterloo_Massacre) occurs.

**1820**
- **[George III](/source/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom)** dies on 29 January, and his son *George, Prince Regent*, ascends to the throne of the [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](/source/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland) as **[George IV](/source/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom)**. He had been the effective ruler since 1811 as regent for his seriously ill father.

**1830**
- **[George IV](/source/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom)** dies on 26 June. Some historians date this as the end of the Georgian era of the House of Hanover. However, many other authorities continue this era during the relatively short reign of his younger brother, who became **[King William IV](/source/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom)**.

**1833**
- [Slavery Abolition Act](/source/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833) passed by Parliament through the influence of William Wilberforce and the Evangelical movement. The slaveowners are generously paid off.

**1837**
- Transition to the [Victorian era](/source/Victorian_era). King William IV dies on 20 June, ending the Georgian era. He was succeeded by his niece, **[Queen Victoria](/source/Queen_Victoria)**.

## Monarchs

[George I](/source/George_I_of_Great_Britain)

[George II](/source/George_II_of_Great_Britain)

[George III](/source/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom)

[George IV](/source/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom)

[William IV](/source/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom)

## See also

- [Bloody Code](/source/Bloody_Code)

- [Early modern Britain](/source/Early_modern_Britain)

- [Historiography of the British Empire](/source/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire)

- [Historiography of the United Kingdom](/source/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom)

- [International relations 1648–1814](/source/International_relations_1648%E2%80%931814)

- [The Georgian Group](/source/The_Georgian_Group)

## Citation

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryde199646–47_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryde199646–47_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryde199646–47_1-2) [Pryde 1996](#CITEREFPryde1996), pp. 46–47.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Georgian Definition & Meaning"](https://www.dictionary.com/browse/georgian). *Dictionary.com*. Retrieved 13 May 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Robin Gilmour, *The Victorian period: The intellectual and cultural context, 1830-1890* (Longman, 1993) pp.19-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Frank O'Gorman, *The long eighteenth century: British political and social history, 1688-1832* (1997) pp. x to xv.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Paul Langford, *A Polite and Commercial People England 1727-1783* (1998) [online](https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Polite_and_Commercial_People/cy3hX944bLMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=intitle:A+intitle:Polite+intitle:and+intitle:Commercial+intitle:People&printsec=frontcover)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Boyd Hilton, *A mad, bad, and dangerous people?: England, 1783-1846* (Oxford UP, 2006) pp. 1–38. [online](https://archive.org/details/madbaddangerousp0000hilt)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Robert Louis, "On the Decline of British Royal Power in the Early George Era (1714-1761)." *Journal of Social Science Humanities and Literature* 6.6 (2023): 245–250.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Michael Jubb, "Economic policy and economic development," in. Jeremy Black, ed, *Britain in the age of Walpole,* (1984) pp.121–144.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** John Rule, *The Vital Century: England's developing economy 1714–1815* (1992) pp. 28–31.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** H. T. Dickinson, *Walpole and the Whig supremacy* (1973) pp.98–104. [online](https://archive.org/details/walpolewhigsupre0000dick)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Jeremy Black, *The Hanoverians* (2004), pp. 59-77.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Gabriel Glickman, "Jacobitism and the Hanoverian Monarchy." *The Hanoverian Succession* (Routledge, 2016) pp. 227–250.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-p291_15-0)** Hatton, pp. 172, 291.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Ashley, Mike (1998). *The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens*. London: Robinson. p. 672. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84119-096-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84119-096-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Lohrmann, Martin J. (2021). [*Stories from Global Lutheranism: A Historical Timeline*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BaQCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90). Fortress Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5064-6458-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5064-6458-9). Retrieved 13 January 2022.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** David Loades, ed. *Reader's Guide to British History* (2003) 1:562–566

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Herbert Butterfield, *George III and the historians* (1988) [online](https://www.google.com/search?q=&rlz=1C1ONGR_enUS1013US1013&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&udm=50&aep=48&cud=0&qsubts=1762382784080)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Scott C. Neill, " 'Almighty God placed her Sceptre in the Hands of a Prince:' George III and the Historians--Sixty Years On" (Thesis, U. Of Nebraska, 2022) [online](https://www.proquest.com/docview/2726365805?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** J. Steven Watson, *Published: 1964 The Reign of George III 1760-1815* (Oxford, 1964) [online](https://archive.org/details/reignofgeorgeiii0000jste)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Eric J. Evans, *Britain before the Reform Act: Politics and Society 1815–1832* (Longman. 1989) pp.1–3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Michael Bentley, *Politics without democracy, 1815-1914: perception and preoccupation in British Government* (1984) pp. 19–30. [online](https://archive.org/details/politicswithoutd0000bent_v4w9)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** B.W. Hill, *British parliamentary parties, 1742–1832: From the fall of Walpole to the first Reform Act* (1985) pp.198–231. [online](https://archive.org/details/britishparliamen00hill)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Szreter, Simon (17 July 2024). "The history of inequality: the deep-acting ideological and institutional influences". *Oxford Open Economics*. **3**: i217–i230. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ooec/odad059](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fooec%2Fodad059).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Gunn, Simon (2004). Williams, Chris (ed.). *A Companion to Nineteenth-Century Britain*. pp. 238–240. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780631225799](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631225799).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** ["Political Unrest and Social Reform | British Literature Wiki"](https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/political-unrest-and-social-reform/). Retrieved 9 August 2025.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Morris, R. J. (March 1983). "Voluntary Societies and British Urban Elites, 1780–1850: An Analysis". *The Historical Journal*. **26** (1): 99. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0018246X00019610](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00019610). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [162351383](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162351383).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Wood, Lisa (2003). *Modes of Discipline: Women, Conservatism, and the Novel after the French Revolution*. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press. pp. 42–44.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** R.F. Foster, *Modern Ireland: 1600-1972* (Allen Lane, 1988) pp. 296.-309

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Richard W. Davis, "Wellington and the 'Open Question': The Issue of Catholic Emancipation, 1821–1829." *Albion* 29.1 (1997): 39-55. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [https://doi.org/10.2307/4051594](https://www.jstor.org/stable/https://doi.org/10.2307/4051594)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Max Savelle, [*Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind* (2005), pp. 204–211](https://books.google.com/books?id=hIgl_HNozQsC&pg=PA204)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Nicholas Rogers, 'Riot and Popular Jacobitism in Early Hanoverian England', in Eveline Cruickshanks (ed.), *Ideology and Conspiracy: Aspects of Jacobitism, 1689–1759* (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1982), pp. 70–88.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Paul Kleber Monod, *Jacobitism and the English People, 1688–1788* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 173-194.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Paul Langford, *A Polite and Commercial People: England, 1727–1783* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 291.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Langford, pp. 291-292.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** A. J. Graham Cummings and Jack Fruchtman, ed. (1997). [*Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=PA58). Taylor & Francis. p. 58. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8153-0396-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0396-1).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** John Bohstedt, *Riots and community politics in England and Wales, 1790–1810* (Harvard University Press, 1983).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-npg_62-0)** [Engraving after 'Men of Science Living in 1807-8'](http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait.php?LinkID=mp02303&rNo=1&role=sit), [John Gilbert](/source/John_Gilbert_(painter)) engraved by George Zobel and [William Walker](/source/William_Walker_(engraver_born_1791)), ref. NPG 1075a, National Portrait Gallery, London, accessed February 2010

1. **[^](#cite_ref-key_63-0)** Smith, HM (May 1941). ["Eminent men of science living in 1807-8"](http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed018p203). *J. Chem. Educ*. **18** (5): 203. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/ed018p203](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed018p203).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Adrienne Koch, ed., *The American enlightenment: The shaping of the American experiment and a free society* (1965).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Peter Gay, ed. *The Enlightenment: A comprehensive anthology* (1973), p. 15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** Matthew Daniel Eddy, "Natural History, Natural Philosophy and Readership", in Stephen Brown and Warren McDougall, eds., *The Edinburgh History of the Book in Scotland, Vol. II: Enlightenment and Expansion, 1707–1800* (2012), pp. 297–309 [online](https://www.academia.edu/3770441/Natural_History_Natural_Philosophy_and_Readership_in_Stephen_Brown_and_Warren_McDougall_eds._The_Edinburgh_History_of_the_Book_in_Scotland_Vol._II_Enlightenment_and_Expansion_1707-1800_Edinburgh_University_of_Edinburgh_Press_2012_297-309)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** David Daiches, Peter Jones, Jean Jones, eds., *A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment 1731–1790* (Edinburgh UP, 1986).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** Peter Gay, ed. *The Enlightenment: A comprehensive anthology* (1973), p. 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Hirst, Derek (1996). ["Locating the 1650s in England's Seventeenth Century"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24423269). *History*. **81** (263): 359–383. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/1468-229X.00016](https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-229X.00016). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0018-2648](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2648). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24423269](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24423269).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** ["The Enlightenment (1650–1800): The English Enlightenment"](https://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/enlightenment/section2/). *SparkNotes*. Retrieved 18 December 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** ["Royal Society | British Science, History & Impact | Britannica"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society). *www.britannica.com*. 29 June 2024. Retrieved 21 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** Roy Porter, "England" in Alan Charles Kors, ed., *Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment* (2003) 1:409–15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Karen O'Brien, "English Enlightenment Histories, 1750–c.1815" in José Rabasa et al. eds. (2012). [*The Oxford History of Historical Writing*](https://books.google.com/books?id=HcVZeiGg4awC&pg=PA518). Vol. 3: 1400–1800. OUP Oxford. pp. 518–35. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-921917-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921917-9). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: |author= has generic name ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Roy Porter, *The creation of the modern world: the untold story of the British Enlightenment* (2000), pp. 1–12, 36–37, 482–84.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Rosemary Sweet, *Antiquaries: the discovery of the past in eighteenth-century Britain* (A&C Black, 2004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** William Li Parry-Jones, "Asylum for the mentally ill in historical perspective." *Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists* 12.10 (1988): 407-410 [online](https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/0411C25A2060DE7503EAEE3A90C96300/S0140078900041377a.pdf/asylum_for_the_mentally_ill_in_historical_perspective.pdf).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Roger Fry, and James Bolivar Manson, eds. *Georgian Art (1760-1820): An Introductory Review of English Painting, Architecture, Sculpture, Ceramics, Glass, Metalwork, Furniture, Textiles and Other Arts During the Reign of George III.* (1929) [online](https://archive.org/details/georgianart0000unse).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Aleksandr Georgievich, and David Minaevich Gamezardashvili Baramidze, *Georgian literature* (The Minerva Group, 2001).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_79-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_79-1) ["Grand Tour"](https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095903557#:~:text=An%20extensive%20Continental%20journey%2C%20chiefly,women%20also%20made%20such%20journeys).). *Oxford Reference*. Retrieved 20 May 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** E. Chaney, "Gibbon, Beckford and the Interpretation of Dreams, Waking Thoughts and Incidents", The Beckford Society Annual Lectures (London, 2004), pp. 25–50.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Amelia_Rauser_2004_p._101_81-0)** Amelia Rauser, *Hair, Authenticity, The Self Made Macaroni* (Johns Hopkins University Press, Fall 2004) p. 101.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** Nicholas Dixon, "From Georgian to Victorian", *History Review* (Dec 2010), Issue 68.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** Charles John Abbey, *The English Church in the Eighteenth Century* (1878) vol 2 p. 4.

## Bibliography

- Andress, David (2012). *The savage storm: Britain on the brink in the age of Napoleon*. London: Little Brown. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781405513210](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405513210).

- Armstrong, Anthony (1973). *The Church of England: the Methodists and society, 1700–1850*. London: University of London Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780340170564](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780340170564).

- Bannister, Jerry, Liam Riordan (2012). *The Loyal Atlantic: Remaking the British Atlantic in the Revolutionary Era*. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781442661134](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442661134).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

- Bates, Stephen (2015). *Year of Waterloo: Britain in 1815*. London: Head of Zeus. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781781858233](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781781858233).

- Begiato, Joanne (2016). *Between poise and power: embodied manliness in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century British culture*. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. Vol. 26.

- Black, Jeremy. (2003) (2003). "Georges I & II: Limited monarchs". *History Today*. **53** (2).{{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list))

- Black Jeremy, ed. (1984) *Britain in the Age of Walpole*. Nine specialized essays by experts In politics economics, foreign policy & poetry

- [Black, Jeremy](/source/Jeremy_Black_(historian)) (2004). *The Hanoverians: The History of a Dynasty*. London: Hambledon Continuum. p. 288. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781474210287](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474210287). [online](https://archive.org/details/hanoverianshisto0000blac)

- Black, Jeremy (1984). *Britain in the Age of Walpole*. London: Macmillan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-333-36863-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-36863-3).

- [Briggs, Asa](/source/Asa_Briggs) (1959). *The making of modern England, 1783–1867: The age of improvement*. London: Longman. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [9106361](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9106361). [online](https://archive.org/details/bwb_KR-686-174/page/n8/mode/1up); a major scholarly survey.

- Bultmann, William A. (1963). "Early Hanoverian England (1714–60): Some Recent Writings". *Journal of Modern History*. **35** (1): 46–61. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/243597](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F243597). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1899144](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1899144).

- Colley, Linda, (1992) *Britons: forging the nation, 1707-1837* (Yale UP) [online](https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=UvekhU69KagC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=colley+britons+forging+the+nation&ots=OrLX7NGraa&sig=kSVb0w2n61Vn3zH_YwUQaWhDG5I); a major scholarly survey.

- Curl, James Stevens (2011). *Georgian Architecture*. London: English Heritage. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781848020863](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848020863).

- Dixon, Nicholas (2010). "From Georgian to Victorian". *History Review* (68).; Historyography.

- Ellis, Joyce (2001). *The Georgian Town, 1680–1840*. Basingstoke: Palgrave. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780333711347](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333711347).

- Evans, E. J. (1989). *Britain before the Reform Act: politics and society 1815–1832*. London: Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781315841304](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315841304).

- Fry, Roger, and James Bolivar Manson, eds. (1929) *Georgian Art (1760-1820): An Introductory Review of English Painting, Architecture, Sculpture, Ceramics, Glass, Metalwork, Furniture, Textiles and Other Arts During the Reign of George III.* [online](https://archive.org/details/georgianart0000unse)

- Gould, Eliga H. (1997). "American independence and Britain's counter-revolution". *Past & Present* (154): 107–141. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/past/154.1.107](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F154.1.107).

- Gregg, Pauline (1967). *A Social and Economic History of Britain: 1760–1950*. New York: Pegasus. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1976542](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1976542).

- Graham Cummings, A. J., and Jack Fruchtman, eds. (1997). *Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia* (Taylor & Francis)

- Hill, B.W. (1985) *British parliamentary parties 1742–1832.*

- Hilton, Boyd. (2006) *A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People? England, 1783 –1846*. (Oxford UP); a major scholarly survey.

- Hochschild, Adam (2005). *Bury the Chains, The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery*. Basingstoke: Pan Macmillan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780330485814](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780330485814).

- Holmes, Richard (2009). *The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and Terror of Science*. London: HarperPress. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780007441358](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780007441358).

- Hunt, Tamara L. (2017). *Defining John Bull: political caricature and national identity in late Georgian England*. London: Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781840142686](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781840142686).

- Marshall, Dorothy. (1962) *Eighteenth Century England*

- [Mokyr, Joel](/source/Mokyr%2C_Joel) (2010). *The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain 1700–1850*. New Haven: Yale University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780300189513](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300189513).

- Mori, Jennifer (2014). *Britain in the Age of the French Revolution: 1785–1820*. Routledge.

- Newman, Gerald, ed. (1997). *Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia*. London: Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8153-0396-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0396-1).

- O'Brien, Patrick K. (1988). "The political economy of British taxation, 1660-1815". *Economic History Review*. **41** (1): 1–32. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2597330](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2597330). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2597330](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2597330).

- O'Gorman, Frank (1986). "The Recent Historiography of the Hanoverian Regime". *Historical Journal*. **29** (4): 1005–1020. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0018246X00019178](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00019178). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2639368](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639368).

- Owen, John B. (1974) *The eighteenth century, 1714-1815* [online](https://archive.org/details/eighteenthcentur0000owen)

- Parsons, Timothy H. (2019). *The British imperial century, 1815–1914: A world history perspective*. Rowman & Littlefield.

- Plumb, John H. (1956). *The First Four Georges* [online](https://archive.org/details/firstfourgeorges0000unse_l7o2)

- Plumb, J. H. (1974). *The First Four Georges*.

- Porter, Roy (1991). *English Society in the Eighteenth Century*. [English Society in the Eighteenth Century. online]

- Priestley, J.B. (1969) *The Prince of Pleasure and his Regency. 1811–20* , heavily illustrated coverage of the 1810s; [online](https://archive.org/details/princeofpleasure0000jbpr)

- Pryde, E. B., ed. (1996). [*Handbook of British Chronology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=zcgxEvGAK_kC&pg=PA46). Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-56350-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56350-5).

- Reed, Michael. (1983) *The Georgian Triumph, 1700–1830*; emphasis on the environment; [online](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003544579/georgian-triumph-1700%E2%80%931830-michael-reed)

- Reitan E. A., ed. (1964). *'George III, Tyrant Or Constitutional Monarch?*.

- Rendell, Mike (2018). *Trailblazing Women of the Georgian Era: The Eighteenth-Century Struggle for Female Success in a Man's World*. Pen and Sword.

- Royle, Edward, and James Walvin (1982). *English radicals and reformers, 1760–1848*. University Press of Kentucky.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

- Rule. John (1992). *Albion's People: English Society 1714–1815*.

- Schweizer, Karl,Jeremy Black (1989). *Politics and the Press in Hanoverian Britain*. E. Mellon Press.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

- [Simms, Brendan](/source/Brendan_Simms) (2007). *Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714-1783*. London: Allen Lane. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-713-99426-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-713-99426-1).

- Simms, Brendan, Torsten Riotte (2009). *The Hanoverian Dimension in British History, 1714–1837*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-84222-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84222-8).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

- Snyder, Henry L. (1984). Richard Schlatter (ed.). *Early Georgian England*. Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966.; Historiography.

- Thomas, Peter D. G. (1985). "George III and the American Revolution". *History*. **70** (228): 16–31. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1468-229X.1985.tb02477.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-229X.1985.tb02477.x).

- Trevelyan, G.M. (1901). *British History in the Nineteenth Century (1782–1901)*.; [online](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.48417/page/n7/mode/1up)

- Turner, M. J. (2000). *The Age of Unease: government and reform in Britain, 1782–1832*.

- Watson J. Steven (1960). *The Reign of George III: 1760–1815*.; A major scholarly survey. [online](https://archive.org/details/reignofgeorgeiii0000wats/page/n6/mode/1up)

- Williams, Basil (1939). *The Whig Supremacy 1714–1760*.; ; A major scholarly survey. [online](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.2539/page/n5/mode/1up)

- Wilson, Charles (1967). *England's apprenticeship, 1603–1763*.

- Woodward; E. L. (1938). *The Age of Reform, 1815–1870*.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list)); A major scholarly survey. [online](https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.19752/page/n5/mode/1up)

## External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Georgian era](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Georgian_era)***.

- [Rocque's Map of London Online, 1746](https://web.archive.org/web/20130523191653/http://www.motco.com/MAP/81002/)

- [Georgians](http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/georgians/georgianhome.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150425115604/http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/georgians/georgianhome.html) 25 April 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) British Library history resources about the Georgian era, featuring collection material and text by Dr. Matthew White.

- [British Library Timelines: Sources from History](http://www.bl.uk/timeline) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20100201134618/http://www.bl.uk/timeline) 1 February 2010 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

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