# Fructose

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Simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants

d-Fructose d-Fructofuranose Fischer projection of open-chain d-fructose Haworth projection of β-d-fructofuranose Ball-and-stick model of β-d-fructofuranose Ball-and-stick model of β-d-fructopyranose Names IUPAC name D-arabino-Hex-2-ulose[3] Systematic IUPAC name (3S,4R,5R)-1,3,4,5,6-Pentahydroxyhexan-2-one Other names Fruit sugar,[1] levulose,[2] d-fructofuranose, d-fructose, d-arabino-hexulose Identifiers CAS Number 57-48-7 Y 3D model (JSmol) Interactive image ChEBI CHEBI:48095 Y ChEMBL ChEMBL604608 Y ChemSpider 388775 Y ECHA InfoCard 100.000.303 EC Number 200-333-3 KEGG C02336 Y PubChem CID 5984 UNII 6YSS42VSEV Y CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID5023081 InChI InChI=1S/C6H12O6/c7-1-3-4(9)5(10)6(11,2-8)12-3/h3-5,7-11H,1-2H2/t3-,4-,5+,6-/m1/s1 Y Key: RFSUNEUAIZKAJO-ARQDHWQXSA-N Y SMILES O[C@H]1[C@H](O)[C@H](O[C@]1(O)CO)CO Properties Chemical formula C6H12O6 Molar mass 180.156 g·mol−1 Density 1.694 g/cm3 Melting point 103 °C (217 °F; 376 K) Solubility in water ~4000 g/L (25 °C) Magnetic susceptibility (χ) −102.60×10−6 cm3/mol Thermochemistry Std enthalpy of combustion (ΔcH⦵298) 675.6 kcal/mol (2,827 kJ/mol)[4] (Higher heating value) Pharmacology ATC code V06DC02 (WHO) Hazards Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC): LD50 (median dose) 15000 mg/kg (intravenous, rabbit)[5] Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). N verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references

Chemical compound

**Fructose** ([/ˈfrʌktoʊs, -oʊz/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English)), or **fruit sugar**, is a common [monosaccharide](/source/Monosaccharide), i.e. a simple sugar. It is classified as a reducing [hexose](/source/Hexose), more specifically a [ketonic](/source/Ketose) [simple sugar](/source/Monosaccharide) found in many plants, where it is often bonded to [glucose](/source/Glucose) to form the [disaccharide](/source/Disaccharide) [sucrose](/source/Sucrose). A white, water-soluble solid, it is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with [glucose](/source/Glucose) and [galactose](/source/Galactose).[6] Fructose is found in [honey](/source/Honey), tree and vine fruits, flowers, [berries](/source/Berry), and most [root vegetables](/source/List_of_root_vegetables).

## History

Fructose was discovered by French chemist [Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut](/source/Augustin-Pierre_Dubrunfaut) in 1847.[7][8] The name "fructose" was coined in 1857 by the English chemist [William Allen Miller](/source/William_Allen_Miller).[9] Pure, dry fructose is a sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid, and is the most water-soluble of all the sugars.[10]

## Etymology

The word "fructose" was coined in 1857 from the Latin for *fructus* (fruit) and the generic chemical suffix for sugars, *[-ose](/source/-ose)*.[9][11] It is also called fruit sugar and levulose or laevulose, due to its ability to rotate plane polarised light in a [laevorotary](/source/Optical_rotation) fashion (anti-clockwise/to the left) when a beam is shone through it in solution. Likewise, [dextrose](/source/Glucose) (an isomer of glucose) is given its name due to its ability to rotate plane polarised light in a [dextrorotary](/source/Optical_rotation) fashion (clockwise/to the right).[11]

## Chemical structure

Relationship between the [acyclic](/source/Open-chain) and the cyclic ([hemiketal](/source/Hemiketal)) isomers of fructose

d- and l-isomers of fructose (open-chain form)

Fructose adopts both cyclic six- and five-membered structure, The six membered ring can exist as either the β-d-fructopyranose and α-d-fructopyranose. The five-membered rings exists as either of two isomers β-d-fructo[furanose](/source/Furanose) and α-d-fructofuranose. Additionally, an acyclic (open-chain) form exists: *keto*-d-fructose.[12][13] At 70% and 22% respectively, fructopyranose and fructofuranose are the dominant species in aqueous solution.[14]

### Chemical reactions

#### Fructose and fermentation

Fructose may be anaerobically [fermented](/source/Ethanol_fermentation) by [yeast](/source/Yeast) and [bacteria](/source/Bacteria).[15] Yeast enzymes convert sugar ([sucrose](/source/Sucrose), [glucose](/source/Glucose), and fructose, but not [lactose](/source/Lactose)) to [ethanol](/source/Ethanol) and [carbon dioxide](/source/Carbon_dioxide).[16] Some of the carbon dioxide produced during fermentation will remain dissolved in water, where it will reach equilibrium with [carbonic acid](/source/Carbonic_acid). The dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid produce the carbonation in some [fermented beverages](/source/Fermented_beverage), such as [champagne](/source/Champagne).

#### Fructose and Maillard reaction

Fructose undergoes the [Maillard reaction](/source/Maillard_reaction), non-enzymatic browning, with [amino acids](/source/Amino_acid). Because fructose exists to a greater extent in the open-chain form than does glucose, the initial stages of the Maillard reaction occur more rapidly than with glucose. Therefore, fructose has potential to contribute to changes in food [palatability](/source/Palatability), as well as other nutritional effects, such as excessive browning, volume and tenderness reduction during cake preparation, and formation of [mutagenic](/source/Mutagenic) compounds.[17]

#### Dehydration

Fructose can be dehydrated to give [hydroxymethylfurfural](/source/Hydroxymethylfurfural) ("HMF", C 6H 6O 3), which can be processed into liquid [dimethylfuran](/source/2%2C5-Dimethylfuran) (C 6H 8O). This conversion has long been proposed, not implemented, as a route to [green fuels](/source/Green_fuel).[18]

## Physical and functional properties

### Sweetness of fructose

See also: [Sweetness § Examples of sweet substances](/source/Sweetness#Examples_of_sweet_substances)

The primary reason that fructose is used commercially in foods and beverages, besides its low cost, is its high relative sweetness. It is the sweetest of all naturally occurring [carbohydrates](/source/Carbohydrate). The relative sweetness of fructose has been reported in the range of 1.2–1.8 times that of sucrose.[19][20][21][22] However, it is the 6-membered ring form of fructose that is sweeter; the 5-membered ring form tastes about the same as usual table sugar. Warming fructose leads to formation of the 5-membered ring form.[23] Therefore, the relative sweetness decreases with increasing temperature. However, it has been observed that the absolute sweetness of fructose is identical at 5 °C as 50 °C and thus the relative sweetness to sucrose is not due to [anomeric](/source/Anomeric) distribution but a decrease in the absolute sweetness of sucrose at higher temperatures.[21]

Relative sweetness of sugars and sweeteners

The sweetness of fructose is perceived earlier than that of sucrose or glucose, and the taste sensation reaches a peak (higher than that of sucrose), and diminishes more quickly than that of sucrose. Fructose can also enhance other flavors in the system.[19][21]

Fructose exhibits a sweetness synergy effect when used in combination with other sweeteners. The relative sweetness of fructose blended with sucrose, aspartame, or saccharin is perceived to be greater than the sweetness calculated from individual components.[24][21]

### Fructose solubility and crystallization

Fructose has higher water solubility than other sugars, as well as other sugar alcohols. Fructose is, therefore, difficult to crystallize from an aqueous solution.[19] Sugar mixes containing fructose, such as candies, are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater solubility of fructose.[25]

### Fructose hygroscopicity and humectancy

Fructose is quicker to absorb moisture and slower to release it to the environment than sucrose, glucose, or other nutritive sweeteners.[24] Fructose is an excellent humectant and retains moisture for a long period of time even at low [relative humidity](/source/Relative_humidity) (RH). Therefore, fructose can contribute a more palatable texture, and longer shelf life to the food products in which it is used.[19]

### Freezing point

Fructose has a greater effect on freezing point depression than disaccharides or oligosaccharides, which may protect the integrity of cell walls of fruit by reducing ice crystal formation. However, this characteristic may be undesirable in soft-serve or hard-frozen dairy desserts.[19]

### Fructose and starch functionality in food systems

Fructose increases starch viscosity more rapidly and achieves a higher final viscosity than sucrose because fructose lowers the temperature required during [gelatinizing of starch](/source/Starch_gelatinization), causing a greater final viscosity.[26]

Although some artificial sweeteners are not suitable for home baking, many traditional recipes use fructose.[27]

## Sources

Crystalline fructose

### Commercial production

Fructose is produced on an industrial scale from three precursors: starch, sucrose, and [inulin](/source/Inulin). Sucrose is an [organic compound](/source/Organic_compound) with one molecule of glucose [covalently](/source/Covalent_bond) linked to one molecule of fructose. All forms of fructose, including those found in fruits and juices, are commonly added to foods and drinks for [palatability](/source/Palatability) and [taste](/source/Taste) enhancement, and for browning of some foods, such as baked goods.[6] Fructose is found in [honey](/source/Honey), tree and vine fruits, flowers, [berries](/source/Berry), and most [root vegetables](/source/List_of_root_vegetables).

Starch is hydrolyzed to glucose, which is converted to fructose by the enzyme [glucose isomerase](/source/Glucose_isomerase). This mixture is [high-fructose corn syrup](/source/High-fructose_corn_syrup). At 60 °C, the conversion gives a 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is [hydrolyzed](/source/Hydrolysis) to give its monomeric precursors glucose and fructose. Inulin is also converted to fructose on a commercial scale. As of 2004[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fructose&action=edit), about 240,000 [tonnes](/source/Tonne) of crystalline fructose were being produced annually.[6] Commercially, [maize](/source/Maize) is a major source of starch. [Sugar cane](/source/Sugar_cane) and [sugar beets](/source/Sugar_beet) are sources of sucrose, a [compound](/source/Chemical_compound) with one molecule of glucose [covalently](/source/Covalent_bond) linked to one molecule of fructose. Inulin is found in the roots of certain plants such as [chicory](/source/Chicory).

### Natural sources

Natural sources of fructose include fruits, vegetables (including sugar cane), and honey.[28] Fructose is often further concentrated from these sources. The highest dietary sources of fructose, besides pure crystalline fructose, are foods containing [white sugar](/source/White_sugar) (sucrose), [high-fructose corn syrup](/source/High-fructose_corn_syrup), [agave nectar](/source/Agave_nectar), [honey](/source/Honey), [molasses](/source/Molasses), [maple syrup](/source/Maple_syrup), fruit and fruit [juices](/source/Juice), as these have the highest percentages of fructose (including fructose in sucrose) per serving compared to other common foods and ingredients. Fructose exists in foods either as a free [monosaccharide](/source/Monosaccharide) or bound to glucose as sucrose, a [disaccharide](/source/Disaccharide). Fructose, glucose, and sucrose may all be present in food; however, different foods will have varying levels of each of these three sugars.

The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1. In general, in foods that contain free fructose, the ratio of fructose to glucose is approximately 1:1; that is, foods with fructose usually contain about an equal amount of free glucose. A value that is above 1 indicates a higher proportion of fructose to glucose and below 1 a lower proportion. Some fruits have larger proportions of fructose to glucose compared to others. For example, [apples](/source/Apple) and [pears](/source/Pear) contain more than twice as much free fructose as glucose, while for [apricots](/source/Apricot) the proportion is less than half as much fructose as glucose.

Apple and pear juices are of particular interest to [pediatricians](/source/Pediatrics) because the high concentrations of free fructose in these juices can cause [diarrhea](/source/Diarrhea) in children. The cells ([enterocytes](/source/Enterocyte)) that line children's [small intestines](/source/Small_intestine) have less affinity for fructose [absorption](/source/Small_Intestine#Absorptions) than for glucose and sucrose.[29] Unabsorbed fructose creates higher [osmolarity](/source/Osmolarity) in the small intestine, which draws water into the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in osmotic diarrhea. This phenomenon is discussed in greater detail in the [Health Effects](#Potential_health_effects) section.

Table 1 also shows the amount of sucrose found in common fruits and vegetables. [Sugarcane](/source/Sugarcane) and [sugar beet](/source/Sugar_beet) have a high concentration of sucrose, and are used for commercial preparation of pure sucrose. Extracted cane or beet juice is clarified, removing impurities; and concentrated by removing excess water. The end product is 99.9%-pure sucrose. Sucrose-containing sugars include common white sugar and [powdered sugar](/source/Powdered_sugar), as well as [brown sugar](/source/Brown_sugar).[30]

Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)[31] [Some of these ratios don't agree] Food Item Total carbohydrateA including "dietary fiber" Total sugars Free fructose Free glucose Sucrose Fructose/ glucose ratio Sucrose as a % of total sugars Free fructose as a % of total sugars Fruits Apple 13.8 10.4 5.9 2.4 2.1 2.0? 19.9 57 Apricot 11.1 9.2 0.9 2.4 5.9 0.7? 63.5 10 Banana 22.8 12.2 4.9 5.0 2.4 1.0 20.0 40 Fig, dried 63.9 47.9 22.9 24.8 0.9? 0.93 1.9 47.8 Grapes 18.1 15.5 8.1 7.2 0.2 1.1 1 52 Navel orange 12.5 8.5 2.25 2.0 4.3 1.1 50.4 26 Peach 9.5 8.4 1.5 2.0 4.8 0.9? 56.7 18 Pear 15.5 9.8 6.2 2.8 0.8 2.1? 8.0 63 Pineapple 13.1 9.9 2.1 1.7 6.0 1.1 60.8 21 Plum 11.4 9.9 3.1 5.1 1.6 0.66 16.2 31 Vegetables Beet, Red 9.6 6.8 0.1 0.1 6.5 1.0 96.2 1.5 Carrot 9.6 4.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 1.0 77 13 Red Pepper, Sweet 6.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 0.0 1.2 0.0 55 Onion, Sweet 7.6 5.0 2.0 2.3 0.7 0.9 14.3 40 Sweet Potato 20.1 4.2 0.7 1.0 2.5 0.9 60.3 17 Yam 27.9 0.5 tr tr tr na tr Sugar Cane 13–18 0.2 – 1.0 0.2 – 1.0 11–16 1.0 high 1.5-5.6 Sugar Beet 17–18 0.1 – 0.5 0.1 – 0.5 16–17 1.0 high 0.59-2.8 Grains Maize, Sweet 19.0 6.2 1.9 3.4 0.9 0.61 15.0 31

- **[^A](#ref_2)** The carbohydrate figure is calculated in FoodData Central and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber".

All data with a unit of g (gram) are based on 100 g of a food item. The fructose/glucose ratio is calculated by dividing the sum of free fructose plus half sucrose by the sum of free glucose plus half sucrose.

Fructose is also found in the manufactured [sweetener](/source/Sugar_substitute), high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), which is produced by treating [corn syrup](/source/Corn_syrup) with [enzymes](/source/Enzyme), converting glucose into fructose.[32] The common designations for fructose content, HFCS-42 and HFCS-55, indicate the percentage of fructose present in HFCS.[32] HFCS-55 is commonly used as a sweetener for [soft drinks](/source/Soft_drink), whereas HFCS-42 is used to sweeten processed foods, [breakfast cereals](/source/Breakfast_cereals), [bakery](/source/Bakery) foods, and some soft drinks.[32]

### Carbohydrate content of commercial sweeteners (percent on dry basis)

Sugar Fructose Glucose Sucrose (Fructose+Glucose) Other sugars Granulated sugar 0 0 100 0 Caramel 1 1 97 1 HFCS-42 42 53 0 5 HFCS-55 55 41 0 4 HFCS-90 90 5 0 5 Honey 50 44 1 5 Maple syrup 1 4 95 0 Molasses 23 21 53 3 Tapioca Syrup 55 45 0 0 Corn syrup 0 98 0 2

[30] for HFCS, and USDA for fruits and vegetables and the other refined sugars.[31]

Cane and beet sugars have been used as the major sweetener in food manufacturing for centuries. However, with the development of HFCS, a significant shift occurred in the type of sweetener consumption in certain countries, particularly the United States.[33] Contrary to the popular belief, however, with the increase of HFCS consumption, the total fructose intake relative to the total glucose intake has not dramatically changed. Granulated sugar is 99.9%-pure sucrose, which means that it has equal ratio of fructose to glucose. The most commonly used forms of HFCS, HFCS-42, and HFCS-55, have a roughly equal ratio of fructose to glucose, with minor differences. HFCS has simply replaced sucrose as a sweetener. Therefore, despite the changes in the sweetener consumption, the ratio of glucose to fructose intake has remained relatively constant.[34]

Adjusted consumption of refined sugar per capita in the US

### Nutritional information

Providing 368 kcal per 100 grams of dry powder (table), fructose has 95% the [caloric value](/source/Calorie) of sucrose by weight.[35][36] Fructose powder is 100% carbohydrates and supplies no other [nutrients](/source/Nutrient) in significant amount (table).

Fructose, dry powdered Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 368 kcal (1,540 kJ) Carbohydrates 100 g Fat 0 g Protein 0 g Vitamins and minerals Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 0% 0 mg Iron 1% 0.1 mg Phosphorus 0% 0 mg Potassium 0% 0 mg Sodium 1% 12 mg Full Link to USDA Database entry †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[37] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[38]

## Fructose digestion and absorption in humans

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Hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose by sucrase

Intestinal sugar transport proteins

Fructose exists in foods either as a monosaccharide (free fructose) or as a unit of a disaccharide (sucrose). Free fructose is a ketonic simple sugar and one of the three dietary monosaccharides absorbed directly by the intestine. When fructose is consumed in the form of sucrose, it is digested (broken down) and then absorbed as free fructose. As sucrose comes into contact with the membrane of the small intestine, the enzyme [sucrase](/source/Sucrase) catalyzes the cleavage of sucrose to yield one glucose unit and one fructose unit, which are then each absorbed. After absorption, it enters the [hepatic portal vein](/source/Hepatic_portal_vein) and is directed toward the liver.

The mechanism of fructose absorption in the small intestine is not completely understood. Some evidence suggests [active transport](/source/Active_transport), because fructose uptake has been shown to occur against a concentration gradient.[39] However, the majority of research supports the claim that fructose absorption occurs on the mucosal membrane via [facilitated transport](/source/Facilitated_diffusion) involving [GLUT5](/source/GLUT5) transport proteins.[40] Since the concentration of fructose is higher in the lumen, fructose is able to flow down a concentration gradient into the [enterocytes](/source/Enterocytes), assisted by transport proteins. Fructose may be transported out of the enterocyte across the basolateral membrane by either [GLUT2](/source/GLUT2) or GLUT5, although the GLUT2 transporter has a greater capacity for transporting fructose, and, therefore, the majority of fructose is transported out of the enterocyte through GLUT2.[40]

### Capacity and rate of absorption

The absorption capacity for fructose in monosaccharide form ranges from less than 5 g to 50 g (per individual serving) and adapts with changes in dietary fructose intake.[41] Studies show the greatest absorption rate occurs when glucose and fructose are administered in equal quantities.[41] When fructose is ingested as part of the disaccharide sucrose, absorption capacity is much higher because fructose exists in a 1:1 ratio with glucose. It appears that the [GLUT5](/source/GLUT5) transfer rate may be saturated at low levels, and absorption is increased through joint absorption with glucose.[42] One proposed mechanism for this phenomenon is a glucose-dependent [cotransport](/source/Cotransport) of fructose.

In addition, fructose transfer activity increases with dietary fructose intake. The presence of fructose in the lumen causes increased mRNA transcription of GLUT5, leading to increased transport proteins. High-fructose diets (>2.4 g/kg body wt) increase the transport proteins within three days of intake.[43]

### Malabsorption

Main article: [Fructose malabsorption](/source/Fructose_malabsorption)

Several studies have measured the intestinal absorption of fructose using the [hydrogen breath test](/source/Hydrogen_breath_test).[44][45][46][47] These studies indicate that fructose is not completely absorbed in the small intestine. When fructose is not absorbed in the small intestine, it is transported into the large intestine, where it is fermented by the colonic flora. Hydrogen is produced during the [fermentation](/source/Fermentation_(biochemistry)) process and dissolves into the blood of the [portal vein](/source/Portal_vein). This hydrogen is transported to the lungs, where it is exchanged across the lungs and is measurable by the hydrogen breath test. The colonic flora also produces carbon dioxide, [short-chain fatty acids](/source/Short-chain_fatty_acid), organic acids, and trace gases in the presence of unabsorbed fructose.[48] The presence of gases and organic acids in the large intestine causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating, diarrhea, flatulence, and gastrointestinal pain.[44] Exercise immediately after consumption can exacerbate these symptoms by decreasing transit time in the small intestine, resulting in a greater amount of fructose emptied into the large intestine.[49]

## Fructose metabolism

The liver converts most fructose and galactose into glucose for distribution in the bloodstream or deposition into [glycogen](/source/Glycogen).[50]

All three dietary monosaccharides are transported into the liver by the GLUT2 transporter.[51] Fructose and [galactose](/source/Galactose) are [phosphorylated](/source/Phosphorylation) in the liver by [fructokinase](/source/Fructokinase) ([Km](/source/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics)= 0.5 mM) and [galactokinase](/source/Galactokinase) (Km = 0.8 mM), respectively. By contrast, glucose tends to pass through the liver (Km of hepatic glucokinase = 10 mM) and can be metabolised anywhere in the body. Uptake of fructose by the liver is not regulated by insulin. However, insulin is capable of increasing the abundance and functional activity of GLUT5, fructose transporter, in skeletal muscle cells.[52]

### Fructolysis

Main article: [Fructolysis](/source/Fructolysis)

The initial [catabolism](/source/Catabolism) of fructose is sometimes referred to as [fructolysis](/source/Fructolysis), in analogy with [glycolysis](/source/Glycolysis), the catabolism of glucose. In fructolysis, the enzyme [fructokinase](/source/Fructokinase) initially produces [fructose 1-phosphate](/source/Fructose_1-phosphate), which is split by [aldolase B](/source/Aldolase_B) to produce the [trioses](/source/Triose) [dihydroxyacetone phosphate](/source/Dihydroxyacetone_phosphate) (DHAP) and [glyceraldehyde](/source/Glyceraldehyde). Unlike glycolysis, in fructolysis the triose [glyceraldehyde](/source/Glyceraldehyde) lacks a [phosphate group](/source/Phosphate_group). A third enzyme, [triokinase](/source/Triokinase), is therefore required to phosphorylate glyceraldehyde, producing [glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate](/source/Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate). The resulting trioses are identical to those obtained in glycolysis and can enter the [gluconeogenic](/source/Gluconeogenesis) pathway for glucose or glycogen synthesis, or be further catabolized through the lower glycolytic pathway to [pyruvate](/source/Pyruvic_acid).

### Metabolism of fructose to DHAP and glyceraldehyde

The first step in the metabolism of fructose is the phosphorylation of fructose to fructose 1-phosphate by fructokinase, thus trapping fructose for metabolism in the liver. Fructose 1-phosphate then undergoes [hydrolysis](/source/Hydrolysis) by [aldolase B](/source/Aldolase_B) to form DHAP and glyceraldehydes; DHAP can either be [isomerized](/source/Isomerization) to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by triosephosphate isomerase or undergo reduction to glycerol 3-phosphate by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The glyceraldehyde produced may also be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by glyceraldehyde kinase or further converted to glycerol 3-phosphate by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The metabolism of fructose at this point yields intermediates in the gluconeogenic pathway leading to glycogen synthesis as well as fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis.

### Synthesis of glycogen from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

The resultant glyceraldehyde formed by aldolase B then undergoes phosphorylation to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Increased concentrations of DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in the liver drive the gluconeogenic pathway toward glucose and subsequent glycogen synthesis.[53] It appears that fructose is a better substrate for glycogen synthesis than glucose and that glycogen replenishment takes precedence over triglyceride formation.[54] Once liver glycogen is replenished, the intermediates of fructose metabolism are primarily directed toward triglyceride synthesis.[55]

Metabolic conversion of fructose to glycogen in the liver

### Synthesis of triglyceride from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Carbons from dietary fructose are found in both the [free fatty acid](/source/Free_fatty_acid) and glycerol [moieties](/source/Moiety_(chemistry)) of plasma triglycerides. High fructose consumption can lead to excess [pyruvate](/source/Pyruvate) production, causing a buildup of [Krebs cycle](/source/Krebs_cycle) intermediates.[56] Accumulated citrate can be transported from the [mitochondria](/source/Mitochondrion) into the [cytosol](/source/Cytosol) of [hepatocytes](/source/Hepatocytes), converted to [acetyl CoA](/source/Acetyl_CoA) by citrate lyase and directed toward fatty acid synthesis.[56][57] In addition, DHAP can be converted to glycerol 3-phosphate, providing the glycerol backbone for the triglyceride molecule.[57] Triglycerides are incorporated into [very-low-density lipoproteins](/source/Very-low-density_lipoprotein) (VLDL), which are released from the liver destined toward peripheral tissues for storage in both fat and muscle cells.

Metabolic conversion of fructose to triglyceride in the liver

## Potential health effects

In 2022, the European Food Safety Authority stated that there is research evidence that fructose and other added free sugars may be associated with increased risk of several chronic diseases:[58][59] the risk is moderate for obesity and [dyslipidemia](/source/Dyslipidemia) (more than 50%), and low for [non-alcoholic fatty liver disease](/source/Non-alcoholic_fatty_liver_disease), [type 2 diabetes](/source/Type_2_diabetes) (from 15% to 50%) and [hypertension](/source/Hypertension). EFSA further stated that clinical research did "not support a positive relationship between the intake of dietary sugars, in isocaloric exchange with other macronutrients, and any of the chronic metabolic diseases or pregnancy-related endpoints assessed" but advised "the intake of added and free sugars should be as low as possible in the context of a nutritionally adequate diet."[59]

### Obesity

Excessive consumption of sugars, including fructose, contributes to [insulin resistance](/source/Insulin_resistance), [obesity](/source/Obesity), elevated [LDL cholesterol](/source/Low-density_lipoprotein) and [triglycerides](/source/Triglyceride), leading to [metabolic syndrome](/source/Metabolic_syndrome). The [European Food Safety Authority](/source/European_Food_Safety_Authority) (EFSA) stated in 2011 that fructose may be preferable over sucrose and glucose in sugar-sweetened foods and beverages because of its lower effect on [postprandial](/source/Postprandial) [blood sugar](/source/Blood_sugar) levels,[58] while also noting the potential downside that "high intakes of fructose may lead to metabolic complications such as [dyslipidaemia](/source/Dyslipidaemia), insulin resistance, and increased visceral adiposity".[58][59] The UK's Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition in 2015 disputed the claims of fructose causing metabolic disorders, stating that "there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate that fructose intake, at levels consumed in the normal UK diet, leads to adverse health outcomes independent of any effects related to its presence as a component of total and free sugars."[60]

### Cardiometabolic diseases

When fructose is consumed in excess as a sweetening agent in foods or beverages, it may be associated with increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders that are part of [metabolic syndrome](/source/Metabolic_syndrome).[59]

### Compared with sucrose

Fructose was found to increase [triglycerides](/source/Triglyceride) in type-2 but not type-1 diabetes, and moderate use of it has previously been considered acceptable as a sweetener for diabetics,[61] possibly because it does not trigger the production of insulin by pancreatic [β cells](/source/Beta_cell).[62] For a 50 gram reference amount, fructose has a [glycemic index](/source/Glycemic_index) of 23, compared with 100 for glucose and 60 for sucrose.[63] Fructose is also 73% [sweeter](#Sweetness_of_fructose) than sucrose at room temperature, allowing diabetics to use less of it per serving. Fructose consumed before a meal may reduce the glycemic response of the meal.[64] Fructose-sweetened food and beverage products cause less of a rise in blood glucose levels than do those manufactured with either sucrose or glucose.[58]

## See also

- [Hereditary fructose intolerance](/source/Hereditary_fructose_intolerance)

- [Inverted sugar syrup](/source/Inverted_sugar_syrup)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["Fructose"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110419073934/http://mw4.m-w.com/dictionary/fructose). *m-w.com*. Merriam-Webster. Archived from [the original](http://mw4.m-w.com/dictionary/fructose) on 19 April 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Levulose comes from the Latin word *laevus*, "left"; levulose is the old word for the most occurring [isomer](/source/Isomer) of fructose. D-fructose rotates plane-polarised light to the left, hence the name.["Levulose"](http://www.monashscientific.com.au/Levulose.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20091008032809/http://www.monashscientific.com.au/Levulose.htm) from the original on 2009-10-08. Retrieved 2010-01-28..

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["2-Carb-10"](https://iupac.qmul.ac.uk/2carb/10.html). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230618145008/https://iupac.qmul.ac.uk/2carb/10.html) from the original on 2023-06-18. Retrieved 2023-06-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-CRC_4-0)** *[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics](/source/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics)* (49th ed.). 1968–69. p. D-186.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Chambers, Michael. ["ChemIDplus – 57-48-7 – BJHIKXHVCXFQLS-UYFOZJQFSA-N – Fructose \[USP:JAN\] – Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information"](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/#tab/sidsrcname=ChemIDplus&query=57-48-7&input_type=text). *chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov*. US National Institutes of Health. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141210194215/https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/57-48-7) from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 10 December 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ullmann_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ullmann_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Ullmann_6-2) Wach, Wolfgang (2004). "Fructose". *Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/14356007.a12_047.pub2](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a12_047.pub2). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-527-30385-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-30385-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Dubrunfaut (1847). ["Sur une propriété analytique des fermentations alcoolique et lactique, et sur leur application à l'étude des sucres"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140627013828/http://books.google.com/books?id=PJ45AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA169) [On an analytic property of alcoholic and lactic fermentations, and on their application to the study of sugars]. *Annales de Chimie et de Physique* (in French). **21**: 169–178. Archived from [the original](https://books.google.com/books?id=PJ45AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA169) on 2014-06-27. On page 174, Dubrunfaut relates the discovery and properties of fructose.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Fruton, J. S. (1974). ["Molecules and Life – Historical Essays on the Interplay of Chemistry and Biology"](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/food.19740180423). *Molecular Nutrition & Food Research*. **18** (4). New York: Wiley-Interscience. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/food.19740180423](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ffood.19740180423). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210228060441/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/food.19740180423) from the original on 2021-02-28. Retrieved 2021-02-05.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Miller_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Miller_9-1) Miller, William Allen (1857). "Part III. Organic Chemistry". [*Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical*](https://archive.org/details/elementschemist03millgoog). London: John W. Parker and son. pp. 52, [57](https://archive.org/details/elementschemist03millgoog/page/n669).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hyvonen&Koivistoinen1982_10-0)** Hyvonen, L. & Koivistoinen, P (1982). "Fructose in Food Systems". In Birch, G.G. & Parker, K.J (eds.). *Nutritive Sweeteners*. London & New Jersey: Applied Science Publishers. pp. 133–144. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-85334-997-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85334-997-6).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-oed_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-oed_11-1) ["Fructose. Origin and meaning of fructose"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/fructose). Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171225092022/https://www.etymonline.com/word/fructose) from the original on 25 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Shi, Kemeng; Pedersen, Christian Marcus; Guo, Zhaohui; Li, Yanqiu; Zheng, Hongyan; Qiao, Yan; Hu, Tuoping; Wang, Yingxiong (1 December 2018). ["NMR studies of the tautomer distributions of d‑fructose in lower alcohols/DMSO‑d6"](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2018.09.067). *Journal of Molecular Liquids*. **271**: 926–932. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.molliq.2018.09.067](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.molliq.2018.09.067). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [104659783](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:104659783). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210228070418/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167732218329805) from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Schneider, Bernd; Lichtenthaler, Frieder W.; Steinle, Georg; Schiweck, Hubert (22 December 1985). ["Studies on Ketoses, 1 Distribution of Furanoid and Pyranoid Tautomers of D-Fructose in Water, Dimethyl Sulfoxide, and Pyridine via 1H NMR Intensities of Anomeric Hydroxy Groups in \[D6\]DMSO"](https://doi.org/10.1002/jlac.198519851213). *Liebigs Annalen der Chemie*. **1985** (12): 2443–2453. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/jlac.198519851213](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjlac.198519851213). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220224181718/https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jlac.198519851213) from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Funcke, Werner; von Sonntag, Clemens; Triantaphylides, Christian (October 1979). ["Detection of the open-chain forms of d-fructose and L-sorbose in aqueous solution by using 13C-n.m.r. spectroscopy"](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6215(00)84649-2). *Carbohydrate Research*. **75**: 305–309. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0008-6215(00)84649-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0008-6215%2800%2984649-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210228070325/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0008621500846492) from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** McWilliams, Margaret (2001). [*Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 4th Edition*](https://archive.org/details/foodsexperimenta00mcwi). Prentice Hall. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-13-021282-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-021282-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Keusch, P. ["Yeast and Sugar- the Chemistry must be right"](https://web.archive.org/web/20101220064304/http://www.chemie.uni-regensburg.de/Organische_Chemie/Didaktik/Keusch/D-fermentation_sugar-e.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.chemie.uni-regensburg.de/Organische_Chemie/Didaktik/Keusch/D-fermentation_sugar-e.htm) on December 20, 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Dills, WL (1993). ["Protein fructosylation: Fructose and the Maillard reaction"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.779S). *Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **58** (5 Suppl): 779–787. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/58.5.779S](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.779S). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8213610](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8213610).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Huber, GW; Iborra, S; Corma, A (September 2006). "Synthesis of transportation fuels from biomass: chemistry, catalysts, and engineering". *Chem. Rev*. **106** (9): 4044–98. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/cr068360d](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr068360d). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16967928](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16967928).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hanover_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hanover_19-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Hanover_19-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Hanover_19-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Hanover_19-4) Hanover, L. M.; White, J. S. (1 November 1993). ["Manufacturing, composition, and applications of fructose"](http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/58/5/724S.abstract). *[The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition](/source/The_American_Journal_of_Clinical_Nutrition)*. **58** (5): 724S–732S. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/58.5.724S](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.724S). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-9165](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9165). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8213603](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8213603). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160414002156/http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/58/5/724S.abstract) from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2017 – via nutrition.org.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Oregon_State_University_20-0)** ["Sugar Sweetness"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080516050325/http://food.oregonstate.edu/sugar/sweet.html). *food.oregonstate.edu*. Oregon State University. Archived from [the original](http://food.oregonstate.edu/sugar/sweet.html) on May 16, 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kirk-Othmer_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kirk-Othmer_21-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Kirk-Othmer_21-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Kirk-Othmer_21-3) Lee, Thomas D. (1 January 2000). "Sweeteners". *Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/0471238961.19230505120505.a01.pub2](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0471238961.19230505120505.a01.pub2). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0471238966](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471238966).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Jana, A.H.; Joshi, N.S.S. (November 1994). ["Sweeteners for frozen \[desserts\] success – a review"](http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=AU9500465). *[Australian Journal of Dairy Technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australian_Journal_of_Dairy_Technology&action=edit&redlink=1)*. **49**. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170208033252/http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=AU9500465) from the original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Shallenberger, R.S. (1994). *Taste Chemistry*. Chapman and Hall. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7514-0150-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7514-0150-9).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nabors_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nabors_24-1) Nabors, LO (2001). *American Sweeteners*. pp. 374–375.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** McWilliams, Margaret (2001). [*Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 4th Edition*](https://archive.org/details/foodsexperimenta00mcwi). Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-13-021282-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-021282-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** White, DC; Lauer GN (1990). "Predicting gelatinization temperature of starch/sweetener system for cake formulation by differential scanning calorimetry I. Development of a model". *Cereal Foods World*. **35**: 728–731.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Margaret M. Wittenberg (2007). [*New Good Food: Essential Ingredients for Cooking and Eating Well. Diet and Nutrition Series; pages 249–51*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781580087506). Ten Speed Press. p. [249](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781580087506/page/249). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1580087506](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1580087506). fructose traditional baking.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Park, KY; Yetley AE (1993). ["Intakes and food sources of fructose in the United States"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.737S). *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **58** (5 Suppl): 737S–747S. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/58.5.737S](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.737S). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8213605](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8213605).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-AJCN_fructose_absorption_29-0)** Riby, JE; Fujisawa T; Kretchmer N (1993). ["Fructose absorption"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.748S). *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **58** (5 Suppl): 748S–753S. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/58.5.748S](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.748S). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8213606](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8213606).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kretchmer_30-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kretchmer_30-1) Kretchmer, N; Hollenbeck CB (1991). *Sugars and Sweeteners*. CRC Press, Inc.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-www.nal.usda.gov_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-www.nal.usda.gov_31-1) Use [link to FoodData Central (USDA)](https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191025172925/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/) 2019-10-25 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) and then search for the particular food, and click on "SR Legacy Foods".

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-fda2014_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-fda2014_32-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-fda2014_32-2) ["High Fructose Corn Syrup: Questions and Answers"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180125013538/https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm324856.htm). US Food and Drug Administration. 5 November 2014. Archived from [the original](https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm324856.htm) on 25 January 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-white_33-0)** White, J. S (2008). ["Straight talk about high-fructose corn syrup: What it is and what it ain't"](https://doi.org/10.3945%2Fajcn.2008.25825B). *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **88** (6): 1716S–1721S. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3945/ajcn.2008.25825B](https://doi.org/10.3945%2Fajcn.2008.25825B). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19064536](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19064536).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Guthrie, FJ; Morton FJ (2000). "Food sources of added sweeteners in the diets of Americans". *Journal of the American Dietetic Association*. **100** (1): 43–51. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0002-8223(00)00018-3](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0002-8223%2800%2900018-3). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10646004](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10646004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-usda-fructose_35-0)** ["Calories and nutrient composition for fructose, dry powder per 100 g"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170208033356/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/8681). USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-28. May 2016. Archived from [the original](https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/8681) on 2017-02-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-usda-sucrose_36-0)** ["Calories and nutrient composition for sucrose granules per 100 g"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170208035756/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6319). USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-28. May 2016. Archived from [the original](https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6319) on 2017-02-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FDADailyValues_37-0)** [United States Food and Drug Administration](/source/Food_and_Drug_Administration) (2024). ["Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels"](https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels). *FDA*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240327175201/https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels) from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NationalAcademiesPotassium_38-0)** ["TABLE 4-7 Comparison of Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in This Report to Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in the 2005 DRI Report"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545428/table/tab_4_7/). p. 120. In: Stallings, Virginia A.; Harrison, Meghan; Oria, Maria, eds. (2019). "Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". *Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium*. pp. 101–124. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17226/25353](https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25353). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-309-48834-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48834-1). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30844154](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844154). [NCBI](/source/Bookshelf_ID_(identifier)) [NBK545428](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545428).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Stipanuk, Marsha H (2006). *Biochemical, Physiological, and Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition, 2nd Edition*. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Shi_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Shi_40-1) Shi, Ya-Nan; Liu, Ya-Jin; Xie, Zhifang; Zhang, Weiping J. (5 June 2021). ["Fructose and metabolic diseases: too much to be good"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8183764). *Chinese Medical Journal*. **134** (11): 1276–1285. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1097/CM9.0000000000001545](https://doi.org/10.1097%2FCM9.0000000000001545). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8183764](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8183764). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [34010200](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34010200).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-fuji_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-fuji_41-1) Fujisawa, T; Riby J; Kretchmer N (1991). "Intestinal absorption of fructose in the rat". *Gastroenterology*. **101** (2): 360–367. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0016-5085(91)90012-a](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-5085%2891%2990012-a). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [2065911](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2065911).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Ushijima, K; Fujisawa T; Riby J; Kretchmer N (1991). "Absorption of fructose by isolated small intestine of rats is via a specific saturable carrier in the absence of glucose and by the disaccharidase-related transport system in the presence of glucose". *Journal of Nutrition*. **125** (8): 2156–2164. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/jn/125.8.2156](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F125.8.2156). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [7643250](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7643250).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Ferraris, R (2001). ["Dietary and developmental regulation of intestinal sugar transport"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1222226). *Biochemical Journal*. **360** (Pt 2): 265–276. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1042/0264-6021:3600265](https://doi.org/10.1042%2F0264-6021%3A3600265). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1222226](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1222226). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11716754](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11716754).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Beyer_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Beyer_44-1) Beyer, PL; Caviar EM; McCallum RW (2005). "Fructose intake at current levels in the United States may cause gastrointestinal distress in normal adults". *J. Am. Diet. Assoc*. **105** (10): 1559–1566. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jada.2005.07.002](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jada.2005.07.002). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16183355](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16183355).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Ravich, WJ; Bayless TM; Thomas, M (1983). ["Fructose: incomplete intestinal absorption in humans"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0016-5085%2883%2980162-0). *Gastroenterology*. **84** (1): 26–29. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0016-5085(83)80162-0](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0016-5085%2883%2980162-0). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [6847852](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6847852).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Riby, JE; Fujisawa T; Kretchmer, N (1993). ["Fructose absorption"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.748S). *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **58** (5 Suppl): 748S–753S. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/58.5.748S](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.5.748S). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8213606](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8213606).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Rumessen, JJ; Gudman-Hoyer E (1986). ["Absorption capacity of fructose in healthy adults. Comparison with sucrose and its constituent monosaccharides"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1433856). *Gut*. **27** (10): 1161–1168. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1136/gut.27.10.1161](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fgut.27.10.1161). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1433856](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1433856). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [3781328](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3781328).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Skoog, SM; Bharucha AE (2004). "Dietary fructose and gastrointestinal symptoms: a review". *Am. J. Gastroenterol*. **99** (10): 2046–50. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1572-0241.2004.40266.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1572-0241.2004.40266.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15447771](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15447771). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [12084142](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12084142).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Fujisawa, T, T; Mulligan K; Wada L; Schumacher L; Riby J; Kretchmer N (1993). ["The effect of exercise on fructose absorption"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.1.75). *Am. J. Clin. Nutr*. **58** (1): 75–9. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/58.1.75](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F58.1.75). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8317393](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8317393).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Kawasaki, Takahiro; Akanuma, Hiroshi; Yamanouchi, Toshikazu (2002). ["Increased Fructose Concentrations in Blood and Urine in Patients with Diabetes"](https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article/25/2/353/23338/Increased-Fructose-Concentrations-in-Blood-and). *Diabetes Care*. **25** (2): 353–357. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2337/diacare.25.2.353](https://doi.org/10.2337%2Fdiacare.25.2.353). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11815509](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11815509).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Medina Villaamil (2011-02-01). ["Fructose transporter Glut5 expression in clear renal cell carcinoma"](https://doi.org/10.3892%2For.2010.1096). *Oncology Reports*. **25** (2): 315–23. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3892/or.2010.1096](https://doi.org/10.3892%2For.2010.1096). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2183/20620](https://hdl.handle.net/2183%2F20620). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1021-335X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1021-335X). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21165569](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21165569).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sul_57-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sul_57-1) Sul, HS (2006). *Metabolism of Fatty Acids, Acylglycerols, and Sphingolipids*. Missouri: Saunders, Elsevier. pp. 450–467. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4160-0209-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-0209-3).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-efsa11_58-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-efsa11_58-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-efsa11_58-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-efsa11_58-3) ["Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to fructose and reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses (ID 558) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006"](https://doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2011.2223). *EFSA Journal*. **9** (6). EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies: 2223. 2011. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2223](https://doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2011.2223). The Panel notes that these values support a significant decrease in post-prandial blood glucose responses when fructose replaces either sucrose or glucose.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-efsa2-22_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-efsa2-22_59-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-efsa2-22_59-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-efsa2-22_59-3) EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (28 February 2022). ["Tolerable upper intake level for dietary sugars"](https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7074). *EFSA Journal*. **20** (2): 337. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7074](https://doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2022.7074). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1854/LU-01GWHCPEH24E9RRDYANKYH53MJ](https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-01GWHCPEH24E9RRDYANKYH53MJ). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1831-4732](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1831-4732). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [8884083](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8884083). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [35251356](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35251356). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [247184182](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247184182). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231026085708/https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7074) from the original on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2022 – via ESFA.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rizkalla_61-0)** Rizkalla, Salwa W (2010). ["Health implications of fructose consumption: A review of recent data"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2991323). *Nutrition & Metabolism*. **7** (1): 82. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1186/1743-7075-7-82](https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1743-7075-7-82). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1743-7075](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1743-7075). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2991323](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2991323). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21050460](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21050460).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Thorens_62-0)** Thorens, Bernard; Mueckler, Mike (2010). ["Glucose transporters in the 21st Century (Review)"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822486). *American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism*. **298** (2): E141–E145. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1152/ajpendo.00712.2009](https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fajpendo.00712.2009). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0193-1849](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0193-1849). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2822486](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822486). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20009031](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20009031).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Heacock-2002_64-0)** Patricia M. Heacock; Steven R. Hertzler; Bryan W. Wolf (2002). ["Fructose Prefeeding Reduces the Glycemic Response to a High-Glycemic Index, Starchy Food in Humans"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F132.9.2601). *Journal of Nutrition*. **132** (9): 2601–2604. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/jn/132.9.2601](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F132.9.2601). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12221216](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12221216).

## External links

- Media related to [Fructose](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fructose) at Wikimedia Commons

v t e Fructose and galactose metabolic intermediates Fructose Fructose-1-phosphate → DHAP/Glyceraldehyde → Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Galactose Galactose-1-phosphate → Glucose 1-phosphate → Glucose 6-phosphate → Fructose 6-phosphate Uridine diphosphate galactose Uridine diphosphate glucose Galactitol Iditol Mannose Mannose-6-phosphate → Fructose 6-phosphate

v t e Inborn error of carbohydrate metabolism: monosaccharide metabolism disorders Including glycogen storage diseases (GSD) Sucrose, transport (extracellular) Disaccharide catabolism Congenital alactasia Sucrose intolerance Monosaccharide transport Glucose-galactose malabsorption Inborn errors of renal tubular transport (Renal glycosuria) Fructose malabsorption De Vivo Disease (GLUT1 deficiency) Fanconi-Bickel syndrome (GLUT2 deficiency) Hexose → glucose Monosaccharide catabolism Fructose: Essential fructosuria Fructose intolerance Galactose / galactosemia: GALK deficiency GALT deficiency/GALE deficiency Glucose ⇄ glycogen Glycogenesis GSD type 0 (glycogen synthase deficiency) GSD type IV (Andersen's disease, branching enzyme deficiency) Adult polyglucosan body disease (APBD) Lafora disease GSD type XV (glycogenin deficiency) Glycogenolysis Extralysosomal: GSD type III (Cori's disease, debranching enzyme deficiency) GSD type VI (Hers' disease, liver glycogen phosphorylase deficiency) GSD type V (McArdle's disease, myophosphorylase deficiency) GSD type IX (phosphorylase kinase deficiency) Phosphoglucomutase deficiency (PGM1-CDG, CDG1T, formerly GSD-XIV) Lysosomal (LSD): Glycogen storage disease type II (Pompe's disease, glucosidase deficiency, formerly GSD-IIa) Danon disease (LAMP2 deficiency, formerly GSD-IIb) Glucose ⇄ CAC Glycolysis MODY 2/HHF3 GSD type VII (Tarui's disease, phosphofructokinase deficiency) Triosephosphate isomerase deficiency Pyruvate kinase deficiency Aldolase A deficiency Phosphoglucose isomerase deficiency Phosphoglycerate kinase deficiency Mitochondrial pyruvate carrier deficiency (MPC1 deficiency) Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate carboxylase deficiency Fructose bisphosphatase deficiency GSD type I (von Gierke's disease, glucose 6-phosphatase deficiency) Pentose phosphate pathway Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency Transaldolase deficiency SDDHD (Transketolase deficiency) 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase deficiency Other Hyperoxaluria Primary hyperoxaluria Pentosuria Fatal congenital nonlysosomal cardiac glycogenosis (AMP-activated protein kinase deficiency, PRKAG2)

v t e Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism fructose and galactose enzymes Fructose / Fructolysis Hepatic fructokinase Aldolase B Triokinase Sorbitol Sorbitol dehydrogenase Aldose reductase Galactose / Galactolysis Galactokinase Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase/UDP-glucose 4-epimerase Aldose reductase Galactose mutarotase Lactose Lactose synthase Lactase Mannose Mannose phosphate isomerase

v t e Types of carbohydrates General Aldose Ketose Furanose Pyranose Geometry Anomer Cyclohexane conformation Epimer Mutarotation Monosaccharides Dioses Aldodiose Glycolaldehyde Trioses Aldotriose Glyceraldehyde Ketotriose Dihydroxyacetone Tetroses Aldotetroses Erythrose Threose Ketotetrose Erythrulose Pentoses Aldopentoses Arabinose Lyxose Ribose Xylose Ketopentoses Ribulose Xylulose Deoxy sugars Deoxyribose Hexoses Aldohexoses Allose Altrose Galactose Glucose Gulose Idose Mannose Talose Ketohexoses Fructose Psicose Sorbose Tagatose Deoxy sugars Fucose Fuculose Rhamnose Heptoses Ketoheptoses Mannoheptulose Sedoheptulose Above 7 Octoses Nonoses Neuraminic acid Multiple Disaccharides Cellobiose Isomaltose Isomaltulose Lactose Lactulose Maltose Sucrose Trehalose Turanose Trisaccharides Maltotriose Melezitose Raffinose Tetrasaccharides Stachyose Other oligosaccharides Acarbose Fructooligosaccharide (FOS) Galactooligosaccharide (GOS) Isomaltooligosaccharide (IMO) Maltodextrin Polysaccharides Beta-glucan Oat beta-glucan Lentinan Sizofiran Zymosan Cellulose Chitin Chitosan Dextrin / Dextran Fructose / Fructan Inulin Galactose / Galactan Glucose / Glucan Glycogen Hemicellulose Levan beta 2→6 Lignin Mannan Pectin Starch Amylopectin Amylose Xanthan gum Category Commons

v t e Sugar as food commodity List of sugars and sugar products Chemistry List of sugars Monosaccharide Fructose Galactose Glucose Xylose Disaccharide Lactose Maltose Sucrose Trehalose Added sugar Reducing sugar Sources Sugar beet Sugarcane Agave syrup Birch Coconut Date Honeydew Maple Palm Malt Products Syrups List of syrups Agave syrup Barley malt syrup Brown rice syrup Cheong Maesil-cheong Mogwa-cheong Yuja-cheong Corn syrup High-fructose High-maltose Glucose syrup Golden syrup Honey Inverted sugar syrup Kuromitsu Maple syrup Mizuame Molasses Pine honey Steen's cane syrup Table syrup Treacle Yacón syrup Solid forms Brown Peen tong Candi sugar Chancaca Crystalline fructose Gelling Gula melaka Jaggery Misri Molasses sugar Muscovado Nib Non-centrifugal cane sugar Panela Plantation Reserve Powdered Preserving Sucanat Sugar candy Barley sugar Butterscotch Candy Hard Rock candy Toffee Sugar glass Sugarloaf Wasanbon White Other forms Caramel Cotton candy floss Maple sugar foods Rum Sugar alcohol Sugar confectionery Sugarcane juice Tuzemák Unrefined sweeteners Industry Production Boilery Plantation Casa-grande Refinery Sugar bush Sugarcane mill Engenho Batey Zafra Sugar marketing By region Current Australia Bundaberg Sugar CSR Wilmar Sugar Cuba Caribbean Kenya India Mauritius Philippines Rwanda Sri Lanka South Africa Illovo Sugar Tongaat Hulett Tanzania Uganda United Kingdom British Sugar Tate & Lyle United States Sugar Association U.S. Sugar Program Historical Danish West Indies Fiji Hawaii History 1811 German Coast uprising Amelioration Act 1798 Blackbirding Colonial molasses trade Demerara rebellion of 1823 Holing cane Leith Sugar House Molasses Act Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 Slavery in the British and French Caribbean Sugar Act Sugar Duties Acts 1846 Sugar Intervention Taiwan Sugar Railways Triangular trade Culture Added sugar Crop Over Sugar shack Sugaring Sugar nips Sugar packet Sucrology Sugar people Sugar tit Sugar sculpture Treacle mining Related Australian Aboriginal sweet foods Bagasse Blood sugar level Cane knife Flavored syrup Fruit syrup Date honey Grape Jallab Health effects Nectar Sugar addiction Sugars in wine Residual sugar Sugar substitute Sweetened beverage Sweetener Sweetness Vinasse Research Robert Lustig John Yudkin Pure, White and Deadly (1972) Category Production

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Fructose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructose) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructose?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.