# Food swamp

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{{short description|Urban environment with unhealthy food options}}
{{Globalize|date=February 2025|2=US|3=Canada}}
[[File:Fast food in colour.jpg|alt=A man stands in front of a fast food cart in Toronto at night. The sign on the cart says Toronto in blue, pink, and purple neon lighting.|thumb|Food swamps are often determined by a disproportionate ratio of fast food to [supermarket](/source/supermarket)s.]]

A '''food swamp''' is an urban environment with an abundance of several non-nutritious food options such as corner stores or [fast-food restaurants](/source/Fast_food_restaurant). The term was coined in 2009 by Donald Rose and his colleagues at the [University of Michigan](/source/University_of_Michigan) in a report on food access in New Orleans.<ref>Rose, D., Bodor, J. N., Swalm, C. M., Rice, J. C., Farley, T. A., & Hutchinson, P. L. (2009). Deserts in New Orleans? Illustrations of urban food access and implications for policy. ''Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan National Poverty Center/USDA Economic Research Service Research''.</ref>

The concept is comparable to that of a [food desert](/source/food_desert). It is generally believed that those in a food desert have poor local access to nutritious food sources, while those in a food swamp have few grocery stores but easy local access to non-nutritious food.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 October 2013 |title=Measuring the Food Environment in Canada |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/nutrition-policy-reports/measuring-food-environment-canada.html |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=www.canada.ca |archive-date=4 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204205416/https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/nutrition-policy-reports/measuring-food-environment-canada.html |url-status=live }}</ref> However, areas that have adequate access to healthy food options while still having an overwhelming amount of unhealthy food available are also considered food swamps.<ref>{{cite web| last1=Chen |first1=T. |last2=Greg |first2=E. |date=October 2017 |title=Food deserts and food swamps: A primer |url=https://ncceh.ca/resources/evidence-reviews/food-deserts-and-food-swamps-primer}}</ref> Food swamps may even be more widespread than food deserts, as suggested by some research, or overlap with food deserts as they exist in various regions around the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luo |first=Xue |date=2020-07-23 |title=Food Deserts or Food Swamps?: Using Geospatial Technologies to Explore Disparities in Food Access in Windsor, Canada |url=https://journal.calaijol.org/index.php/ijol/article/view/161 |journal=International Journal of Librarianship |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=78–107 |doi=10.23974/ijol.2020.vol5.1.161 |issn=2474-3542 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2025-05-26 |access-date=2025-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250526052147/https://journal.calaijol.org/index.php/ijol/article/view/161 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Meng |last2=Wang |first2=Haoluan |last3=Qiu |first3=Feng |date=2020 |title=Neighbourhood food environments revisited: When food deserts meet food swamps |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cag.12570 |journal=Canadian Geographies |language=en |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=135–154 |doi=10.1111/cag.12570 |bibcode=2020CGeog..64..135Y |issn=1541-0064 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2024-12-13 |access-date=2025-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213175649/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cag.12570 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":124" />

One definition gives a general ratio of four unhealthy options for each healthy option.<ref name=":023">{{Cite web |last=Khazan |first=Olga |date=2017-12-28 |title=Food Swamps Are the New Food Deserts |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/12/food-swamps/549275/ |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=The Atlantic |archive-date=2023-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807080058/https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2017/12/food-swamps/549275/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The term was first coined by researchers conducting longitudinal studies of the link between increased access to grocery stores and rising [obesity](/source/obesity) rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rose |first1=Donald |last2=Bodor |first2=J. Nicholas |last3=Rice |first3=Janet C. |last4=Swalm |first4=Chris M. |last5=Hutchinson |first5=Paul L. |date=2011 |title=The Effects of Hurricane Katrina on Food Access Disparities in New Orleans |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2010.196659 |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=482–484 |doi=10.2105/ajph.2010.196659 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=3036701 |pmid=21233432}}</ref> This study found that even with new access to local grocery stores, the proportion of convenience stores and fast food to a single grocery store did not shift food choices nor obesity rates. This indicates a distinction between food swamps and food deserts. According to researchers, food swamps are better measures for obesity rates.<ref name=":124">{{Cite journal |last1=Cooksey-Stowers |first1=Kristen |last2=Schwartz |first2=Marlene |last3=Brownell |first3=Kelly |date=2017-11-14 |title=Food Swamps Predict Obesity Rates Better Than Food Deserts in the United States |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=14 |issue=11 |pages=1366 |doi=10.3390/ijerph14111366 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=5708005 |pmid=29135909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Food swamps are associated with varying health outcomes across different demographic groups, with Black and Brown communities experiencing disproportionately poorer health indicators.<ref name=":124" /><ref name=":023" />

== Food marketing, accessibility, and health outcomes ==

=== Marketing and behavior ===
[[File:Fast_food.jpg|thumb|Road sign advertising multiple fast-food restaurant options using attractive [display advertising](/source/display_advertising) design elements.]]
Researchers are investigating if there are links between marketing practices and food swamp prevalence.<ref name=":432">{{Cite journal |last1=Antrum |first1=Curtis |last2=Atoloye |first2=Abiodun |last3=Ajayi |first3=Olasubomi |last4=Holter |first4=Denise |last5=Singerman |first5=Dani |last6=Cooksey Stowers |first6=Kristen |date=2024 |title=Black and Latina women's lived experiences with navigating neighborhood food swamps to find healthy food: A photovoice approach |journal=Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment |issue=6 |volume=35 |pages=899–917 |doi=10.1080/10911359.2024.2355141 |issn=1091-1359|doi-access=free }}</ref> Food swamps are characterized by an abundance of unhealthy food options, often accompanied by targeted advertising. For example, the visibility of high-calorie foods has been identified as one of the marketing tools using psychology in food swamps to encourage the consumption of these prevalent unhealthy food items.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bridle-Fitzpatrick |first=Susan |date=2015-10-01 |title=Food deserts or food swamps?: A mixed-methods study of local food environments in a Mexican city |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953615300629 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=142 |pages=202–213 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.010 |issn=0277-9536 |pmid=26318209 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2025-04-17 |access-date=2025-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250417095324/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953615300629 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Food swamps also impact [food choice](/source/food_choice). Exposure to fast [food marketing](/source/food_marketing) has been found to be associated with people having a greater preference for the brands they see being marketed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bagnato |first1=Mariangela |last2=Roy-Gagnon |first2=Marie-Hélène |last3=Vanderlee |first3=Lana |last4=White |first4=Christine |last5=Hammond |first5=David |last6=Potvin Kent |first6=Monique |date=2023-07-27 |title=The impact of fast food marketing on brand preferences and fast food intake of youth aged 10–17 across six countries |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=1436 |doi=10.1186/s12889-023-16158-w |issn=1471-2458 |pmc=10373354 |pmid=37501119 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Evidence shows that children often select menu items based on promotional materials or images for food.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Antrum |first1=Curtis Jalen |last2=Waring |first2=Molly E. |last3=Cohen |first3=Juliana F. W. |last4=Stowers |first4=Kristen Cooksey |date=2023-10-01 |title=Within-store fast food marketing: The association between food swamps and unhealthy advertisement |journal=Preventive Medicine Reports |volume=35 |article-number=102349 |doi=10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102349 |pmid=37593352 |pmc=10428106 |issn=2211-3355}}</ref>

=== Accessibility ===
The presence of a food swamp can impact the behavior of individuals living in the designated area.  The expensive cost of food can limit people's ability to get healthy food, which can cause many people feel like they have to rely on the cheaper and more non-nutritious options in their surrounding area.<ref name=":432"/>

One of the factors that may better explain this occurrence is the surrounding neighborhood of a food swamp. In many areas designated as food swamps, there exists a lack of transportation options to grocery stores that carry a more nutritious array of food options. This means that food options are still severely limited, especially when the nearest convenience store, bodega, or fast food restaurant is at walking distance and consumes the least amount of time. This leaves populations with less ability to travel outside of a swamp.<ref name=":432"/>

=== Health ===
Food swamps have positive, [statistically significant](/source/Statistical_significance) effects on adult [obesity](/source/obesity) rates, especially in those areas where the majority of residents do not have access to personal or public transportation, and have disproportionate health impacts on low-income minorities.<ref name=":124"/> This environment is found in areas with strong corporate or industrial influence and is becoming a global phenomenon.<ref name=":222">{{Cite web |last=Elton |first=Sarah |date=3 September 2018 |title=Please don't call it a food swamp |url=http://theconversation.com/please-dont-call-it-a-food-swamp-97219 |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=2023-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204213925/https://theconversation.com/please-dont-call-it-a-food-swamp-97219 |url-status=live }}</ref> Research also suggests a positive correlation between [obesity](/source/obesity) rates and the ratio of unhealthy to healthy food options.<ref name=":023"/> This is a consequence of fast-food options available in food swamps containing a high number of [calorie](/source/calorie)s but a lower number of [nutrient](/source/nutrient)s.<ref name=":124"/> This effect on obesity rates has reportedly also been associated with higher obesity-related [cancer](/source/cancer) mortality rates.<ref name=":322">{{Cite journal |last1=Bevel |first1=Malcolm Seth |last2=Tsai |first2=Meng-Han |last3=Parham |first3=April |last4=Andrzejak |first4=Sydney Elizabeth |last5=Jones |first5=Samantha |last6=Moore |first6=Justin Xavier |date=2023-07-01 |title=Association of Food Deserts and Food Swamps With Obesity-Related Cancer Mortality in the US |journal=JAMA Oncology |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=909–916 |doi=10.1001/jamaoncol.2023.0634 |issn=2374-2437 |pmc=10160992 |pmid=37140933}}</ref>

Some data also suggests that young adults living in close proximity to fast-food restaurants demonstrated higher [incidence](/source/Incidence_(epidemiology)) of [type 2 diabetes](/source/type_2_diabetes).<ref name=":222" /> This has resulted in higher hospitalization rates for people with diabetes who live in a food swamp designated area.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=Aryn Z. |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Hector P. |date=February 2019 |title=Adults with diabetes residing in "food swamps" have higher hospitalization rates |journal=Health Services Research |volume=54 Suppl 1 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=217–225 |doi=10.1111/1475-6773.13102 |issn=1475-6773 |pmc=6341203 |pmid=30613953}}</ref> These dire health outcomes expose communities to vulnerabilities such as less optimal immune system functions that can impact the body's ability to combat sickness and disease.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Frayne |first1=Bruce |last2=McCordic |first2=Cameron |date=2018-11-27 |title=Food Swamps and Poor Dietary Diversity: Longwave Development Implications in Southern African Cities |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=4425 |doi=10.3390/su10124425 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Sust...10.4425F |issn=2071-1050}}</ref>

== Demographic disparities ==

=== Race and ethnicity ===
In 2011, fast food access was assessed and it was found that fast-food restaurants are more likely to be located in areas with higher concentrations of ethnic minorities than whites in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fleischhacker |first1=S. E. |last2=Evenson |first2=K. R. |last3=Rodriguez |first3=D. A. |last4=Ammerman |first4=A. S. |date=2011 |title=A systematic review of fast food access studies |journal=Obesity Reviews |language=en |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e460–e471 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00715.x |issn=1467-789X|doi-access=free |pmid=20149118 }}</ref> Racial-ethnic minorities have been shown to more frequently reside near unhealthy fast-food retailers than others.<ref name=":124" />  A survey study in 2020 found that non-Hispanic Black Americans are more likely to report living in a food swamp than other ethnic groups.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Cooksey Stowers |first1=Kristen |last2=Jiang |first2=Qianxia |last3=Atoloye |first3=Abiodun |last4=Lucan |first4=Sean |last5=Gans |first5=Kim |date=2020-09-29 |title=Racial Differences in Perceived Food Swamp and Food Desert Exposure and Disparities in Self-Reported Dietary Habits |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=17 |issue=19 |pages=7143 |doi=10.3390/ijerph17197143 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=7579470 |pmid=33003573}}</ref>

Obesity rates have been found to be higher among African American and Latino populations compared to white populations, reflecting racial disparities in health outcomes.<ref name=":023" /> In Baltimore, Maryland, researchers found that young African Americans girls who were determined to be living in food swamps ate more snack foods and desserts than those who did not live in areas not categorized as food swamps, increasing their risk for obesity.<ref name="erh">{{Cite journal |last1=Hager |first1=Erin R. |last2=Cockerham |first2=Alexandra |last3=O’Reilly |first3=Nicole |last4=Harrington |first4=Donna |last5=Harding |first5=James |last6=Hurley |first6=Kristen M. |last7=Black |first7=Maureen M. |date=October 2017 |title=Food swamps and food deserts in Baltimore City, MD, USA: associations with dietary behaviours among urban adolescent girls |journal=Public Health Nutrition |language=en |volume=20 |issue=14 |pages=2598–2607 |doi=10.1017/S1368980016002123 |issn=1368-9800 |pmc=5572508 |pmid=27652511}}</ref>

=== Socioeconomic status ===
Generally, differential barriers faced by low-income communities are mentioned as important influences on food swamp characterization. A 2017 study based on [cross-sectional](/source/Cross-sectional_study) data from the 2009 [United States Department of Agriculture](/source/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture) suggested that food swamps can exist across communities with varying socioeconomic circumstances. However, the study also indicated that food swamps are more likely to be prevalent in counties with uneven distributions of income.<ref name=":124" /> In 2019, a study in Edmonton, Canada also suggested low-income groups have been found to more likely live in areas that have an abundance of unhealthy fast-food options.<ref name=":3" /> The results observed across various locations suggest that further investigation is needed to clarify the correlation between [socioeconomic status](/source/socioeconomic_status) and the prevalence of food swamps.

== Global phenomena ==
Some narratives purport that food deserts occur primarily in North America.<ref name=":222" /> However, food swamps have been identified in areas outside of the continental Americas.

Studies find that in Mexico, food swamps are more of a concern than food deserts with regard to developing obesity prevention interventions, relating a higher access to obesity-creating foods to weight gain as opposed to simply a lack of other nutrients as a food desert term would imply.<ref name="Bridle-Fitzpatrick 202–213">{{Cite journal |last=Bridle-Fitzpatrick |first=Susan |date=2015-10-01 |title=Food deserts or food swamps?: A mixed-methods study of local food environments in a Mexican city |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953615300629 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=142 |pages=202–213 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.010 |pmid=26318209 |issn=0277-9536 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2025-04-17 |access-date=2025-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250417095324/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953615300629 |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, there have been studies in Sub-Saharan Africa that indicate similar health outcomes in areas with excessive unhealthy foods that can be classified as food swamps.<ref name=":2" /> There has also been work done to typify urban food environments as food swamps in Melbourne, Australia based on their ranks in the accessibility of healthy foods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Needham |first1=Cindy |last2=Strugnell |first2=Claudia |last3=Allender |first3=Steven |last4=Orellana |first4=Liliana |date=May 2022 |title=Beyond food swamps and food deserts: exploring urban Australian food retail environment typologies |journal=Public Health Nutrition |language=en |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=1140–1152 |doi=10.1017/S136898002200009X |issn=1368-9800 |pmc=9991784 |pmid=35022093}}</ref>

== Current debates ==

=== Definitions and measurements ===
The term food swamp is relatively new as urban areas have progressed over time in modern society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Living near a "food swamp" may increase stroke risk among adults 50 and older |url=https://newsroom.heart.org/news/living-near-a-food-swamp-may-increase-stroke-risk-among-adults-50-and-older#:~:text=The%20term%20%E2%80%9Cfood%20swamp%E2%80%9D%20was,rather%20than%20healthy%20food%20choices. |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=American Heart Association |archive-date=2025-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250329001133/https://newsroom.heart.org/news/living-near-a-food-swamp-may-increase-stroke-risk-among-adults-50-and-older#:~:text=The%20term%20%E2%80%9Cfood%20swamp%E2%80%9D%20was,rather%20than%20healthy%20food%20choices. |url-status=live }}</ref> Thus, governments and public health agencies are developing strategies to analyze and qualify areas by the term.

New measurement tools have been developed to further improve analysis so that food swamps can be more appropriately and accurately designated. Some researchers qualify food swamps using a tool called the Modified Retail Food Environmental Index, or mRFEI.<ref name=":0" /> Created by the [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/source/Cdc), mRFEI measures whether or not quality of food options within [census tract](/source/census_tract)s at retail stores constitute a food swamp. The use of grocers as the metric for food swamps is very common, often being compared by their number in a county or [zip code](/source/ZIP_Code) to the density of a population.<ref name=":1" /> Other methods include use of geographic information systems like [ArcGIS](/source/ArcGIS) to [geocode](/source/geocode) addresses. This helps researchers to understand to food locations around people's homes.<ref name=erh/>

Other measurement types include those considering broader factors such as geographic location and customer perceptions of their living and food environments .<ref name="Bridle-Fitzpatrick 202–213"/> Government databases can be used to identify [convenience food](/source/convenience_food). A Brazilian methodology uses population to define food swamps by comparing the number of locations that provide processed foods to every 10,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Honório |first1=Olivia Souza |last2=Pessoa |first2=Milene Cristine |last3=Gratão |first3=Lucia Helena Almeida |last4=Rocha |first4=Luana Lara |last5=de Castro |first5=Inês Rugani Ribeiro |last6=Canella |first6=Daniela Silva |last7=Horta |first7=Paula Martins |last8=Mendes |first8=Larissa Loures |date=2021-07-21 |title=Social inequalities in the surrounding areas of food deserts and food swamps in a Brazilian metropolis |journal=International Journal for Equity in Health |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=168 |doi=10.1186/s12939-021-01501-7 |doi-access=free |issn=1475-9276 |pmc=8293554 |pmid=34289857}}</ref>

Methods used to define food swamps are varying and can still be refined or more universally agreed upon. A 2020 study conducted in The Bronx and Upper East Side of New York City noted  suggested that food swamp classification should be broadened to include more than only retail food stores or restaurants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lucan |first1=Sean C |last2=Maroko |first2=Andrew R |last3=Patel |first3=Achint N |last4=Gjonbalaj |first4=Ilirjan |last5=Elbel |first5=Brian |last6=Schechter |first6=Clyde B |date=June 2020 |title=Healthful and less-healthful foods and drinks from storefront and non-storefront businesses: implications for 'food deserts', 'food swamps' and food-source disparities |journal=Public Health Nutrition |language=en |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=1428–1439 |doi=10.1017/S1368980019004427 |issn=1368-9800 |pmc=7196006 |pmid=32223780}}</ref> It has also been recommended that future measurement could also include surveys of perceived dietary quality among various groups, which have been found to align with the outcomes of objective classification tools.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

=== Controversy of term ===
The term “food swamp” has endured some criticism on account of its referral to [wetland](/source/wetland)s with a negative connotation.<ref name=":222"/> Critics have raised the point that while swamps have positive influences on [ecosystem](/source/ecosystem)s such as by detoxifying water and supporting [biodiversity](/source/biodiversity), food swamps exclusively cause problems for human health and the environment.<ref name=":222"/>

== Proposed solutions ==
thumb|Community garden in a low-income urban community in Ontario, California.
Many solutions have been proposed to address or  eliminate food swamps. Researchers have proposed solutions such as introducing policies that address factors like the [built environment](/source/built_environment), which consists of those man-made surroundings of a person's life. This also has included limiting the amount of fast-food establishments in an area, or incentivizing the distribution of healthy food options in an area.<ref name=":124"/>

Municipal responsibilities have been particularly noted as an avenue for change. Researchers have suggested that [local government](/source/local_government)s should introduce policies such as new [zoning](/source/zoning) laws that limit the number of possible unhealthy food outlets and incentivize the presence of healthy food retailers.<ref name=":124" /> Lowering obesity rates is not dependent on the elimination of fast-food options but rather a more equal rate of unhealthy to healthy food options.<ref name=":124" /> It has also been suggested that having more [community gardens](/source/Community_gardening) and walkable neighborhoods could address this phenomenon.<ref name=":322" />

[The Food Trust](/source/The_Food_Trust) is an American nonprofit group that works to eliminate food swamps by ensuring access to food that is affordable and nutritious. They support programs which encourage [Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program](/source/Supplemental_Nutrition_Assistance_Program), or SNAP, recipients to buy healthy food.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lin |first=Grace |date=2024-02-26 |title=Release: The Food Trust Acquires Nationally Renowned Nutrition Education Program |url=https://shareourstrength.org/release-the-food-trust-acquires-nationally-renowned-nutrition-education-program/ |access-date=2025-02-04 |website=Share Our Strength |archive-date=2025-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212100438/https://shareourstrength.org/release-the-food-trust-acquires-nationally-renowned-nutrition-education-program/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other efforts have been attempted outside of the United States as well. Some communities have attempted to implement a strategy called "Drying out" which involves multiple levels of intervention, ranging from [top-down](/source/Bottom-up_and_top-down_design) policy changes to attempts to shift individual health behaviors and habits. Such policies would seek to decrease a community's exposure to high-calorie food options. For example, in the early 2010s, Mexico began imposing strategies in schools to address food access.<ref name="Bridle-Fitzpatrick 202–213"/> This included taxing sugar-sweetened beverages and prohibiting sodas. Some researchers have called for policies such as these to be researched in order to better understand implementation and replicate similar results.<ref name="Bridle-Fitzpatrick 202–213"/>

Smaller-scale advocacy efforts have also been suggested. In an effort to center the community, it has been suggested that researcher gather support and data from community members to gauge their own values surrounding food.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Colón-Ramos |first1=Uriyoán |last2=Monge-Rojas |first2=Rafael |last3=Cremm |first3=Elena |last4=Rivera |first4=Ivonne M. |last5=Andrade |first5=Elizabeth L. |last6=Edberg |first6=Mark C. |date=August 2017 |title=How Latina mothers navigate a 'food swamp' to feed their children: a photovoice approach |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=1941–1952 |doi=10.1017/S1368980017000738 |issn=1368-9800 |pmc=10261377 |pmid=28514988}}</ref> Additionally, the need to examine [food quality](/source/food_quality) itself rather than its mere availability is also a matter of concern in food swamp intervention.<ref name=":2" />

== See also ==

* [Criticism of fast food](/source/Criticism_of_fast_food)
* [Food choice](/source/Food_choice)
* [Food desert](/source/Food_desert)
* [Health equity](/source/Health_equity)
* [Nutrition](/source/Nutrition)
* [Obesity](/source/Obesity)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

Category:Urban society
Category:Food retailing
Category:Food security
Category:Food deserts

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Food swamp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_swamp) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_swamp?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.