# Food processing

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Food_processing
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Food_processing.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processing
> Source revision: 1353589406
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Transformation of raw ingredients into a food like product, or of food into other forms

Not to be confused with [Food processor](/source/Food_processor).

This article needs more citations. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Food processing" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Industrial [cheese](/source/Cheese) production

**Food processing** is the transformation of [agricultural products](/source/Agriculture) into [food](/source/Food), or of one form of food into other forms. Food processing takes many forms, from grinding [grain](/source/Grain) into raw [flour](/source/Flour) to [home cooking](/source/Home_cooking) and complex industrial methods used in the making of [convenience foods](/source/Convenience_food). Some food processing methods play important roles in reducing [food waste](/source/Food_waste) and improving [food preservation](/source/Food_preservation), thus reducing the total [environmental impact of agriculture](/source/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture) and improving [food security](/source/Food_security).

Food Processing Levels (FPL) are defined according to physical and chemical changes occurring during food treatments.[1] FPL are required in processed food classifications, such as the [Nova classification](/source/Nova_classification), to categorise processed foods according to their FPL for different purposes.

Primary food processing is necessary to make most foods [edible](/source/Edible) while secondary food processing turns ingredients into familiar foods, such as [bread](/source/Bread). Tertiary food processing results in [ultra-processed foods](/source/Ultra-processed_foods) and has been widely criticized for promoting [overnutrition](/source/Overnutrition) and [obesity](/source/Obesity), containing too much [sugar](/source/Sugar) and [salt](/source/Salt), too little [fiber](/source/Dietary_fiber), and otherwise being unhealthful in respect to dietary needs of humans and [farmed animals](/source/Animal_husbandry).

## Processing from farm to fork

### Primary food processing

These whole, dried [bananas](/source/Banana) in [Thailand](/source/Thailand) are an example of primary food processing.

Primary food processing turns agricultural products, such as raw [wheat kernels](/source/Wheat) or livestock, into something that can eventually be eaten. This category includes ingredients that are produced by ancient processes such as [drying](/source/Food_drying), [threshing](/source/Threshing), [winnowing](/source/Winnowing) and [milling](/source/Grain_mill) grain, [shelling nuts](/source/Nutshell), and [butchering](/source/Butchering) animals for meat.[2][3] It also includes deboning and cutting meat, freezing and smoking fish and meat, extracting and filtering oils, [canning](/source/Canning) food, preserving food through [food irradiation](/source/Food_irradiation), and [candling eggs](/source/Candling), as well as [homogenizing](/source/Homogenized_milk) and [pasteurizing milk](/source/Pasteurized_milk).[3][4][5]

Contamination and [spoilage](/source/Food_spoilage) problems in primary food processing can lead to significant [public health](/source/Public_health) threats, as the resulting foods are used so widely.[3] However, many forms of processing contribute to improved food safety and longer [shelf life](/source/Shelf_life) before the food spoils.[4] Commercial food processing uses control systems such as [hazard analysis and critical control points](/source/Hazard_analysis_and_critical_control_points) (HACCP) and [failure mode and effects analysis](/source/Failure_mode_and_effects_analysis) (FMEA) to reduce the risk of harm.[3]

### Secondary food processing

Baking bread is an example of secondary food processing.

Secondary food processing is the everyday process of creating food from ingredients that are ready to use. [Baking bread](/source/Bread_making), regardless of whether it is made at home, in a small bakery, or in a large factory, is an example of secondary food processing.[3] [Fermenting fish](/source/Fermented_fish) and making [wine](/source/Wine), [beer](/source/Beer), and other alcoholic products are traditional forms of secondary food processing.[5] [Sausages](/source/Sausage) are a common form of secondary processed meat, formed by [comminution](/source/Comminution) (grinding) of meat that has already undergone primary processing.[6] Most of the secondary food processing methods known to [humankind](/source/Humankind) are commonly described as [cooking methods](/source/Cooking#Methods).

### Tertiary food processing

Tertiary food processing is the commercial production of what is commonly called *[processed food](/source/Processed_food)*.[3] It covers further processing of multiple ingredients in the manufacturing of fabricated foods,[7] such as the ultra-processed foods category of the [Nova classification](/source/Nova_classification). Many of these are ready-to-eat or heat-and-serve foods, such as [frozen meals](/source/Frozen_meal) and re-heated [airline meals](/source/Airline_meal).

## Food processing level

**Food processing level (FPL)** is a parameter used for grouping of food processing according to physical and (bio)chemical changes taking place in food materials during processing. Definition of the extent of processing benefits from the use of an ordinal [level of measurement](/source/Level_of_measurement). Arbitrary grouping of processed food using nominal scales, such as extent of change, nature of change, raw material sources, ingredients used, place of processing, purpose of processing, traditional, novel and other type of treatments is often criticised.[8] Ranking of food processing at an ordinal scale at any stage from food production in [agriculture](/source/Agriculture) to eating by [consumer](/source/Consumer) describes the extent of food processing using the order of the different levels of processing.

Processed food classifications often identify processing as a criterion for the grouping of [processed foods](/source/Processed_food).[8] Some processed food classifications, such as the [Nova classification](/source/Nova_classification), emphasise the role of processing in the development of [obesity](/source/Obesity) and [noncommunicable diseases](/source/Noncommunicable_diseases).[9] The [public health](/source/Public_health) interest is particularly in the Nova category of [ultra-processed foods](/source/Ultra-processed_foods), a highly processed foods category, which often causes controversy on whether ingredients of processed foods or food processing relate to adverse health outcomes.[10][11]

### Unit operations and unit processes

Food processing results in physical and (bio)chemical changes in food materials independently whether processing involves home cooking, food services or industrial food manufacturing. Food processing is typically covered by [food engineering](/source/Food_engineering), [biochemical engineering](/source/Biochemical_engineering) and [chemical engineering](/source/Chemical_engineering) disciplines. Description of processes relies on understanding physical phenomena occurring in [unit operations](/source/Unit_operations) and kinetics of (bio)chemical reactions in [unit processes](/source/Unit_processes) which form the building blocks of food processing.[12]

[Unit operations](/source/Unit_operations) in food processing are building blocks of operations resulting in physical changes in food materials.[12] Unit operations are governed by general physical laws and include [heat transfer](/source/Heat_transfer) and [mass transfer](/source/Mass_transfer) required in different operations, such as separation processes, mixing and crystallization.[13]

[Unit processes](/source/Unit_processes) in food processing consist of unit operations and biochemical processes and chemical reactions resulting in (bio)chemical changes in food materials.[12] In [chemical reaction engineering](/source/Chemical_reaction_engineering) multiple unit operations are combined with unit processes to achieve the desired chemical changes.

Unit operations and unit processes are the premise of food processing systems. Multiple unit operations are often needed to carry out food processing designed to result in physical changes. Biochemical and chemical changes during food processing, such as loss of vitamin C,[14] can accompany intended physical modifications, e.g., during heat treatments.

There is much criticism indicating that the [Nova classification](/source/Nova_classification) refers to formulation and additives while processing levels must relate to unit operations and food processing.[15] Food processing categories with typical processes are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Food processing categories and levels (FPL)[1] Processing category FPL Object Result Typical processes Unit operations 0 Minor physical change. Retention of natural food characteristics. Washing, hulling, peeling, mixing, blending, forming, shaping, molding, shredding, cutting, sieving, screening, filtration, centrifugation, refrigeration, freezing. 1 Major physical change. Intense physical operation and disintegration of natural cellular structures. Grinding, milling, mincing, pressing, brining, salting, churning, coagulation, gelling, emulsifying, homogenization, whipping, high pressure processing, blanching, pasteurization, aqueous extraction, concentration, membrane separations, crystallization, evaporation, distillation, steaming, drying. Unit processes 2 General food processing but minor chemical changes. Physical, chemical and enzymatic changes as part of food preparation, processing and traditional fermentation. Baking, boiling, brewing, canning, cooking, grilling, frying, puffing, toasting, cocoa and coffee roasting, fermentations, yeast autolysis, simple extrusion and extrusion cooking, smoking, UHT processing, electrodialysis, ion exchange. 3 Chemical processing. Major chemical and compositional transformations. Organic solvent extraction, intended chemical/ enzymatic/thermochemical transformations, irradiation, biochemical/technological processes aiming at chemical modifications. 4 Modified constituents processing. Formulated foods with (bio)chemically transformed ingredients. Post-processing of food formulations with FPL 3 and 4 and other ingredients.

### Food processing levels

The [level of measurement](/source/Level_of_measurement) in food processing classification uses nominal or ordinal variables for qualitative grouping of food processing. Processed food classifications, such as the [Nova classification](/source/Nova_classification), categorise processed foods and often use subjective criteria in processed foods grouping.[16] Nominal food processing classifications group food processing according to qualitative variables, such as raw material sources, purpose of processing, traditional or novel, and type of treatment.[17] Food processing levels (FPL) are derived from ordinal scaling of food processing impact on processed foods.[1]

Food processing levels (Table 1) indicate the object and result of food processing and provide means for the use of the extent of food processing at an [ordinal scale](/source/Ordinal_scale) for various purposes, e.g., [processed food](/source/Processed_food) classification. The relative impact of FPL on the expected extent of food processing results from the combined effects of physical and chemical changes during food processing as is described in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Expected relative food processing extent resulting from physical and (bio)chemical changes during processing at different food processing levels (FPL).

Studies of food processing impact on public health and other outcomes, such as affordability, energy efficiency, food safety and sustainability benefit from the use of FPL. Several food ingredients, which have different FPL, are often used in food products. The highest FPL used to obtain ingredients for intermittent processing of formulated foods and the FPL of final processing, whichever is the highest, indicates the FPL of the final food.[1] Final food products may be formulated using ingredients from several FPL which, when including ingredients or processing at FPL 3 and 4, are assigned to the highest FPL 4.[1]

## History

Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing incorporated fermenting, sun drying, preserving with [salt](/source/Salt), and various types of [cooking](/source/Cooking) (such as roasting, smoking, steaming, and oven baking), Such basic food processing involved chemical enzymatic changes to the basic structure of food in its natural form, as well served to build a barrier against surface microbial activity that caused rapid decay. Salt-preservation was especially common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors' diets until the introduction of [canning methods](/source/Canning). Evidence for the existence of these methods can be found in the writings of the ancient [Greek](/source/Aegean_civilization), [Chaldean](/source/Neo-Babylonian_Empire), [Egyptian](/source/Ancient_Egypt) and [Roman](/source/Ancient_Rome) civilizations as well as archaeological evidence from [Europe](/source/Europe), [North](/source/North_America) and [South America](/source/South_America) and Asia. These tried and tested processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution). Examples of ready-meals also date back to before the preindustrial revolution, and include dishes such as [Cornish pasty](/source/Cornish_pasty) and [Haggis](/source/Haggis). Both during ancient times and today in modern society these are considered processed foods.

Michael Foods [egg](/source/Egg_(food))-processing plant in Wakefield, Nebraska

Modern food processing technology developed in the 19th and 20th centuries was developed in a large part to serve military needs. In 1809, [Nicolas Appert](/source/Nicolas_Appert) invented a hermetic bottling technique that would preserve food for French troops which ultimately contributed to the development of tinning, and subsequently canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would later become a staple around the world.[18] [Pasteurization](/source/Pasteurization), discovered by [Louis Pasteur](/source/Louis_Pasteur) in 1864, improved the quality and safety of preserved foods and introduced the wine, beer, and milk preservation. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, synthetic dyes began being used in food production to enhance or standardize the color of food products such as butter and processed goods. This reflected broad industrial efforts to control the appearance of consumer products.[19]

A form of pre-made [split-pea soup](/source/Pea_soup) that has become traditional

In the 20th century, [World War II](/source/World_War_II), the [space race](/source/Space_race) and the rising consumer society in developed countries contributed to the growth of food processing with such advances as [spray drying](/source/Spray_drying), [evaporation](/source/Climbing_and_Falling_Film_Plate_Evaporator), juice concentrates, [freeze drying](/source/Freeze_drying) and the introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents, and such preservatives as [sodium benzoate](/source/Sodium_benzoate). In the late 20th century, products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as [MRE](/source/MRE) food ration were developed. By the 20th century, automatic appliances like [microwave oven](/source/Microwave_oven), [blender](/source/Blender), and [rotimatic](/source/Rotimatic) paved way for [convenience cooking](/source/Convenience_cooking).

In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle-class working wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to [Clarence Birdseye](/source/Clarence_Birdseye)) found their success in sales of juice concentrates and "[TV dinners](/source/TV_dinner)".[20] Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and this same appeal contributes to the success of [convenience foods](/source/Convenience_food) today.

Also in the late 20th century, food manufacturers began changing their product model from a single "platonic dish", such as one version of jarred spaghetti sauce, to offering multiple variations, such as a plain version, a spicy version, and a chunky version.[21]

## Benefits and drawbacks

### Benefits

Processed [seafood](/source/Seafood) – [fish](/source/Fish), [squid](/source/Squid), [prawn](/source/Prawn) balls and simulated crab sticks ([surimi](/source/Surimi))

Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency. In addition, it increases yearly availability of many foods, enables transportation of delicate perishable foods across long distances and makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms. Modern [supermarkets](/source/Supermarket) would not exist without modern food processing techniques, and long voyages would not be possible.

Processed foods are usually less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for long-distance transportation from the source to the [consumer](/source/Consumer).[4] When they were first introduced, some processed foods helped to [alleviate food shortages](/source/Food_security) and improved the overall nutrition of populations as it made many new foods available to the masses.[22]

Processing can also reduce the incidence of food-borne disease. Fresh materials, such as fresh [produce](/source/Produce) and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella) capable of causing serious illnesses.[23]

The extremely varied modern diet is only truly possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard labor gives the modern eater easy access to a wide variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors.[24]

The act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly.[25]

Mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a large [profit](/source/Profit_(economics)) potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food products. Individuals may see a benefit in [convenience](/source/Convenience_food), but rarely see any direct financial cost benefit in using processed food as compared to home preparation.[26]

Processed food freed people from the large amount of time involved in preparing and cooking "natural" unprocessed foods.[27] The increase in free time allows people much more choice in life style than previously allowed. In many families the adults are working away from home and therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based on fresh ingredients. The [food industry](/source/Food_industry) offers products that fulfill many different needs: e.g. fully prepared [ready meals](/source/Ready_meal) that can be heated up in the [microwave oven](/source/Microwave_oven) within a few minutes.

Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies, [diabetics](/source/Diabetes), and other people who cannot consume some common food elements.[23] Food processing can also add extra nutrients such as [vitamins](/source/Vitamin).

### Drawbacks

[Meat](/source/Meat) packages in a Roman [supermarket](/source/Supermarket)

Processing of food can decrease its nutritional density. The amount of nutrients lost depends on the food and processing method. For example, heat destroys [vitamin C](/source/Vitamin_C#Sources). Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitamin C than their fresh alternatives. The [USDA](/source/USDA) conducted a study of nutrient retention in 2004, creating a table of foods, levels of preparation, and nutrition.[28]

New research highlighting the importance to human health of a rich microbial environment in the intestine indicates that abundant food processing (not fermentation of foods) endangers that environment.[29]

#### Added sodium

One of the main sources for [sodium](/source/Sodium) in the diet is processed foods. Sodium, mostly in the form of [sodium chloride](/source/Sodium_chloride), i.e. salt, is added to prevent spoilage, add flavor and enhance the texture of these foods. Americans consume an average of 3436 milligrams of sodium per day, which is higher than the recommended limit of 2300 milligrams per day for healthy people, and more than twice the limit of 1500 milligrams per day for those at increased risk for heart disease.

#### Added sugars

While it is not necessary to limit the sugars found naturally in whole, unprocessed foods like fresh fruit, eating too much [added sugar](/source/Added_sugar) found in many processed foods increases the risk of heart disease, obesity, cavities and Type 2 diabetes. The [American Heart Association](/source/American_Heart_Association) recommends women limit added sugars to no more than 420 kilojoules (100 kilocalories), or 25 grams, and men limit added sugars to no more than 650 kJ (155 kcal), or about 38.75 grams, per day. Currently, Americans consume an average of 1,490 kJ (355 kcal) from added sugars each day.

#### Nutrient losses

Processing foods often involves nutrient losses, which can make it harder to meet the body's needs if these nutrients are not added back through fortification or enrichment. For example, using high heat during processing can cause [vitamin C](/source/Vitamin_C) losses. Another example is refined grains, which have less fiber, vitamins and minerals than whole grains. Eating refined grains, such as those found in many processed foods, instead of whole grains may increase the risk for high [cholesterol](/source/Cholesterol), diabetes and obesity, according to a study published in "[The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition](/source/The_American_Journal_of_Clinical_Nutrition)" in December 2007.[30]

#### Trans fats

Foods that have undergone processing, including some commercial baked goods, desserts, margarine, frozen pizza, microwave popcorn and coffee creamers, sometimes contain [trans fats](/source/Trans_fats). This is the most unhealthy type of fat, and may increase risk for high cholesterol, heart disease and stroke. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends keeping trans fat intake as low as possible.

#### Other potential disadvantages

Processed foods may actually take less energy to digest than whole foods, according to a study published in "[Food & Nutrition Research](/source/Food_%26_Nutrition_Research)" in 2010, meaning more of their food energy content is retained within the body. Processed foods also tend to be more allergenic than whole foods, according to a June 2004 "Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology" article. Although the preservatives and other food additives used in many processed foods are generally recognized as safe, a few may cause problems for some individuals, including sulfites, artificial sweeteners, artificial colors and flavors, sodium nitrate, BHA and BHT, olestra, caffeine and [monosodium glutamate](/source/Monosodium_glutamate) — a flavor enhancer.[31]

## Performance parameters for food processing

Factory automation - robotics palettizing [bread](/source/Bread)

When designing processes for the food industry the following performance parameters may be taken into account:

- [Hygiene](/source/Hygiene), e.g. measured by number of micro-organisms per mL of finished product.

- [Energy efficiency](/source/Efficient_energy_use) measured e.g. by "ton of steam per ton of sugar produced".

- [Minimization of waste](/source/Waste_minimisation), measured e.g. by "percentage of peeling loss during the peeling of potatoes".

- [Labour](/source/Labour_economics) used, measured e.g. by "number of working hours per ton of finished product".

- Minimization of cleaning stops measured e.g. by "number of hours between cleaning stops".

Women working in a cannery

## Industries

Food processing industries and practices include the following:

- [Cannery](/source/Cannery)

- [Fish processing](/source/Fish_processing)

- [Food packaging plant](/source/Food_packaging)

- [Industrial rendering](/source/Industrial_rendering)

- [Meat packing plant](/source/Meat_packing_plant)

- [Potato processing industry](/source/Potato_processing_industry)

- [Slaughterhouse](/source/Slaughterhouse)

- [Sugar industry](/source/Sugar_engineering)

## See also

- [Food portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Food)
- [Cooking portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Cooking)
- [Technology portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Technology)

- [Brewery](/source/Brewery)

- [Canning](/source/Canning)

- [Clean-in-place](/source/Clean-in-place)

- [Dietary supplement](/source/Dietary_supplement)

- [Enzyme](/source/Enzyme)

- [Flavoring](/source/Flavoring)

- [Food additive](/source/Food_additive)

- *[Food and Bioprocess Technology](/source/Food_and_Bioprocess_Technology)*

- [Food coloring](/source/Food_coloring)

- [Food extrusion](/source/Food_extrusion)

- [Food fortification](/source/Food_fortification)

- [Food quality](/source/Food_quality)

- [Food rheology](/source/Food_rheology)

- [Food safety](/source/Food_safety)

- [Food science](/source/Food_science)

- [Food storage](/source/Food_storage)

- [Genetically modified food](/source/Genetically_modified_food)

- [Good manufacturing practice](/source/Good_manufacturing_practice)

- [List of cooking techniques](/source/List_of_cooking_techniques)

- [Material handling](/source/Material_handling)

- [Nutraceutical](/source/Nutraceutical)

- [Pasteurization](/source/Pasteurization)

- [Pink slime](/source/Pink_slime)

- [Shelf life](/source/Shelf_life)

- [Snap freezing](/source/Snap_freezing)

- [Ultra-high temperature processing](/source/Ultra-high_temperature_processing)

- [Ultra-processed food](/source/Ultra-processed_food)

- [Washdown](/source/Washdown)

## Notes and references

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:4_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:4_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:4_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:4_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:4_1-4) Roos, YH (2025). ["Food Processing Levels and Processed Food Intake Classification"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fufo.2025.100751). *Future Foods*. **12** 100751. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.fufo.2025.100751](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fufo.2025.100751). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2666-8335](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2666-8335).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Grumezescu, Alexandru Mihai; Holban, Alina Maria (2018-04-08). [*Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6wIxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA430). Academic Press. p. 430. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780128114995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128114995).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:0_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:0_3-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:0_3-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:0_3-5) Hitzmann, Bernd (2017-08-11). [*Measurement, Modeling and Automation in Advanced Food Processing*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c7swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30). Springer. pp. 30–32. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783319601113](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319601113).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_4-2) Ionescu, Gabriela (2016-05-25). [*Sustainable Food and Beverage Industries: Assessments and Methodologies*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nB9jDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21). CRC Press. p. 21. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781771884112](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781771884112).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_5-1) US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (June 1987). ["Chapter 8, Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development"](https://books.google.com/books?id=z7mxV6X9lAYC&pg=PA278). *Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas: Summary*. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. pp. 278–281. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781428922792](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781428922792).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Hui, Y. H. (2012-01-11). [*Handbook of Meat and Meat Processing, Second Edition*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZRCMRXbbwoC&pg=PA599). CRC Press. p. 599. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781439836835](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439836835).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Glicksman, M; Sand, RE (1971). ["Fabricated foods"](https://doi.org/10.1080/10408397109527115). *C R C Critical Reviews in Food Technology*. **2** (1): 21–43. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/10408397109527115](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408397109527115). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0007-9006](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-9006).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:12_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:12_8-1) Sadler, CR; Grassby, T; Hart, K; Raats, M; Sokolović, M; Timotijevic, L (2021). ["Processed food classification: Conceptualisation and challenges"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tifs.2021.02.059). *Trends in Food Science & Technology*. **112**: 149–162. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.059](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tifs.2021.02.059). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0924-2244](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0924-2244).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** ["Ultra-processed foods — it's time for an improved definition"](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-02750-0). *Nature*. **645** (8079): 7. 2025. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2025Natur.645....7.](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025Natur.645....7.). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/d41586-025-02750-0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-025-02750-0). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1476-4687](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [40903609](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40903609).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Gibney, MJ (2019). ["Ultra-Processed Foods: Definitions and Policy Issues"](https://cdn.nutrition.org/article/S2475-2991(22)12987-2/fulltext). *Current Developments in Nutrition*. **3** (2) nzy077. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/cdn/nzy077](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcdn%2Fnzy077). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2475-2991](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2475-2991). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6389637](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6389637). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [30820487](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30820487).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Dicken, SJ; Jassil, FC; Brown, A; Kalis, M; Stanley, C; Ranson, C; Ruwona, T; Qamar, S; Buck, C; Mallik, R; Hamid, N; Bird, JM; Brown, A; Norton, B; Gandini Wheeler-Kingshott, CAM (2025). ["Ultraprocessed or minimally processed diets following healthy dietary guidelines on weight and cardiometabolic health: a randomized, crossover trial"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12532614). *Nature Medicine*. **31** (10): 3297–3308. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s41591-025-03842-0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41591-025-03842-0). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1546-170X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1546-170X). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [12532614](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12532614). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [40760353](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40760353).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:02_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:02_12-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:02_12-2) Saravacos, G. and Kostaropoulos, A.E. 2016. Handbook of Food Processing Equipment, 2nd Ed. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 775 p. | [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25020-5](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25020-5)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C. and Harriott, P. 2004. *Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering* (7th ed.). 1168p. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978‑0072848236.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Capuano, E; Oliviero, T; van Boekel, MAJS (2018). ["Modeling food matrix effects on chemical reactivity: Challenges and perspectives"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2017.1342595). *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*. **58** (16): 2814–2828. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/10408398.2017.1342595](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2017.1342595). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1040-8398](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-8398). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28662371](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28662371).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Knorr, D; Watzke, H (2019). ["Food Processing at a Crossroad"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6603079). *Frontiers in Nutrition*. **6** 85. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fnut.2019.00085](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnut.2019.00085). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2296-861X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-861X). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6603079](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6603079). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [31294027](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31294027).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Gibney, MJ; Forde, CG; Mullally, D; Gibney, ER (2017). ["Ultra-processed foods in human health: a critical appraisal"](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916522026235). *The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **106** (3): 717–724. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3945/ajcn.117.160440](https://doi.org/10.3945%2Fajcn.117.160440). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-9165](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9165). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28793996](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28793996).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Fellows, PJ (2022). [*Food Processing Technology*](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/C20190044160). Elsevier. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/c2019-0-04416-0](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fc2019-0-04416-0). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-323-85737-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-85737-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Martin Bruegel, "How the French Learned to Eat Canned Food," in W. Belasco, P. Scranton, ed., Food Nations: Selling Taste in Consumer Societies (New York, Routledge, 2001)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Hisano, Ai (2016). ["The Rise of Synthetic Colors in the American Food Industry, 1870–1940"](https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007680516001021). *Business History Review*. **90** (3): 483–504. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/s0007680516001021](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007680516001021). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0007-6805](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-6805).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Levenstein, H: "Paradox of Plenty", pages 106–107. University of California Press, 2003

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Gladwell, Malcolm (2004-08-29). ["The Ketchup Conundrum"](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/09/06/the-ketchup-conundrum). *The New Yorker*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0028-792X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-792X). Retrieved 2025-01-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). ["In Praise of Fast Food"](http://www.utne.com/Environment/Fast-Food-Culinary-Ethos.aspx?page=4). UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24. Where modern food became available, people grew taller and stronger and lived longer.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_23-1) ["Food Processing Machinery Market Size, Share, Analysis, Trends, Forecast"](https://citiusresearch.com/reports/Food-and-Beverages/food-processing-machinery-market-report). *Citius Research*. Retrieved 2025-07-10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). ["In Praise of Fast Food"](http://www.utne.com/Environment/Fast-Food-Culinary-Ethos.aspx?page=4). UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24. If we fail to understand how scant and monotonous most traditional diets were, we can misunderstand the "ethnic foods" we encounter in cookbooks, at restaurants, or on our travels.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). ["In Praise of Fast Food"](http://www.utne.com/Environment/Fast-Food-Culinary-Ethos.aspx?page=4). UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24. For our ancestors, natural was something quite nasty. Natural often tasted bad. Fresh meat was rank and tough, fresh fruits inedibly sour, fresh vegetables bitter.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Tharrey, Marion; Drogué, Sophie; Privet, Lisa; Perignon, Marlène; Dubois, Christophe; Darmon, Nicole (August 2020). ["Industrially processed v. home-prepared dishes: what economic benefit for the consumer?"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10200457). *Public Health Nutrition*. **23** (11): 1982–1990. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1368980019005081](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1368980019005081). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1475-2727](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-2727). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [10200457](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10200457). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [32456744](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32456744).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). ["In Praise of Fast Food"](http://www.utne.com/Environment/Fast-Food-Culinary-Ethos.aspx?page=4). UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** ["USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6"](https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/Data/retn/retn06.pdf) (PDF). *USDA*. USDA. Dec 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Michael Pollan (15 May 2013). ["Some of my Best Friends are Germs"](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/19/magazine/say-hello-to-the-100-trillion-bacteria-that-make-up-your-microbiome.html?hp). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times) Magazine*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Newby, P. K.; Maras, Janice; Bakun, Peter; Muller, Denis; Ferrucci, Luigi; Tucker, Katherine L. (2007-12-01). ["Intake of whole grains, refined grains, and cereal fiber measured with 7-d diet records and associations with risk factors for chronic disease2"](https://ajcn.nutrition.org/article/S0002-9165(23)27686-8/fulltext). *The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **86** (6): 1745–1753. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/86.5.1745](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F86.5.1745). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-9165](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9165). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2646086](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2646086). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18065595](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18065595).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** ["Food Flavour Enhancer Market to Garner USD 15.2 Mn by 2032 at 6.8% CAGR, Says FMI | Scoop News"](https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/BU2204/S00425/food-flavour-enhancer-marketto-garner-usd-152-mn-by-2032-at-68-cagr-says-fmi.htm).

## Bibliography

- *Fábricas de alimentos*, 9th edition (in Spanish).

- *Nutritional evaluation of food processing*,

- *Food preservation* 2nd edition, by Norman W. Desrosier.

## External links

- Media related to [Manufacture of food](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Manufacture_of_food) at Wikimedia Commons

v t e Food science General Allergy Engineering Food Human Nutritional rating systems Glycemic index Insulin index Satiety value Microbiology Nutrition Human Diet Clinical Processing Processing aids Psychology Quality Sensory analysis Discrimination testing Rheology Storage Technology v t e Food chemistry Additives Carbohydrates Coloring Enzymes Essential fatty acids Flavors Fortification Lipids "Minerals" (Chemical elements) Proteins Vitamins Water v t e Food preservation Biopreservation Burying in ground Canning Cold chain Curing Drying Fermentation Freeze-drying Freezing Hurdle technology Irradiation Jamming Jellying Jugging Modified atmosphere Pascalization Pickling Potting Confit Potjevleesch Rillettes Salting Smoking Sugaring Tyndallization Vacuum packing Food portal Category: Food preservation Food industry Manufacturing Packaging Marketing Food service Fortification v t e Consumer food safety Adulterants, food contaminants 3-MCPD Aldicarb Antibiotic use in livestock Cyanide Formaldehyde HGH controversies Lead poisoning Melamine Mercury in fish Sudan I Food additives Flavorings Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Salt Sugar High-fructose corn syrup Vegetable oil controversy Intestinal parasites, parasitic disease Amoebiasis Anisakiasis Cryptosporidiosis Cyclosporiasis Diphyllobothriasis Enterobiasis Fasciolopsiasis Fasciolosis Giardiasis Gnathostomiasis Paragonimiasis Toxocariasis Toxoplasmosis Trichinosis Trichuriasis Microorganisms Botulism Campylobacter jejuni Clostridium perfringens Cronobacter Enterovirus Escherichia coli O104:H4 Escherichia coli O157:H7 Hepatitis A Hepatitis E Listeria Norovirus Rotavirus Salmonella Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic E. coli Vibrio cholerae Pesticides Chlorpyrifos DDT Lindane Malathion Methamidophos Preservatives Benzoic acid Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) Sodium benzoate Sugar substitutes Acesulfame potassium Aspartame controversy Saccharin Sodium cyclamate Sorbitol Sucralose Toxins, poisons, environment pollution Aflatoxin Arsenic contamination of groundwater Benzene in soft drinks Bisphenol A Dieldrin Diethylstilbestrol Dioxins Mycotoxins Nonylphenol Shellfish poisoning Food fraud Bread Breast milk Egg Olive oil Prawn Seafood Shrimp Tea Wine Food processing 4-Hydroxynonenal Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein Acrylamide Food additives Food irradiation Heterocyclic amines Modified starch Nitrosamines Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon Shortening Trans fat Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Water fluoridation controversy Food contamination incidents Devon colic Swill milk scandal Esing Bakery incident 1858 Bradford sweets poisoning 1900 English beer poisoning Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident Minamata disease 1959 Moroccan oil poisoning disaster [ar] 1971 Iraq poison grain disaster Toxic oil syndrome 1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal United Kingdom BSE outbreak Australian meat substitution scandal Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak 1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak 2006 North American E. coli outbreaks ICA meat repackaging controversy 2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak 2008 Chinese milk scandal 2008 Irish pork crisis 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak 2011 Germany E. coli outbreak 2011 United States listeriosis outbreak Bihar school meal poisoning 2013 horse meat scandal 2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning 2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat 2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak 2018 Australian strawberry contamination 2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal Food safety incidents in China Food safety incidents in Taiwan Foodborne illness outbreaks death toll United States Regulation, standards, watchdogs Acceptable daily intake E number Food labeling regulations Food libel laws Food safety in Australia International Food Safety Network ISO 22000 Nutrition facts label Organic certification Quality Assurance International United Kingdom food information regulations Institutions Centre for Food Safety (Hong Kong) European Food Safety Authority Food and Drug Administration Food Information and Control Agency (Spain) Food Standards Agency (United Kingdom) Institute for Food Safety and Health International Food Safety Network Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (South Korea) Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition Related topics Curing (food preservation) Food and drink prohibitions Food marketing Food politics Food preservation Food quality Genetically modified food Conspiracy theories Food portal Drink portal Category Commons Cookbook WikiProject v t e Artificial foods Artificial fat substitutes Olestra Artificial protein substitutes Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein Artificial sugar substitutes Acesulfame potassium Alitame Advantame Aspartame Aspartame-acesulfame salt Carrelame Dulcin Glucin Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates Lugduname Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone Neotame Saccharin Sodium cyclamate Sucralose Natural food substitutes Cheese analogues Coffee substitutes Egg substitutes Meat substitutes bacon list Milk substitutes Phyllodulcin Salt substitutes Brands Tang Related topics Food safety List of food additives Food politics Food power Food security Famine Food desert Food swamp List of nutrition guides Malnutrition Overnutrition Institutions International Association for Food Protection Food and Drug Administration Food and Agriculture Organization National Agriculture and Food Research Organization National Food and Drug Authority

v t e Public health General Auxology Biological hazard Chief medical officer Climate change Cultural competence Deviance Environmental health Eugenics History of Liberal Euthenics Genomics Globalization and disease Harm reduction Health economics Health literacy Health policy Health system Health care reform Housing First Human right to water and sanitation Management of depression Public health law National public health institute Health politics Labor rights Maternal health Medical anthropology Medical sociology Mental health (Ministers) Occupational safety and health Pharmaceutical policy Pollution Air Water Soil Radiation Light Prisoners' rights Public health intervention Public health laboratory Right to food Right to health Right to a healthy environment Right to housing Right to rest and leisure Right to sit Security of person Sexual and reproductive health Social psychology Sociology of health and illness Unisex changing rooms Unisex public toilets Workers' right to access the toilet Preventive healthcare Behavior change Theories Drug checking Family planning Harm reduction Health promotion Human nutrition Healthy diet Preventive nutrition Hygiene Food safety Hand washing Infection control Oral hygiene Needle and syringe programmes Occupational safety and health Human factors and ergonomics Hygiene Controlled Drugs Injury prevention Medicine Nursing Patient safety Organization Pharmacovigilance Reagent testing Safe sex Sanitation Emergency Fecal–oral transmission Open defecation Sanitary sewer Waterborne diseases Worker School hygiene Smoking cessation Supervised injection site Vaccination Vector control Population health Adult mortality Biostatistics Child mortality Community health Epidemiology Global health Health impact assessment Health system Infant mortality Open-source healthcare software Multimorbidity Public health informatics Social determinants of health Commercial determinants of health Health equity Race and health Social medicine Biological and epidemiological statistics Case–control study Randomized controlled trial Relative risk Statistical hypothesis testing Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Regression analysis ROC curve Student's t-test Z-test Statistical software Infectious and epidemic disease prevention Asymptomatic carrier Epidemics List Notifiable diseases List Public health surveillance Disease surveillance Quarantine Sexually transmitted infection Social distancing Tropical disease Vaccine trial WASH Food hygiene and safety management Food Additive Chemistry Engineering Microbiology Processing Safety Safety scandals Good agricultural practice Good manufacturing practice HACCP ISO 22000 Health behavioral sciences Diffusion of innovations Health belief model Health communication Health psychology Positive deviance PRECEDE–PROCEED model Social cognitive theory Social norms approach Theory of planned behavior Transtheoretical model Organizations, education and history Organizations Caribbean Caribbean Public Health Agency China Center for Disease Control and Prevention Europe Centre for Disease Prevention and Control Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety Russia Rospotrebnadzor India Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Canada Health Canada Public Health Agency U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Health departments in the United States Council on Education for Public Health Public Health Service World Health Organization World Toilet Organization (Full list) Education Health education Higher education Bachelor of Science in Public Health Doctor of Public Health Professional degrees of public health Schools of public health History History of public health in the United Kingdom History of public health in the United States History of public health in Australia Sara Josephine Baker Samuel Jay Crumbine Carl Rogers Darnall Joseph Lister Margaret Sanger John Snow Typhoid Mary Radium Girls Germ theory of disease Social hygiene movement Category Commons WikiProject

Authority control databases: National Czech Republic

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Food processing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processing) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processing?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.