# Flagellate

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Group of protists with at least one whip-like appendage

Not to be confused with [Flagellation](/source/Flagellation), [Fellate](/source/Fellate), or [Ciliate](/source/Ciliate).

This article is about eukaryotic flagellates. For bacterial flagella and their differences, see [Flagellum](/source/Flagellum).

"Mastigophora" redirects here. For the taxonomic synonym of a genus of mosses, see [Lepidozia](/source/Lepidozia).

"Flagellata" from [Ernst Haeckel](/source/Ernst_Haeckel)'s *[Artforms of Nature](/source/Kunstformen_der_Natur)*, 1904

Parasitic [Excavata](/source/Excavata) (*Giardia lamblia*)

[Green algae](/source/Green_algae) (*[Chlamydomonas](/source/Chlamydomonas)*)

A **flagellate** is a cell or organism with one or more [whip](/source/Whip)-like [appendages](/source/Appendage) called [flagella](/source/Flagellum). The word *flagellate* also describes a particular construction (or level of organization) characteristic of many [prokaryotes](/source/Prokaryote) and [eukaryotes](/source/Eukaryote) and their means of motion. The term presently does not imply any specific relationship or classification of the organisms that possess flagella. However, several [derivations](/source/Morphological_derivation) of the term "flagellate" (such as "[dinoflagellate](/source/Dinoflagellate)" and "[choanoflagellate](/source/Choanoflagellate)") are more formally characterized.[1]

## Form and behavior

[Flagella](/source/Flagella) in eukaryotes are supported by [microtubules](/source/Microtubule) in a characteristic arrangement, with nine fused pairs surrounding two central singlets. These arise from a [basal body](/source/Basal_body). In some flagellates, flagella direct food into a [cytostome](/source/Cytostome) or mouth, where food is [ingested](/source/Ingestion). Flagella role in classifying [eukaryotes](/source/Eukaryote).

Among [protoctists](/source/Protoctist) and [microscopic animals](/source/Microscopic_animals), a flagellate is an organism with one or more flagella. Some cells in other [animals](/source/Animal) may be flagellate, for instance the [spermatozoa](/source/Spermatozoa) of most animal phyla. Flowering plants do not produce flagellate cells, but [ferns](/source/Fern), [mosses](/source/Bryophyte), [green algae](/source/Green_algae), and some [gymnosperms](/source/Gymnosperm) and closely related plants do so.[2] Likewise, most fungi do not produce cells with flagellae, but the primitive fungal [chytrids](/source/Chytrids) do.[3] Many protists take the form of single-celled flagellates.

Flagella are generally used for [propulsion](/source/Propulsion). They may also be used to create a current that brings in food. In most such organisms, one or more flagella are located at or near the anterior of the cell (e.g., *[Euglena](/source/Euglena)*). Often there is one directed forwards and one trailing behind. Many parasites that affect human health or economy are flagellates in at least one stage of life cycle, such as *[Naegleria](/source/Naegleria)*, *[Trichomonas](/source/Trichomonas)* and *[Plasmodium](/source/Plasmodium)*.[4][5] Flagellates are the major consumers of primary and secondary production in [aquatic ecosystems](/source/Aquatic_ecosystem) - consuming bacteria and other protists.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

"Flagellata" from [Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica)

## Flagellates as specialized cells or life cycle stages

An overview of the occurrence of flagellated cells in eukaryote groups, as specialized cells of multicellular organisms or as life cycle stages, is given below (see also the article [flagellum](/source/Flagellum)):[6][7][8]

- [Archaeplastida](/source/Archaeplastida): most [green algae](/source/Green_algae) ([zoospores](/source/Zoospores) and male [gametes](/source/Gamete), except in [Zygnematophyceae](/source/Zygnematophyceae)), [bryophytes](/source/Bryophyte) (male gametes), [pteridophytes](/source/Pteridophyte) (male gametes), some [gymnosperms](/source/Gymnosperm) ([cycads](/source/Cycad) and *[Ginkgo](/source/Ginkgo)*, as male gametes)

- [Stramenopiles](/source/Stramenopiles): centric [diatoms](/source/Diatom) (male gametes), [brown algae](/source/Brown_algae) (zoospores and gametes), [oomycetes](/source/Oomycete) (asexual zoospores and gametes), [hyphochytrids](/source/Hyphochytrid) (zoospores), [labyrinthulomycetes](/source/Labyrinthulomycetes) (zoospores), some [chrysophytes](/source/Chrysophyte), some [xanthophytes](/source/Xanthophyte), [eustigmatophytes](/source/Eustigmatophyte)

- [Alveolata](/source/Alveolata): some [apicomplexans](/source/Apicomplexan) (gametes)

- [Rhizaria](/source/Rhizaria): some [radiolarians](/source/Radiolarian) (probably gametes),[9] [foraminiferans](/source/Foraminiferan) (as gametes) - [Cercozoa](/source/Cercozoa): [plasmodiophoromycetes](/source/Phytomyxea) (zoospores and gametes), [chlorarachniophytes](/source/Chlorarachniophyte) (zoospores)

- [Amoebozoa](/source/Amoebozoa): [myxogastrids](/source/Myxogastrid)

- [Opisthokonta](/source/Opisthokonta): most [metazoans](/source/Metazoan) (male gametes, [epithelia](/source/Epithelia) and [choanocytes](/source/Choanocyte)), [chytrid](/source/Chytrid) fungi (zoospores and gametes)

- [Excavata](/source/Excavata): some [acrasids](/source/Acrasid) (*Pocheina*, as zoospores)[10]

## Flagellates as organisms: the Flagellata

In older classifications, flagellated [protozoa](/source/Protozoa) were grouped in **Flagellata** (= **Mastigophora**), sometimes divided into Phytoflagellata (= Phytomastigina, mostly autotrophic) and Zooflagellata (= Zoomastigina, heterotrophic). They were sometimes grouped with [Sarcodina](/source/Sarcodina) (ameboids) in the group [Sarcomastigophora](/source/Sarcomastigophora).

The autotrophic flagellates were grouped similarly to the botanical schemes used for the corresponding algae groups. The [colourless](/source/Biological_pigment) flagellates were customarily grouped in three groups, highly artificial:[11]

- Protomastigineae, in which absorption of food-particles in holozoic nutrition occurs at a localised point of the cell surface, often at a cytostome, although many groups were merely saprophytes; it included the majority of colourless flagellates, and even many "apochlorotic" algae;

- Pantostomatineae (or Rhizomastigineae), in which the absorption takes place at any point on the cell surface; roughly corresponds to "amoeboflagellates";

- Distomatineae, a group of binucleate "double individuals" with symmetrically distributed flagella and, in many species, two symmetrical mouths; roughly corresponds to current [Diplomonadida](/source/Diplomonadida).

Presently, these groups are known to be highly [polyphyletic](/source/Polyphyletic). In modern classifications of the protists, the principal flagellated taxa are placed in the following eukaryote groups, which include also non-flagellated forms (where "A", "F", "P" and "S" stands for autotrophic, free-living heterotrophic, parasitic and symbiotic, respectively):[12][13]

- [Archaeplastida](/source/Archaeplastida): [volvocids](/source/Volvocales) (A/F), [prasinophytes](/source/Prasinophyte) (A), [glaucophytes](/source/Glaucophyta) (A)

- [Stramenopiles](/source/Stramenopiles): [bicosoecids](/source/Bicosoecida) (F), [proteromonads](/source/Proteromonadidae) (F), [opalines](/source/Opalinidae) (F), most [chrysophytes](/source/Chrysophyceae) (A/F), part of [xanthophytes](/source/Xanthophyte) (A), [raphidophytes/chloromonads](/source/Raphidophyte) (A), [silicoflagellates](/source/Silicoflagellate) (A), [ciliophryids](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciliophryida&action=edit&redlink=1) (F), [pedinellids](/source/Pedinellid) (A/F)

- [Alveolata](/source/Alveolata): [dinoflagellates](/source/Dinoflagellata) (A/F), *[Colpodella](/source/Colpodella)* (F)

- [Rhizaria](/source/Rhizaria) - [Cercozoa](/source/Cercozoa): [cercomonads](/source/Cercomonadida) (F), [spongomonads](/source/Spongomonadea) (F), [thaumatomonads](/source/Thaumatomonadida) (F), [glissomonads](/source/Glissomonadida) (F), [cryomonads](/source/Cryomonadida) (F), [heliomonads/dimorphids](/source/Heliomonadida) (F), [ebriids](/source/Ebriid) (F)

- [Amoebozoa](/source/Amoebozoa): *[Multicilia](/source/Multicilia)* (F), [phalansteriids](/source/Phalansterium) (F), some [archamoebae](/source/Archamoebae) (F/S)

- [Opisthokonta](/source/Opisthokonta): [choanoflagellates](/source/Choanoflagellates) (F)

- [Excavata](/source/Excavata) - [Discoba](/source/Discoba): [jakobids](/source/Jakobida) (F), [kinetoplastids](/source/Kinetoplastea) ([bodonids](/source/Bodonida), F/P, [trypanosomatids](/source/Trypanosomatid), P), [euglenids](/source/Euglenida) (F/A), some [heteroloboseans](/source/Heterolobosea) (P/F/S) - [Metamonada](/source/Metamonada): [diplomonads](/source/Diplomonadida) (P/F), [retortamonads](/source/Retortamonad) (S), [Preaxostyla/anaeromonads](/source/Preaxostyla) ([oxymonads](/source/Oxymonad), S, *[Trimastix](/source/Trimastix)*, F, *[Paratrimastix](/source/Paratrimastix)*, F), [parabasalids](/source/Parabasalid) ([trichomonads](/source/Trichomonad), P/S, [hypermastigids](/source/Hypermastigid), S)

- [Eukaryota](/source/Eukaryota) incertae sedis : [haptophytes](/source/Haptophyte) (F/A), [cryptophytes](/source/Cryptophyceae) (F/A), [kathablepharids](/source/Katablepharid) (F), [Apusozoa](/source/Apusozoa) ([apusomondas](/source/Apusomonadida), F, [ancyromonads](/source/Ancyromonadida), F, [spironemids/hemimastigids](/source/Spironemidae), F), [collodictyonids/diphylleids](/source/Collodictyonidae) (F), *[Phyllomonas](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phyllomonas&action=edit&redlink=1)* (F), and about a hundred genera[14]

Although the taxonomic group Flagellata was abandoned, the term "flagellate" is still used as the description of a [level of organization](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisationsstufe) and also as an [ecological functional group](/source/Functional_group_(ecology)). Another term used is "monadoid", from [monad](/source/Unicellular_organism).[15] as in *[Monas](/source/Monas_(genus))*, and *[Cryptomonas](/source/Cryptomonas)* and in the groups as listed above.

The amoeboflagellates (e.g., the rhizarian genus *[Cercomonas](/source/Cercomonas)*, some amoebozoan [Archamoebae](/source/Archamoebae), some excavate [Heterolobosea](/source/Heterolobosea)) have a peculiar type of flagellate/[amoeboid](/source/Amoeboid) organization, in which cells may present flagella and [pseudopods](/source/Pseudopod), simultaneously or sequentially, while the helioflagellates (e.g., the cercozoan [heliomonads/dimorphids](/source/Heliomonadida), the stramenopile [pedinellids](/source/Pedinellid) and [ciliophryids](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciliophryid&action=edit&redlink=1)) have a flagellate/[heliozoan](/source/Heliozoa) organization.[16]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pmid8868448_1-0)** Cavalier-Smith T. (1995). "Zooflagellate phylogeny and classification". *Tsitologiya*. **37** (11): 1010–29. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8868448](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8868448).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Philip E. Pack, Ph.D., Cliff's Notes: AP Biology 4th edition.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hibbett2007_3-0)** Hibbett; et al. (2007). "A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi". *Mycologia*. **111** (5): 509–547. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mycres.2007.03.004). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17572334](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17572334). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4686378](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4686378).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Dash, Manoswini; Sachdeva, Sherry; Bansal, Abhisheka; Sinha, Abhinav (2022-06-15). ["Gametogenesis in Plasmodium: Delving Deeper to Connect the Dots"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9241518). *Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology*. **12** 877907. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fcimb.2022.877907](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffcimb.2022.877907). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2235-2988](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2235-2988). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [9241518](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9241518). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [35782151](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35782151).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Sparagano, O.; Drouet, E.; Brebant, R.; Manet, E.; Denoyel, G. A.; Pernin, P. (1993). ["Use of monoclonal antibodies to distinguish pathogenic Naegleria fowleri (cysts, trophozoites, or flagellate forms) from other Naegleria species"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC266008). *Journal of Clinical Microbiology*. **31** (10): 2758–2763. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1128/jcm.31.10.2758-2763.1993](https://doi.org/10.1128%2Fjcm.31.10.2758-2763.1993). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0095-1137](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0095-1137). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [266008](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC266008). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8253977](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8253977).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Raven, J.A. 2000. The flagellate condition. In: (B.S.C. Leadbeater and J.C. Green, eds) *The flagellates. Unity, diversity and evolution*. The Systematics Association Special Volume 59. Taylor and Francis, London. pp. 269–287.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Webster, J & Weber, R (2007). *Introduction to Fungi* (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–24, [\[1\]](https://books.google.com/books?id=SApIn7IEnucC&pg=PT64)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Adl_et_al._2012_8-0)** Adl et al. (2012).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Lahr DJ, Parfrey LW, Mitchell EA, Katz LA, Lara E (July 2011). [The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21429931). *Proc. Biol. Sci.* 278 (1715): 2083–6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Tice, Alexander (2015). *Understanding the evolution of aggregative multicellularity : a molecular phylogenetic study of the cellular slime mold genera sorodiplophrys and pocheina*. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-321-68823-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-321-68823-8). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [985464464](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/985464464).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Fritsch, F.E. *The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae*. Vol. I. Introduction, Chlorophyceae. Xanthophyceae, Chrysophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Cryptophyceae, Dinophyceae, Chloromonadineae, Euglenineae, Colourless Flagellata. 1935. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, [\[2\]](https://web.archive.org/web/20150615132446/http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/2023644/1/BPT12884.pdf).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Jeuck, Alexandra; Arndt, Hartmut (2013). ["A Short Guide to Common Heterotrophic Flagellates of Freshwater Habitats Based on the Morphology of Living Organisms"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.protis.2013.08.003). *Protist*. **164** (6): 842–860. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.protis.2013.08.003](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.protis.2013.08.003). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [24239731](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24239731).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Patterson, D.J. (2000). Flagellates: Heterotrophic Protists With Flagella. *Tree of Life*, [\[3\]](https://web.archive.org/web/20150906081210/http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=50).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Patterson, D.J., Vørs, N., Simpson, A.G.B. & O'Kelly, C., 2000. Residual Free-living and Predatory Heterotrophic Flagellates. In: Lee, J.J., Leedale, G.F. & Bradbury, P. *An Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa*. Society of Protozoologists/Allen Press: Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A, 2nd ed., vol. 2, p. 1302–1328, [\[4\]](https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incertae_sedis_Eukaryota#Patterson.2C_V.C3.B8rs.2C_Simpson.2C_.26_O.27Kelly.2C_in_Lee_et_al._.282000.29).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Hoek, C. van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. (1995). *[Algae An Introduction to Phycology](https://books.google.com/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC)*. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-521-30419-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-30419-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Mikryukov, K.A. (2001). Heliozoa as a component of marine microbenthos: a study of Heliozoa of the White Sea. *Ophelia* 54: 51–73.

## External links

[Wikispecies](/source/Wikispecies) has information related to ***[Flagellata](https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Flagellata)***.

[Wikispecies](/source/Wikispecies) has information related to ***[Mastigophora](https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mastigophora)***.

- [Flagellata](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=Flagellata) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine [Medical Subject Headings](/source/Medical_Subject_Headings) (MeSH)

- Leadbeater, B.S.C. & Green, J.C., eds. (2000). *The Flagellates. Unity, diversity and evolution*. Taylor and Francis, London.

- ["Flagellata"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Flagellata). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition)* (11th ed.). 1911.

v t e Microbiology: Protistology: Protists Former classifications Protozoa Mastigophora/Flagellates Sarcodina/Amoeboids Testate Heliozoa Infusoria/Ciliates Sporozoa Algae Cryptogams Thallophytes Fungus-like organisms Slime molds Ambiregnal protists Morphology Archaeplastida Viridiplantae "Green algae": Phycoplast Phragmoplast Flagellar apparatus Glaucophytes: Cyanelles Phycobilisomes Red algae: Pit connection Phycobilisomes Hacrobia Cryptophyta: Mastigoneme Periplast Haptophytes: Coccolith Haptonema Stramenopiles General: Mastigoneme Diatoms: Frustule Brown algae: Lamina Pneumatocyst Alveolata General: Alveoli Trichocyst Dinoflagellates: Dinokaryon Dinocyst Theca Ciliates: Cilium Cirrus Macronucleus Micronucleus Apicomplexans: Rhoptry Apicoplast Microneme Rhizaria Phytomyxea Cruciform division "Excavata" Kinetoplastids: Kinetoplast Glycosome Euglenida: Periplast/pellicle Amoebozoa Dictyostelids: Macrocyst Sorocarp Opisthokonta Choanoflagellates: Collar of microvilli General Levels of organization Unicellular Monadoid Amoeboid Coccoid Amoeboflagellate Colonial s.s. Colonial flagellated Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid Sarcinoid Coenobial Filamentous/trichal/hyphal Parenchymatous Pseudoparenchymatous/plektenchymatic Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous Multinucleated Syncytial Coenocytic Siphonous Siphonocladous Multicellular s.s./tissular/histonal Cell surface structures Simple cell membrane Mucilage Scale Frustule Cell wall Lorica Skeleton Test Theca Periplast/pellicle Locomotion Flagellum Cilium Pseudopodia Gliding motility Mitochondria Hydrogenosome Mitosome Nucleus Nucleomorph Multinucleate cells Plasmodium Dikaryon Heterokaryon Mitosis in protists Open Closed Orthomitosis Pleuromitosis Meiosis in protists Gametic Zygotic Sporic Other Cyst Cytostome Fimbriae Extrusome Contractile vacuole Eyespot apparatus Pyrenoid Axostyle Mastigont system Ecology and physiology Microbial ecology Microbial biogeography Baas-Becking hypothesis Development/Reproduction Life cycles Fertilization Nutrition: Autotrophy Phototrophy Heterotrophy Phagotrophy Osmotrophy Saprotrophy Parasitism Biotrophy Necrotrophy Mixotrophy Auxotrophy

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Flagellate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellate) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellate?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.