# Five Grains

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Ritually farmed crops in the Sinosphere

This article is about the five grain crops important to China. For the five grain crops that cause leavening at Passover, see [Five species of grain](/source/Five_species_of_grain).

[Ming dynasty](/source/Ming_dynasty) [Shuilu ritual painting](/source/Shuilu_ritual_paintings) of the godsin charge of seedlings, crop, disease, medicine and five cereals

The **Five Grains** or **Cereals** ([traditional Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_characters): 五穀; [simplified Chinese](/source/Simplified_Chinese_characters): 五谷; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Wǔ Gǔ*) are a set of five [farmed](/source/Farm) [crops](/source/Crop) that were important in [ancient China](/source/History_of_China#Ancient_China). In modern Chinese *wǔgǔ* refers to [rice](/source/Rice), [wheat](/source/Wheat), [foxtail millet](/source/Foxtail_millet), [proso millet](/source/Proso_millet) and [soybeans](/source/Soybean).[1][2] It is also used as term for all grain crops in general.[3]

## History

The earliest usage of the term "five grains" is found in *[the Analects](/source/The_Analects)* and does not list which grains it refers to.[3] The first lists of the five grains appear in the [Han dynasty](/source/Han_dynasty).[3] The [Classic of Rites](/source/Classic_of_Rites) lists [soybeans](/source/Soybean) (菽), [wheat](/source/Wheat) (麥), [proso millet](/source/Proso_millet) (黍), [foxtail millet](/source/Foxtail_millet) (稷) and [hemp](/source/Hemp) (麻).[4] [Zheng Xuan](/source/Zheng_Xuan) in his commentary on *[The Rites of Zhou](/source/The_Rites_of_Zhou)* has [rice](/source/Rice) (稻) instead of hemp.[4] Millet, beans, and wheat were widely recognized as part of the five grains and the debate was mainly about the inclusion of hemp or rice.[5][6][7] Rice was not commonly cultivated in northern China while hemp was more commonly used as fiber for clothing, although its seeds could be used for oil.[3][5][6] In modern Chinese, Wugu includes rice instead of hemp.[1][2]

[Mencius](/source/Mencius) writes that [Houji](/source/Houji) taught the people to cultivate the five grains.[8][9] [Lu Jia](/source/Lu_Jia_(Western_Han)) in his book *Xin Yu* attributes the creation of the five grains to the mythological emperor [Shennong](/source/Shennong).[10][11] Similarly, a version of the [Epic of Darkness](/source/Epic_of_Darkness) also attributes Shennong with creating the five grains.[10] The [Huangdi Neijing](/source/Huangdi_Neijing), written by the [Yellow Emperor](/source/Yellow_Emperor) according to Chinese mythology, lists rice, [adzuki beans](/source/Adzuki_bean), wheat, soybeans, and proso millet as the "five grains," along with the "five fruits," "five vegetables," and "five livestock."[12][13] The development of agriculture in China in general has been attributed to various mythological figures, including Houji, Shennong, and the Yellow Emperor.[14][10][8]

The traditional Chinese concept of five grains was later assimilated by Chinese [Buddhists](/source/Buddhist) and Taoists such as the [Tang](/source/Tang_dynasty)-era monk [Daoxuan](/source/Daoxuan), who combined traditional Chinese and Buddhist classifications of plants and animals in his *Ritual of Measuring and Handling Light and Heavy Property* in which he lists five categories of grains including those mentioned in Buddhist and Chinese texts.[12]

The term "five grains" has been borrowed into multiple East Asian languages.[15] The term Five Grains (五穀, *gokoku*) was first recorded in Japan in the 8th century. The *[Kojiki](/source/Kojiki)* (c. 711) defines them as rice (稲, *ine*), barley (麦, *mugi*), foxtail millet (粟, *awa*), soybeans (大豆, *daizu*) and adzuki beans (小豆, *azuki*), while the *[Nihon Shoki](/source/Nihon_Shoki)* (720) defines them as rice, barley, foxtail millet, [Japanese millet](/source/Echinochloa_esculenta) (稗, *hie*) and beans.[16] In modern Japanese usage, the Five Grains are typically defined as rice, barley, foxtail millet, beans and either proso millet (黍, *kibi*) or Japanese millet.[17] A mix of rice with these grains is known as *gokokumai* (五穀米).[17]

## Holiness

The sense of holiness or sacredness regarding the Five Grains proceeds from their traditional ascription to the saintly rulers credited with creating China's civilization. They were seen not merely as five crops chosen from many options but as the source permitting [agrarian society](/source/Agrarian_society) and [civilization](/source/Civilization) itself. "Squandering the Five Grains" was seen as a sin worthy of torment in *[Diyu](/source/Diyu)*, the Chinese hell.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

As the position of [emperor](/source/Emperor_of_China) was seen as an embodiment of this society, one's behavior towards the Five Grains could take on political meaning: as a protest against the overthrow of the [Shang dynasty](/source/Shang_dynasty) by the [Zhou](/source/Zhou_dynasty), [Boyi and Shuqi](/source/Boyi_and_Shuqi) ostentatiously refused to eat the Five Grains. Such rejections of the grains for political reasons underwent a complex development into the concept of *[bigu](/source/Bigu_(avoiding_grains))*, the esoteric [Taoist](/source/Taoism) practice of achieving [immortality](/source/Xian_(Taoism)) by avoiding certain foods.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Archaeology

Main article: [History of agriculture in China](/source/History_of_agriculture_in_China)

In northern China, the [Nanzhuangtou](/source/Nanzhuangtou) culture on the middle [Yellow River](/source/Yellow_River) around [Hebei](/source/Hebei) (c. 8500-7700 BC) had [grinding tools](/source/Milling_(grinding)). The [Xinglongwa culture](/source/Xinglongwa_culture) in eastern [Inner Mongolia](/source/Inner_Mongolia) (c. 6200-5400 BC) ate [millet](/source/Millet), possibly from [agriculture](/source/Agriculture). The [Dadiwan culture](/source/Dadiwan_culture) along the upper Yellow River (c. 5800-5400 BC) also ate millet. By the [Yangshao culture](/source/Yangshao_culture) (c. 5000-3000 BC), the peoples of the Yellow River were growing millet extensively, along with some [barley](/source/Barley), [rice](/source/Rice), and vegetables; wove [hemp](/source/Hemp) and [silk](/source/Silk), which indicates some form of [sericulture](/source/Sericulture); but may have been limited to migratory [slash and burn](/source/Slash_and_burn) farming methods. The [Longshan culture](/source/Longshan_culture) (c. 3000-2000 BC) displays more advanced sericulture and definite cities.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

In southern China, the [Pengtoushan culture](/source/Pengtoushan_culture) on the [Yangtze River](/source/Yangtze_River) (c. 7500-6100 BC) has left rice farming tools at some locations, though not at the [type site](/source/Type_site). The [Hemudu culture](/source/Hemudu_culture) around [Hangzhou Bay](/source/Hangzhou_Bay) south of the Yangtze (c. 5000-4500 BC) certainly cultivated rice. The various people (such as the [Baiyue](/source/Baiyue)) who succeeded in these areas were later conquered and culturally assimilated by the northern Chinese dynasties during the historical period.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Gallery

		- [Broomcorn millet](/source/Broomcorn_millet)

		- [Wheat](/source/Wheat)

		- [Foxtail millet](/source/Foxtail_millet)

		- [Rice](/source/Rice)

		- [Soybeans](/source/Soybeans)

		- [Hemp](/source/Hemp)

## See also

- [Agriculture in China](/source/Agriculture_in_China)

- [Agriculture in Chinese mythology](/source/Agriculture_in_Chinese_mythology)

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Liu_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Liu_1-1) Liu, Yang; Xi, Yang; Zhang, Fei; Wang, Zhenzhen; Wang, Can; Yu, Shiyong; Chen, Xuexiang (3 February 2023). ["Charring-induced morphological changes of Chinese "Five Grains": An experimental study"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9935936). *Frontiers in Plant Science*. **14**. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fpls.2023.1063617](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpls.2023.1063617). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1664-462X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1664-462X). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [9935936](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9935936). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [36818853](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36818853).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Li_2009_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Li_2009_2-1) 李问渠 (2009). 中国文化常识全知道 (in Chinese). 哈尔滨出版社. 目前，人们普遍将“稻、黍、稷、麦、豆”称为“五谷”。

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wan_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wan_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Wan_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Wan_3-3) 万国鼎 (1961). [五谷史话](http://agri-history.ihns.ac.cn/agrobiology/wugushihua.htm) (in Chinese). 中华书局.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sun_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sun_4-1) 孙机 (1991). 汉代物质文化资料图说: 中国历史博物馆丛书第二号 (in Chinese). 文物出版社. p. 19.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-You_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-You_5-1) 游修龄 (1999). 论黍和稷. [农史研究文集](http://agri-history.ihns.ac.cn/scholars/yxl/yxl32.htm) (in Chinese). 中国农业出版社. '五谷'是自从《孟子》以来古籍上经常提到的五种主要粮食作物。尽管“五谷的名称略有出入（一作稻、黍、稷、麦、菽，一作麻、黍、稷、麦、菽），只是稻和麻的不同，黍稷始终一样。

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wang_2019_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wang_2019_6-1) 王思明; 周红冰 (2019). 中国食物变迁之动因分析 — 以农业发展为视角. 江苏社会科学 (in Chinese). 虽然水稻是南方地区的重要食物来源，但其在隋唐之前并没有获得全国性的食物认同。在先秦时期提出“五谷”的概念后，秦汉时期的经学家曾对“五谷”的具体分类进行了探讨。粟（稷）、菽、麦的 地位被广泛认同，而水稻则有时未能进入“五谷”行列。有学者就认为，“‘五谷’的说法中，都有稷、菽和麦，至于麻、黍、稻之有无，应是粮食作物构成地区差异的反映”

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bretschneider_7-0)** [Bretschneider, Emil](/source/Emil_Bretschneider) (1892). [*Botanicon Sinicum: Notes on Chinese Botany from Native and Western Sources, Part 2*](https://books.google.com/books?id=oaoXAAAAYAAJ). Shanghai: [Kelly & Walsh](/source/Kelly_%26_Walsh). p. 137. They variously distinguish five, six or nine kinds of grain. The term wu ku or five kinds of grain seems to refer to the oldest classification of grain. It is attributed to the Emperor SHEN NUNG. The ancient commentators enumerated these five kinds as follows: 1.– tao, Rice. 2.– mai, comprising Wheat and Barley. 3.– tsi, Panicum miliaceum, the common Millet. 4.– shu, Panicum miliaceum, glutinous variety. 5.– shu, the Soy bean, Soja hispida. Some commentators have liang, Setaria italica, instead of tsi, others substitute ma, hemp, Cannabis sativa, for tuo, rice.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Jixu_2006_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Jixu_2006_8-1) Jixu, Zhou (December 2006). ["The Rise of Agricultural Civilization in China: The Disparity between Archeological Discovery and the Documentary Record and Its Explanation"](https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp175_chinese_civilization_agriculture.pdf#:~:text=The%20earliest%20Chinese%20agriculture%2C%20as%20revealed%20by,the%20middle%20reaches%20of%20the%20Yellow%20River.) (PDF). *Sino-Platonic Papers* (175).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-mengzi_9-0)** 孟子及其弟子公孙丑、万章等人. [滕文公上](https://ctext.org/mengzi/teng-wen-gong-i) (in Chinese). 后稷教民稼穡。樹藝五穀，五穀熟而民人育。

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Yang_2005_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Yang_2005_10-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Yang_2005_10-2) Yang, Lihui; An, Deming (2005). *Handbook of Chinese Mythology*. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 192, 197. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [157607806X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/157607806X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-xinyu_11-0)** 陆贾. [新语](https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E6%96%B0%E8%AA%9E/01) (in Simplified Chinese). 民人食肉饮血，衣皮毛；至于神农，以为行虫走兽，难以养民，乃求可食之物，尝百草之实，察酸苦之味，教人食五谷

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Chen_2007_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Chen_2007_12-1) 陳懷宇 (September 2007). "初唐時期佛教動植物分類 : 道宣《量處輕重儀》研究之三". In 高田, 時雄 (ed.). [唐代宗教文化與制度](https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2433/65857). 京都大學21世紀COE"東亞世界人文信息學研究教育基地".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Huangdi_Neijing_13-0)** 藏氣法時論篇. [黃帝内經 – 素問](https://ctext.org/huangdi-neijing/cang-qi-fa-shi-lun) (in Chinese). 肝色青，宜食甘，粳米、牛肉、棗、葵皆甘。心色赤，宜食酸，小豆、犬肉、李、韭皆酸。肺色白，宜食苦，麥、羊肉、杏、薤皆苦。脾色黃，宜食鹹，大豆、豕肉、栗、藿皆鹹。腎色黑，宜食辛，黃黍、雞肉、桃、蔥皆辛。辛散，酸收，甘緩，苦堅，鹹耎。毒藥攻邪，五穀為養，五果為助，五畜為益，五菜為充，氣味合而服之，以補精益氣。

1. **[^](#cite_ref-dai_14-0)** 戴逸; 龔書鐸 (2002). 中國通史學生彩圖版: 史前, 夏, 商, 西周 (in Chinese). 智能敎育出版社. p. 32. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-962-8792-80-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-8792-80-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kobayashi_2009_15-0)** ⼩林, ⿓彦 (2004). ["下浦文庫の「算集」について (数学史の研究)"](http://hdl.handle.net/2433/25861) [On "San-shu" in Shimoura Collection (Study of the History of Mathematics)]. *数理解析研究所講究録*. **1392**. 京都大学数理解析研究所: 71–83. 東アジアにおける五穀の呼称の起源は中国に求められる。だが、どのような穀物を五穀と規定するかは、時代と場所とによって多少の差がある。

1. **[^](#cite_ref-gokoku_16-0)** [http://www.bestamenity.co.jp/culture/rice/](http://www.bestamenity.co.jp/culture/rice/)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-rekishinoeki_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-rekishinoeki_17-1) [https://rekishinoeki.org/gokokuhoujo/](https://rekishinoeki.org/gokokuhoujo/)

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