# Fish as food

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Fish eaten by humans

This article is about fish as food for humans. For sealife in general as food, see [seafood](/source/Seafood). For fish fed to other fish, see [commercial fish feed](/source/Commercial_fish_feed) and [aquarium fish feed](/source/Aquarium_fish_feed).

*[Channa striata](/source/Channa_striata)* stuffed with Thai herbs

Fish for sale in baskets at the Dubai Fish Market

Many species of [fish](/source/Fish) are [caught](/source/Fishing) by humans and consumed as food in virtually all regions around the world. Their [meat](/source/Meat) has been an important dietary source of [protein](/source/Protein_(nutrient)) and other [nutrients](/source/Nutrient) in the [human diet](/source/Human_diet).

The English language does not have a special [culinary name](/source/Culinary_name) for food prepared from fish like with other animals (as with *[pig](/source/Pig)* vs. *[pork](/source/Pork)*), or as in other languages (such as Spanish *[pez](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pez)* vs. *[pescado](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pescado)*). In [culinary](/source/Culinary) and [fishery](/source/Fishery) contexts, *fish* may include so-called [shellfish](/source/Shellfish) such as [molluscs](/source/Mollusc), [crustaceans](/source/Crustacean), and [echinoderms](/source/Echinoderm); but, more expansively, *[seafood](/source/Seafood)* covers both fish and other [marine life](/source/Marine_life) used as food.[1]

Since 1961, the average annual increase in global apparent food fish consumption (3.2 percent) has outpaced [population growth](/source/Population_growth) (1.6 percent) and exceeded the increase in consumption of meat from all [terrestrial animals](/source/Terrestrial_animal) except [poultry](/source/Poultry) (4.9 percent), both combined (2.8 percent) and individually (bovine, ovine, porcine, et cetera). In *[per capita](/source/Per_capita)* terms, food fish consumption has grown from 9.0 kg (19.8 lb) in 1961, to 20.2 kg (45 lb) in 2015, at an average rate of about 1.5 percent per year.[2] The expansion in consumption has been driven not only by increased production, but also by a combination of many other factors, including reduced [wastage](/source/Food_loss_and_waste), better utilization, improved [distribution channels](/source/Distribution_channel) and growing [consumer demand](/source/Consumer_demand), linked with population growth, rising [disposable incomes](/source/Disposable_income) and [urbanization](/source/Urbanization).[2]

[Europe](/source/Europe), [Japan](/source/Japan) and the [United States](/source/United_States) together accounted for 47 percent of the world's total food fish consumption in 1961, but only about 20 percent in 2015. Of the global total of 149 million tonnes in 2015, [Asia](/source/Asia) consumed more than two-thirds (106 million tonnes at 24.0 kg per capita),[2] while [Oceania](/source/Oceania) and [Africa](/source/Africa) consumed the lowest share. The shift is the result of structural changes in the sector, and the growing role of Asian countries in fish production in particular, as well as a significant gap between the economic growth rates of the world's more mature fish markets and those of many increasingly important emerging markets around the world, particularly in Asia.[2]

## Species

Over 32,000 [species](/source/Species) of [fish](/source/Fish) have been described,[3] making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. In addition, there are many species of [shellfish](/source/Shellfish). However, only about 20% of extant fish species are used by humans as food.[4]

Common species of fish and shellfish used for food[5] Mild flavour Moderate flavour Full flavour Delicate texture Basa, flounder, hake, scup, smelt, rainbow trout, hardshell clam, blue crab, peekytoe crab, spanner crab, cuttlefish, eastern oyster, Pacific oyster Anchovy, herring, lingcod, moi, orange roughy, Atlantic Ocean perch, Lake Victoria perch, yellow perch, European oyster, sea urchin Atlantic mackerel, sardines Medium texture Black sea bass, European sea bass, hybrid striped bass, bream, cod, drum, haddock, porgy, hoki, Alaska pollock, rockfish, pink salmon, snapper, tilapia, turbot, walleye, lake whitefish, wolffish, hardshell clam, surf clam, cockle, Jonah crab, snow crab, crayfish, bay scallop, Chinese white shrimp Sablefish, Atlantic salmon, coho salmon, skate, dungeness crab, king crab, blue mussel, greenshell mussel, pink shrimp Escolar, chinook salmon, chum salmon, American shad Firm texture Arctic char, carp, catfish, dory, grouper, halibut, monkfish, pompano, Dover sole, sturgeon, tilefish, wahoo, yellowtail, abalone, conch, stone crab, American lobster, spiny lobster, octopus, black tiger shrimp, sheepshead, freshwater shrimp, gulf shrimp, Pacific white shrimp, grey triggerfish, squid Barramundi, cusk, dogfish, kingklip, mahimahi, opah, mako shark, swordfish, albacore tuna, yellowfin tuna, geoduck clam, squat lobster, sea scallop, rock shrimp Barracuda, Chilean sea bass, cobia, croaker, eel, blue marlin, mullet, sockeye salmon, bluefin tuna

## Preparation

See also: [Fish processing](/source/Fish_processing)

Fish can be prepared in a variety of ways. It can be served uncooked ([raw food](/source/Raw_food), e.g., [sashimi](/source/Sashimi)); [cured](/source/Curing_(food_preservation)) by [marinating](/source/Marinating) (e.g., [ceviche](/source/Ceviche)), [pickling](/source/Pickling) (e.g., [pickled herring](/source/Pickled_herring)) or [smoking](/source/Smoking_(cooking)) (e.g., [smoked salmon](/source/Smoked_salmon)); or [cooked](/source/Cooking) by [baking](/source/Baking), [frying](/source/Frying) (e.g., [fish and chips](/source/Fish_and_chips)), [grilling](/source/Grilling), [poaching](/source/Poaching_(food)) (e.g., [court-bouillon](/source/Court-bouillon)) or [steaming](/source/Steaming). Many of the preservation techniques used in different cultures have since become unnecessary but are still performed for their resulting taste and texture when consumed.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Compared to meat, fish has a relatively delicate texture derived from short fibers separated by large sheets and thin connective tissue (about 3% of its weight, as opposed to 15% in land animals).[6][*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources)*]

The British historian William Radcliffe wrote in *Fishing from the Earliest Times*:

"The [Emperor Domitian](/source/Emperor_Domitian) ([Juvenal](/source/Juvenal), [IV.](/source/Satires_(Juvenal))) ordered a special sitting of the [Senate](/source/Roman_Senate) to deliberate and advise on a matter of such grave State importance as the best method of cooking a [turbot](/source/Turbot)."[7]

## Nutritional value

Comparison of nutrients in 100 g of whitefish or oily fish Nutrient Whitefish Alaska pollock[8] Oily fish Atlantic herring[9] Halibut fillet (a whitefish) on top of a salmon fillet (an oily fish) Energy (kcal) 111 203 Protein (g) 23 23 Fat (g) 1 12 Cholesterol (mg) 86 77 Vitamin B-12 (μg) 4 13 Phosphorus (mg) 267 303 Selenium (μg) 44 47 Omega-3 (mg) 509 2014

Globally, fish and fish products provide an average of only about 34 calories per capita per day. However, more than as an energy source, the dietary contribution of fish is significant in terms of high-quality, easily digested animal proteins and especially in fighting micronutrient deficiencies.[2] A portion of 150g of fish provides about 50 to 60 percent of an adult's daily protein requirement. Fish proteins are essential in the diet of some densely populated countries where the total protein intake is low, and are particularly important in diets in [small island developing States](/source/Small_Island_Developing_States) (SIDS).[2]

*Intermediate Technology Publications* wrote in 1992 that "Fish provides a good source of high quality protein and contains many vitamins and minerals. It may be classed as either whitefish, oily fish, or shellfish. Whitefish, such as haddock and seer, contain very little fat (usually less than 1%) whereas oily fish, such as sardines, contain between 10–25%. The latter, as a result of its high fat content, contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and essential fatty acids, all of which are vital for the healthy functioning of the body."[10]

## Health benefits

See also: [Health benefits of eating seafood](/source/Health_benefits_of_eating_seafood)

Eating [oily fish](/source/Oily_fish) containing long-chain [omega-3 fatty acids](/source/Omega-3_fatty_acid) may reduce systemic [inflammation](/source/Inflammation) and lower the risk of [cardiovascular disease](/source/Cardiovascular_disease).[11][12] Eating about 140 grams (4.9 oz) of oily fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids once per week is a recommended consumption amount.[11][12] Increasing intake of omega-3 fatty acids may slightly reduce the risk of a fatal heart attack,[12] but likely has little effect on the overall number of deaths from cardiovascular disease.[13]

## Health hazards

[Fish bone](/source/Fish_bone) is the most common food-related [foreign body](/source/Foreign_body) to cause [airway obstruction](/source/Airway_obstruction). [Choking](/source/Choking) on fish was responsible for about 4,500 reported accidents in the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom) in 1998.[14]

### Allergens

Main article: [Fish allergy](/source/Fish_allergy)

A [seafood allergy](/source/Seafood_allergy) is a [food allergy](/source/Food_allergy) to [allergens](/source/Allergen) which can be present in [fish](/source/Fish). This can result in an [overreaction](/source/Hypersensitivity) of the [immune system](/source/Immune_system) and lead to severe physical symptoms[15] from [urticaria](/source/Urticaria) to [angioedema](/source/Angioedema) and [distributive shock](/source/Distributive_shock). Allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood.[16] The most severe allergic reaction is [anaphylaxis](/source/Anaphylaxis), a [medical emergency](/source/Medical_emergency) requiring immediate attention and is treated urgently with [epinephrine](/source/Epinephrine_(medication)).[17]

### Biotoxins

A specially prepared dish of the poisonous blowfish [fugu](/source/Fugu), Japan

Some species of fish, notably the *[fugu](/source/Fugu)* [pufferfish](/source/Pufferfish) used for [sushi](/source/Sushi), can result in serious [food poisoning](/source/Food_poisoning) if not prepared properly. These fish always contain [toxins](/source/Toxin) as a [natural defense](/source/Anti-predator_adaptation) against [predators](/source/Predator); it is not present due to environmental circumstances. Particularly, *fugu* has a lethal dose of [tetrodotoxin](/source/Tetrodotoxin) in its [internal organs](/source/Internal_organ) and must be prepared by a licensed *fugu* chef who has passed the national examination in Japan. [Ciguatera poisoning](/source/Ciguatera_poisoning) can occur from eating larger fish from warm tropical waters, such as [sea bass](/source/Sea_bass), [grouper](/source/Grouper), [barracuda](/source/Barracuda) and [red snapper](/source/Lutjanus).[18] [Scombroid poisoning](/source/Scombroid_food_poisoning) can result from eating large oily fish which have sat around for too long before being refrigerated or frozen. This includes [scombroids](/source/Scombridae) such as [tuna](/source/Tuna) and [mackerel](/source/Mackerel), but can also include non-scombroids such as [mahi-mahi](/source/Mahi-mahi) and [amberjack](/source/Amberjack).[18] The poison is often odourless and tasteless.[19]

Many fish eat [algae](/source/Algae) and other organisms that contain [biotoxins](/source/Biotoxin), which are defensive substances against predators. Biotoxins accumulated in fish/shellfish include [brevetoxins](/source/Brevetoxin), [okadaic acid](/source/Okadaic_acid), [saxitoxins](/source/Saxitoxin), [ciguatoxin](/source/Ciguatoxin) and [domoic acid](/source/Domoic_acid). Except for ciguatoxine, high levels of these toxins are only found in shellfish. Both domoic acid and ciguatoxine can be deadly to humans; the others will only cause [diarrhea](/source/Diarrhea), [dizziness](/source/Dizziness) and a (temporary) feeling of [claustrophobia](/source/Claustrophobia).[20][21]

[Shellfish](/source/Shellfish) are [filter feeders](/source/Filter_feeder) and, therefore, accumulate [toxins](/source/Toxin) produced by microscopic [algae](/source/Alga), such as [dinoflagellates](/source/Dinoflagellate) and [diatoms](/source/Diatom), and [cyanobacteria](/source/Cyanobacteria). There are four syndromes called [shellfish poisoning](/source/Shellfish_poisoning) which can result in humans, [sea mammals](/source/Sea_mammal) and [seabirds](/source/Seabird) from the ingestion of toxic shellfish. These are primarily associated with [bivalve molluscs](/source/Bivalvia), such as [mussels](/source/Mussel), [clams](/source/Clam), [oysters](/source/Oyster) and [scallops](/source/Scallop).[22] Fish like [anchovies](/source/Anchovies) can also concentrate toxins such as domoic acid.[23] If suspected, medical attention should be sought.

Fish and Shellfish poisoning Poisoning type Symptoms Duration Toxin Antidote Sources Fish Ciguatera Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, usually followed by headaches, muscle aches, paresthesia, numbness, ataxia, vertigo and hallucinations. Weeks to years Ciguatoxin and similar: maitotoxin, scaritoxin and palytoxin None known [19][24] Scombroid food poisoning Skin flushing, throbbing headache, oral burning, abdominal cramps, nausea, diarrhea, palpitations, sense of unease, and, rarely, collapse or loss of vision. Symptoms occur usually within 10–30 minutes of ingesting spoiled fish. Usually four to six hours Histamine, possibly others Oral anti-histamines [24][25] Haff disease Rhabdomyolysis, that is, a swelling and breakdown of skeletal muscle (with a risk of acute kidney failure) within 24 hours after consuming fish A toxic cause is suspected but has not been proven None known [26] Ichthyo- allyeinotoxism Vivid auditory and visual hallucinations similar in some aspects to LSD. Can last for several days [27] Shellfish Amnesic Permanent short-term memory loss and brain damage Fatal in severe cases Domoic acid, which acts as a neurotoxin None known [24] Diarrheal Diarrhea and possibly nausea, vomiting and cramps. Symptoms usually set in within half an hour and last about a day Okadaic acid, which inhibits intestinal cellular de-phosphorylation. [28] Neurotoxic Vomiting and nausea and a variety of neurological symptoms such as slurred speech. Not fatal though it may require hospitalization. Brevetoxins or brevetoxin analogs [29][30] Paralytic Includes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and tingling or burning sensations. Other symptoms also possible. Occasionally fatal Principal toxin saxitoxin 4-Aminopyridine has been used in non-human animals.[31][32][33] [34]

The toxins responsible for most shellfish and fish poisonings, including ciguatera and scombroid poisoning, are heat-resistant to the point where conventional cooking methods do not eliminate them.[19]

### Mercury and other toxic metals

Main article: [Mercury in fish](/source/Mercury_in_fish)

Fish products, especially those from [apex](/source/Apex_predator) and [higher-order](/source/Trophic_level) [consumers](/source/Consumer_(food_chain)) up the [food chain](/source/Food_chain), have been shown to contain varying amounts of [heavy](/source/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)) or [toxic metals](/source/Toxic_metal) due to [biomagnification](/source/Biomagnification). [Toxicity](/source/Toxicity) is a function of solubility, and insoluble compounds often exhibit negligible toxicity. [Organometallic](/source/Organometallic_chemistry) forms such as [dimethyl mercury](/source/Dimethyl_mercury) and [tetraethyl lead](/source/Tetraethyl_lead) can be extremely toxic.[35]

Mercury/omega-3 levels[36] Mercury level Low < 0.04 ppm Medium 0.04–0.40 ppm High > 0.40 ppm Omega-3 High > 1.0% salmon sardine Atlantic mackerel flatfish halibut herring Spanish mackerel swordfish tilefish Medium 0.4–1.0% pollock hoki tuna king mackerel shark Low < 0.4% catfish shrimp cod snapper tuna canned light grouper orange roughy

mercury/omega-3 levels in commercial fish and shellfish species mercury[37] (mean ppm) omega-3[38][39] (mean percent) habitat notes trophic level[40] max age (years)[40] Tilefish 1.450 1.06 pelagic 3.6 35 Swordfish 0.995 1.14 pelagic 4.5 15 Shark 0.979 0.98 pelagic King mackerel 0.730 0.42 pelagic 4.5 14 Orange roughy 0.571 0.033 demersal 4.3 149 Marlin 0.485 * pelagic 4.5 Mackerel (Spanish) 0.454 1.65 pelagic 4.5 5 Grouper 0.448 0.27 demersal 4.2 Tuna 0.391 0.77 pelagic All species, fresh/frozen Patagonian toothfish 0.354 demersal 4.0 50+[41] Halibut 0.241 1.01 demersal 4.3 Snapper 0.166 0.26 demersal Bass 0.152 demersal 3.9 Perch 0.150 freshwater 4.0 Tuna 0.128 0.24 pelagic All species, canned, light Perch (ocean) 0.121 * demersal Cod 0.111 0.23 demersal 3.9 22 Carp 0.110 freshwater Lobster (American) 0.107 demersal Lobster (spiny) 0.093 demersal Whitefish 0.089 demersal Herring 0.084 1.94 pelagic 3.2 21 Trout 0.071 freshwater Crab 0.065 demersal Blue, king and snow crab Hoki (blue grenadier) 0.058 0.48 demersal 3.5 Flatfish 0.056 * 0.56 demersal Flounder, plaice and sole Haddock 0.055 demersal Atlantic Atlantic mackerel 0.050 1.64 pelagic Mullet 0.050 pelagic Pollock 0.031 0.53 demersal Catfish 0.025 0.31 demersal 3.9 24 Squid 0.023 pelagic Salmon 0.022 * 1.76 pelagic Fresh/frozen Anchovies 0.017 pelagic 3.1 Sardine 0.013 1.94 pelagic 2.7 Tilapia * 0.013 freshwater Oyster 0.012 demersal Clam * 0.009 demersal Salmon 0.008 * pelagic Canned Scallop 0.003 demersal Shrimp 0.001 * 0.12 demersal 6.5[42] Greenshell mussel 0.35 demersal Sydney rock oyster 1.11 demersal * indicates methylmercury only was analyzed (all other results are for total mercury)

According to the [US Food and Drug Administration](/source/US_Food_and_Drug_Administration) (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people.[43] However, certain seafood contains sufficient mercury to harm an unborn baby or young child's developing nervous system. The FDA makes three recommendations for child-bearing women and young children:

1. Do not eat [shark](/source/Shark_meat), [swordfish](/source/Swordfish), [king mackerel](/source/King_mackerel), or [tilefish](/source/Tilefish) because they contain high levels of mercury.

1. Eat up to 12 ounces (2 average meals) a week of a variety of fish and [shellfish](/source/Shellfish) that are lower in mercury. Four of the most commonly eaten fish that are low in mercury are [canned light tuna](/source/Canned_tuna), [salmon](/source/Salmon_as_food), [pollock](/source/Pollock), and [catfish](/source/Catfish). Another commonly eaten fish, [albacore](/source/Albacore) ("white tuna") has more mercury than canned light tuna. So, when choosing your two meals of fish and shellfish, you may eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) of albacore tuna per week.

1. Check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. If no advice is available, eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) per week of fish you catch from local waters, but do not consume any other fish during that week.

These recommendations are also advised when feeding fish and shellfish to young children, but in smaller portions.[43]

### Mislabelling

When the ocean conservation organization [Oceana](/source/Oceana_(non-profit_group)) examined over 1,200 seafood samples of seafood sold in the U.S. between 2010 and 2012, they found one-third were mislabelled. The highest rate of mislabelling occurred with snapper at 87 percent, followed by tuna at 57 percent.[44]

### Persistent organic pollutants

See also: [Marine pollution § Toxins](/source/Marine_pollution#Toxins)

If fish and shellfish inhabit [polluted waters](/source/Marine_pollution), they can accumulate other toxic chemicals, particularly fat-soluble pollutants containing [chlorine](/source/Chlorine) or [bromine](/source/Bromine), [dioxins](/source/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds) or [PCBs](/source/Polychlorinated_biphenyl).

### Parasites

See also: [Fish diseases and parasites](/source/Fish_diseases_and_parasites)

Differential symptoms of parasite infections by raw fish. All have gastrointestinal, but otherwise distinct, symptoms.[45][46][47][48]

[Parasites](/source/Parasite) in fish are a common natural occurrence. Though not a health concern in thoroughly cooked fish, parasites are a concern when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as [sashimi](/source/Sashimi), [sushi](/source/Sushi), [ceviche](/source/Ceviche) and [gravlax](/source/Gravlax). The popularity of such raw fish dishes makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk. Raw fish should be frozen to an internal temperature of −20 °C (−4 °F) for at least 7 days to kill parasites; home [freezers](/source/Freezer) may not be cold enough.[49][50]

Historically, fish that live all or part of their lives in [fresh water](/source/Fresh_water) were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see [Sashimi](/source/Sashimi) article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly [Southeast Asia](/source/Southeast_Asia)[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in [brackish](/source/Brackish) or fresh water, like [salmon](/source/Salmon) (an [anadromous](/source/Anadromous) coastalfish closely related to [trout](/source/Trout)), are a particular problem. A study in [Seattle, Washington](/source/Seattle%2C_Washington) showed that 100% of wild salmon had [roundworm](/source/Roundworm) [larvae](/source/Larvae) capable of infecting people. In the same study [farm](/source/Fish_farm)-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.[51]

Parasite infection from raw fish is rare in the [developed world](/source/Developed_world) (fewer than 40 cases per year in the [United States](/source/United_States)[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]), and involves mainly three kinds of parasites: *[Clonorchis sinensis](/source/Clonorchis_sinensis)* (a [trematode](/source/Trematode)/[fluke](/source/Fluke_(flatworm))), *[Anisakis](/source/Anisakis)* (a [nematode](/source/Nematode)/roundworm) and *[Diphyllobothrium](/source/Diphyllobothrium)* (a [cestode](/source/Cestode)/[tapeworm](/source/Tapeworm)). Infection risk of *Anisakis* is particularly high in fish which may have lived in a river or estuary, such as salmon (*sa ke* in [Japanese cuisine](/source/Japanese_cuisine)) or [mackerel](/source/Mackerel_as_food) (*sa ba* in Japanese cuisine). Such parasite infections can generally be avoided by [boiling](/source/Boiling), [grilling](/source/Grilling), [preserving in salt or vinegar](/source/Pickling), or deep-freezing. In Japan, it is common to eat raw salmon and *[ikura](/source/Ikura)* ([roe](/source/Roe)), but these foods are frozen overnight prior to eating to prevent infections from parasites, particularly *Anisakis*.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Pescetarianism

See also: [Pescetarianism](/source/Pescetarianism)

[Hawaiian food](/source/Cuisine_of_Hawaii): Seared ahi and [wasabi](/source/Wasabi) [beurre blanc](/source/Beurre_blanc) sauce

The neologism "[pescetarian](/source/Pescetarianism)" covers those who eat fish and other [seafood](/source/Seafood), but not mammals and birds.[52]

A 1999 [metastudy](/source/Meta-analysis) combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported [mortality ratios](/source/Standardized_mortality_ratio), where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for pescetarians to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, and occasional meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts".[53]

Since fish is animal flesh, the [Vegetarian Society](/source/Vegetarian_Society) has stated that vegetarian diets cannot contain fish.[54]

## In religion

See also: [Kosher fish](/source/Kosher_fish)

[Machher jhol](/source/Machher_jhol) is a spicy fish stew in [Bengali](/source/Bengali_cuisine) and [Odia](/source/Odia_cuisine) cuisines in the eastern [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent).

A plate of [smoked salmon](/source/Smoked_salmon)

Religious rites and rituals regarding food also tend to classify the birds of the air and the fish of the sea separately from land-bound mammals.[55] Sea-bound mammals are often treated as fish under religious laws – as in Jewish dietary law, which forbids the eating of [cetacean](/source/Cetacean) meat, such as whale, dolphin or porpoise, because they are not "fish with fins and scales"; nor, as mammals, do they chew their cud and have cloven hooves, as required by [Leviticus 11:9–12](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Leviticus%2011:9–12&version=nrsv). [Jewish](/source/Jewish) ([kosher](/source/Kashrut)) practice treats fish differently from other animal foods. The distinction between fish and "meat" is codified by the Jewish dietary law of *[kashrut](/source/Kashrut)*, regarding the mixing of milk and meat, which does not forbid the mixing of milk and fish. Modern Jewish legal practice (*[halakha](/source/Halakha)*) on *kashrut* classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be *[parve](/source/Parve)*, neither meat nor a dairy food. (The preceding portion refers only to the halakha of [Ashkenazi Jews](/source/Ashkenazi_Jews); [Sephardic Jews](/source/Sephardic_Jews) do not mix fish with dairy.)[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Fish has traditionally been a significant [Shabbat](/source/Shabbat) dish, as noted by the 1st century Roman satirist [Persius](/source/Persius) and reflected in [Talmudic](/source/Talmud) accounts that describe the efforts of the poor to obtain fish for Shabbat and festivals.[56]

[Ichthys](/source/Ichthys) has become a [symbol of Christianity](/source/Christian_symbolism) since ancient times. In the [New Testament](/source/New_Testament) Luke 24 – Jesus's eating of a fish [[Luke 24](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+24&version=41–43)] and Jesus telling his disciples where to catch fish, before cooking it for them to eat. Seasonal religious prohibitions against eating meat do not usually include fish. For example, non-fish meat was forbidden during [Lent](/source/Lent) and on all Fridays of the year in pre-[Vatican II](/source/Vatican_II) [Roman Catholicism](/source/Catholicism), but fish was permitted (as were eggs). (See [Fasting in Catholicism](/source/Fasting_and_abstinence_in_the_Roman_Catholic_Church).) In [Eastern Orthodoxy](/source/Eastern_Orthodoxy), fish is permitted on some fast days when other meat is forbidden, but stricter fast days also prohibit fish with spines, while permitting [invertebrate](/source/Invertebrate) seafood such as [shrimp](/source/Shrimp) and [oysters](/source/Oyster), considering them "fish without blood".[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Some [Buddhists](/source/Buddhism) and [Hindus](/source/Hinduism) ([Brahmins](/source/Brahmins) of [West Bengal](/source/West_Bengal), [Odisha](/source/Odisha) and Saraswat Brahmins of the [Konkan](/source/Konkan)) abjure meat that is not fish. [Muslim](/source/Muslim) ([halal](/source/Halal)) practice also treats fish differently from other animal foods, as it can be eaten without requiring the ritualistic slaughter that is prescribed for other halal animals.[57]

## Environmental impact of fish consumption

Main article: [Environmental impact of fishing](/source/Environmental_impact_of_fishing)

Further information: [Overfishing](/source/Overfishing), [Bycatch](/source/Bycatch), [Marine debris](/source/Marine_debris), and [Environmental impact of fisheries subsidies](/source/Environmental_impact_of_fisheries_subsidies)

## Taboos on eating fish

See also: [Taboo food and drink § Fish](/source/Taboo_food_and_drink#Fish)

Among the [Somali people](/source/Somali_people), most [clans](/source/Demographics_of_Somalia) have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.[58][59]

There are taboos on eating fish among many upland [pastoralists](/source/Pastoralism) and [agriculturalists](/source/Farmer) (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of southeastern [Egypt](/source/Egypt), [Ethiopia](/source/Ethiopia), [Eritrea](/source/Eritrea), [Somalia](/source/Somalia), [Kenya](/source/Kenya), and northern [Tanzania](/source/Tanzania). This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to [East Africa](/source/East_Africa), though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where [Cushitic languages](/source/Cushitic_languages) are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of [Nilo-Saharan](/source/Nilo-Saharan_languages) and [Semitic languages](/source/Semitic_languages) do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen.[59][60] The few [Bantu](/source/Bantu_peoples) and [Nilotic](/source/Nilotic_peoples) groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where [Cushites](/source/Kingdom_of_Kush) appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the [tsetse fly](/source/Tsetse_fly) and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by [wandering pastoralists](/source/Nomadic_pastoralism), the principal fish-avoiders. [Zambia](/source/Zambia) and [Mozambique](/source/Mozambique)'s Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.[59]

There is also another center of fish avoidance in [Southern Africa](/source/Southern_Africa), among mainly [Bantu speakers](/source/Bantu_languages). It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the [Khoisan](/source/Khoisan). Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.[59]

Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater [eel](/source/Eel) ([Anguillidae](/source/Anguillidae)) and all species of [catfish](/source/Catfish). Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10–13[61]). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this and catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni *madh'hab*, but the Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids it.[62][63][64]

Many tribes of the [Southwestern United States](/source/Southwestern_United_States), including the [Navaho](/source/Navajo_people), [Apache](/source/Apache), and [Zuñi](/source/Zuni_people), have a taboo against fish and other water-related animals, including [waterfowl](/source/Waterfowl).[65]

## Dishes

Main article: [List of fish dishes](/source/List_of_fish_dishes)

- [Bokkoms](/source/Bokkoms)

- [Bouillabaisse](/source/Bouillabaisse)

- [Bourdeto](/source/Bourdeto)

- [Ceviche](/source/Ceviche)

- [Cioppino](/source/Cioppino)

- [Crab stick](/source/Crab_stick)

- [Crappit heid](/source/Crappit_heid)

- [Croquette](/source/Croquette)

- [Curanto](/source/Curanto)

- [Dressed herring](/source/Dressed_herring)

- [Fish and chips](/source/Fish_and_chips)

- [Fish ball](/source/Fish_ball)

- [Fish chowder](/source/Fish_chowder)

- [Fishcake](/source/Fishcake)

- [Fishstick](/source/Fishstick)

- [Gefilte fish](/source/Gefilte_fish)

- [Kamaboko](/source/Kamaboko)

- [Kipper](/source/Kipper)

- [Lox](/source/Lox)

- [Machher Jhol](/source/Machher_Jhol)

- [Paella](/source/Paella)

- [Pempek](/source/Pempek)

- [Poke (Hawaii)](/source/Poke_(Hawaii))

- [Pompano en Papillote](/source/Pompano_en_Papillote)

- [Quenelles Lyonnaises](/source/Quenelles_Lyonnaises)

- [Rakfisk](/source/Rakfisk)

- [Remoulade](/source/Remoulade)

- [Rissole](/source/Rissole)

- [Sashimi](/source/Sashimi)

- [Seafood birdsnest](/source/Seafood_birdsnest)

- [Smoked salmon](/source/Smoked_salmon)

- [Soused herring](/source/Soused_herring)

- [Stargazy pie](/source/Stargazy_pie)

- [Surimi](/source/Surimi)

- [Surströmming](/source/Surstr%C3%B6mming)

- [Sushi](/source/Sushi)

- [Tuna fish sandwich](/source/Tuna_fish_sandwich)

- [Ukha](/source/Ukha)

## See also

- [Fish portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Fish)
- [Food portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Food)

- [Anisakis](/source/Anisakis)

- [Boneless Fish](/source/Boneless_Fish)

- [Boning knife](/source/Boning_knife)

- [Fish head](/source/Fish_head)

- [Fish products](/source/Fish_products)

- [Fishmonger](/source/Fishmonger)

- [Got Mercury?](/source/Got_Mercury%3F)

- [Ichthyoallyeinotoxism](/source/Ichthyoallyeinotoxism)

- [Kudoa thyrsites](/source/Kudoa_thyrsites)

- [List of fish dishes](/source/List_of_fish_dishes)

- [Lists of foods](/source/Lists_of_foods)

- [List of commercially important fish species](/source/List_of_commercially_important_fish_species)

- [List of seafood dishes](/source/List_of_seafood_dishes)

- [Oily fish](/source/Oily_fish)

- [Maguro bōchō](/source/Maguro_b%C5%8Dch%C5%8D)

- [Pescetarianism](/source/Pescetarianism)

- [Phosphatidylserine](/source/Phosphatidylserine)

- [Seafood Watch](/source/Seafood_Watch)

## References

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-nlm_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-nlm_18-1) [Poisoning – fish and shellfish](https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002851.htm) *US National Library of Medicine*. Retrieved 21 July 2012.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Swift-1993_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Swift-1993_19-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Swift-1993_19-2) Swift A, Swift T (1993). "Ciguatera". *J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol*. **31** (1): 1–29. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3109/15563659309000371](https://doi.org/10.3109%2F15563659309000371). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8433404](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8433404). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [222017205](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222017205).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["Natuurlijke toxinen in voedingsmiddelen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160308123044/http://www.chemischefeitelijkheden.nl/Uploads/.../CF-186-fycotoxinen.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://www.chemischefeitelijkheden.nl/Uploads/.../CF-186-fycotoxinen.pdf) (PDF) on 2016-03-08. Retrieved 2010-10-04.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-uhm_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-uhm_24-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-uhm_24-2) Clark, R. F.; Williams, S. R.; Nordt, S. P.; Manoguerra, A. S. (1999). ["A Review of Selected Seafood Poisonings"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180444/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314). *Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine*. **26** (3): 175–184. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10485519](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10485519). Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2012-07-14.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Landsberg, J. H. (2002). "The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms". *Reviews in Fisheries Science*. **10** (2): 113–390. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2002RvFS...10..113L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002RvFS...10..113L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/20026491051695](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20026491051695). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [86185142](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86185142).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Benton, B. J.; Keller, S. A.; Spriggs, D. L.; Capacio, B. R.; Chang, F. C. (1998). "Recovery from the lethal effects of saxitoxin: A therapeutic window for 4-aminopyridine (4-AP)". *Toxicon*. **36** (4): 571–588. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1998Txcn...36..571B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Txcn...36..571B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/s0041-0101(97)00158-x](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0041-0101%2897%2900158-x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [9643470](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9643470).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Clark RF, Williams SR, Nordt SP, Manoguerra AS (1999). ["A review of selected seafood poisonings"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180444/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314). *Undersea Hyperb Med*. **26** (3): 175–84. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10485519](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10485519). Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2008-08-12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pmc_35-0)** Bernhoft, Robin (2011). ["Mercury Toxicity and Treatment: A Review of the Literature"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3253456). *Journal of Environmental and Public Health*. **2012** 460508. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1155/2012/460508](https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2012%2F460508). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3253456](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3253456). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [22235210](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22235210).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Smith, KL; Guentzel, JL (2010). "Mercury concentrations and omega-3 fatty acids in fish and shrimp: Preferential consumption for maximum health benefits". *Marine Pollution Bulletin*. **60** (9): 1615–1618. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2010MarPB..60.1615S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010MarPB..60.1615S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.06.045](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2010.06.045). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20633905](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20633905).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FDA_37-0)** The mercury levels in the table, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from: [Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish (1990–2010)](https://web.archive.org/web/20090602034804/http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-SpecificInformation/Seafood/FoodbornePathogensContaminants/Methylmercury/ucm115644.htm) U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed 8 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ahao3_38-0)** ["Fish, Levels of Mercury and Omega-3 Fatty Acids"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100709203304/http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797). American Heart Association. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797) on July 9, 2010. Retrieved October 6, 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-KrisEtherton2002_39-0)** Kris-Etherton, Penny M.; William S. Harris; Lawrence J. Appel (2002). ["Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease"](http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/106/21/2747). *Circulation*. **106** (21): 2747–2757. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94](https://doi.org/10.1161%2F01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12438303](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12438303). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [6547417](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6547417).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-TL_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-TL_40-1) Trophic levels and maximum ages are, unless otherwise indicated, taken from the relevant species pages on Rainer Froese and Daniel Pauly (Eds) (2012) [FishBase](http://www.fishbase.org/home.htm) January 2012 version. Where a group has more than one species, the average of the principal commercial species is used

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Collins MA, Brickle P, Brown J and Belchier M (2010) ["The Patagonian toothfish: biology, ecology and fishery"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iwF-jNVj41gC&dq=%22The+Patagonian+toothfish%3A+biology%2C+ecology+and+fishery%22&pg=PA227) In: M Lesser (Ed.) *Advances in Marine Biology*, Volume 58, pp. 229–289, Academic Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-381015-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-381015-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** ["A bouillabaisse of fascinating facts about fish"](http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/faq/). [NOAA](/source/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration): [National Marine Fisheries Service](/source/National_Marine_Fisheries_Service). Retrieved October 22, 2009.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FDA_rec_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FDA_rec_43-1) ["What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090519200853/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html). Cfsan.fda.gov. 2009-09-17. Archived from [the original](http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html) on 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Warner K, Timme W, Lowell B and Hirshfield M (2013) [Oceana Study Reveals Seafood Fraud Nationwide](http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/National_Seafood_Fraud_Testing_Results_FINAL.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211012064734/https://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/National_Seafood_Fraud_Testing_Results_FINAL.pdf) 2021-10-12 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) *Oceana*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** For Chlonorchiasis: [Public Health Agency of Canada > Clonorchis sinensis – Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)](http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/msds-ftss/msds34e-eng.php) Retrieved on April 14, 2009

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** For Anisakiasis: [WrongDiagnosis: Symptoms of Anisakiasis](http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/a/anisakiasis/symptoms.htm) Retrieved on April 14, 2009

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** For Diphyllobothrium: [MedlinePlus > Diphyllobothriasis](https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001375.htm) Updated by: Arnold L. Lentnek, MD. Retrieved on April 14, 2009

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** For symptoms of diphyllobothrium due to vitamin B12-deficiency [University of Maryland Medical Center > Megaloblastic (Pernicious) Anemia](http://www.umm.edu/blood/aneper.htm) Retrieved on April 14, 2009

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** ["*Parasites in Marine Fishes* University of California Food Science & Technology Department Sea Grant Extension Program"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110927063512/http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm). Seafood.ucdavis.edu. 1990-08-07. Archived from [the original](http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm) on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-10-29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** [Vaughn M. *Sushi and Sashimi Safety*](http://seafooduniversity.com/?p=16) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080927064827/http://seafooduniversity.com/?p=16) 2008-09-27 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Deardorff, TL; ML Kent (1989-07-01). ["Prevalence of larval Anisakis simplex in pen-reared and wild-caught salmon (Salmonidae) from Puget Sound, Washington"](https://doi.org/10.7589%2F0090-3558-25.3.416). *Journal of Wildlife Diseases*. **25** (3): 416–419. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7589/0090-3558-25.3.416](https://doi.org/10.7589%2F0090-3558-25.3.416). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [2761015](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2761015).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster_(2009)_52-0)** The [Merriam-Webster](/source/Merriam-Webster) dictionary dates the origin of the term *pescetarian* to 1993 and defines it as "one whose diet includes fish but no other meat". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. *s.v.* pescatarian.[Online] [Merriam Webster, Inc](/source/Merriam-Webster). Available at [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian](http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian) [Accessed 17 July 2009]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-AJCN_metastudy_53-0)** Timothy J Key; Gary E Fraser; Margaret Thorogood; Paul N Appleby; Valerie Beral; Gillian Reeves; Michael L Burr; Jenny Chang-Claude; Rainer Frentzel-Beyme; Jan W Kuzma; Jim Mann; Klim McPherson (September 1999). ["Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies"](http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/516S). *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **70** (3): 516S–524S. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1079/phn19980006](https://doi.org/10.1079%2Fphn19980006). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10479225](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10479225). Retrieved 30 October 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** ["The Vegetarian Society, Fact Sheet"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180702064455/https://www.vegsoc.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=531). Archived from [the original](https://www.vegsoc.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=531) on 2018-07-02. Retrieved 2017-10-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Regensteinn J M and Regensteinn C E (2000) ["Religious food laws and the seafood industry"](https://books.google.com/books?id=OFKLk3S0fzgC&dq=%22Religious+food+laws+and+the+seafood+industry%22&pg=PR8) In: R E Martin, E P Carter, G J Flick Jr and L M Davis (Eds) (2000) *Marine and freshwater products handbook*, CRC Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781566768894](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781566768894).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:2_56-0)** Broshi, Magen (2001). *Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls*. The Library of Second Temple Studies. London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. p. 134. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84127-201-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-201-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** ["Halal Seafood | ISA"](https://www.isahalal.com/news-events/blog/halal-seafood). *Islamic Services of America*. Retrieved 2024-04-29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Frederick J. Simoons, *Northwest Ethiopia: peoples and economy?*, (University of Wisconsin Press: 1960), p.158

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Simoons_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Simoons_59-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Simoons_59-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Simoons_59-3) Frederick J. Simoons, *Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present*, 1994, p. 261–265, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-299-14254-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-14254-X) [Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA262)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Sutton, J. E. G. (1974). "The Aquatic Civilization of Middle Africa". *The Journal of African History*. **15** (4): 527–546. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0021853700013864](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700013864). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [180989](https://www.jstor.org/stable/180989). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [162456183](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162456183).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** [Leviticus 11:10–13](https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0311.htm#10)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** ["Sea Food in the Four Madhahib"](http://www.albalagh.net/qa/sea_food_madhahib.shtml). Retrieved 2007-02-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** ["Is Catfish Halal?"](http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/catfish-halal.shtml). Retrieved 2007-02-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** ["Is Shark Meat Halal?"](http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/shark-meat-halal.shtml). Retrieved 2007-02-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Matthews, Washington (1898). "Ichthyophobia". *The Journal of American Folklore*. **11** (41): 105–112. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/533215](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F533215). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [533215](https://www.jstor.org/stable/533215).

### Bibliography

- Aquamedia, *"Consumption of Fishery Products"* retrieved from [https://web.archive.org/web/20060223203558/http://www.feap.info/economics/Tradebalance_en.asp](https://web.archive.org/web/20060223203558/http://www.feap.info/economics/Tradebalance_en.asp) on 2007-09-17.

- Paston-Williams, Sara (2006) [*Fish: Recipes from a Busy Island*](https://books.google.com/books?id=aJoDxN4T-eEC&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&pg=PA132) National Trust Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781905400072](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781905400072).

- Sweetser, Wendy (2009) [*The Connoisseur's Guide to Fish & Seafood*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eHrvJQGiObEC&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&pg=PA194) Sterling Publishing Company,. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781402770517](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402770517).

- Tidwell, J. H.; Allan, G. L. (2001). ["Fish as food: Aquaculture's contribution: Ecological and economic impacts and contributions of fish farming and capture fisheries"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135). *EMBO Reports*. **2** (11): 958–963. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/embo-reports/kve236](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fembo-reports%2Fkve236). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1084135](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11713181](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11713181).

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- This article incorporates text from a [free content](/source/Free_content) work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO ([license statement/permission](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:In_brief,_The_State_of_World_Fisheries_and_Aquaculture,_2018.pdf)). Text taken from [*In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018​*](http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf), FAO, FAO.

## External links

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- [Science Daily](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061018094758.htm) Benefits Of Eating Fish Greatly Outweigh The Risks, New Study Says

- [Science Daily](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/02/030210080251.htm) Experts Say Consumers Can Eat Around Toxins In Fish

- [Scientific American](http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=4CD31D31E16AC873F5F421D5880E88D6) Soy and fish protect from cancer: study.

- ["Fish as Food"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Fish_as_Food). *[New International Encyclopedia](/source/New_International_Encyclopedia)*. 1905.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Fish as food](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_as_food) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_as_food?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.