# Exercise

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Physical activity that improves health

"Workout" redirects here. For other uses, see [Exercise (disambiguation)](/source/Exercise_(disambiguation)) and [Workout (disambiguation)](/source/Workout_(disambiguation)).

Cycling is a popular form of exercise.

[Weight training](/source/Weight_training)

**Exercise** or **working out** is [physical activity](/source/Physical_activity) that enhances or maintains [fitness](/source/Physical_fitness) and overall [health](/source/Health).[1][2] It is performed for various reasons, including [weight loss](/source/Weight_loss) or maintenance, to aid growth and improve strength, develop [muscles](/source/Muscle) and the [cardiovascular system](/source/Cardiovascular_system), hone [athletic](/source/Sport) skills, improve health,[3] or simply for enjoyment. Many people choose to [exercise outdoors](/source/Outdoor_fitness) where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and improve [well-being](/source/Well-being) as well as [mental health](/source/Mental_health).[4][5]

In terms of health benefits, usually, 150 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes) of moderate-intensity exercise per week is recommended for reducing the risk of health problems.[6][7][8] At the same time, even doing a small amount of exercise is healthier than doing none. For people who currently get the smallest amount of physical activity, adding just two or three minutes per day of moderate physical activity could reduce the risk of premature death by 10%.[9]

## Classification

Physical exercises are generally grouped into three types, depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:[10]

- [Aerobic exercise](/source/Aerobic_exercise) is any [physical activity](/source/Physical_activity) that uses large muscle groups and causes the body to use more [oxygen](/source/Oxygen) than it would while resting.[10] The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase [cardiovascular](/source/Cardiovascular) [endurance](/source/Endurance).[11] Examples of aerobic exercise include running, cycling, swimming, brisk [walking](/source/Walking), [skipping rope](/source/Skipping_rope), [rowing](/source/Rowing_(sports)), hiking, dancing, playing tennis, [continuous training](/source/Continuous_training), and [long distance](/source/Long_slow_distance) running.[10]

- [Anaerobic exercise](/source/Anaerobic_exercise), which includes [strength](/source/Strength_training) and resistance training, can firm, strengthen, and increase muscle mass, as well as improve bone density, [balance](/source/Balance_(ability)), and [coordination](/source/Motor_coordination).[10] Examples of strength exercises are [push-ups](/source/Push-ups), [pull-ups](/source/Pull-up_(exercise)), [lunges](/source/Lunge_(exercise)), squats, bench press. Anaerobic exercise also includes [weight training](/source/Weight_training), [functional training](/source/Functional_training), [Eccentric Training](/source/Eccentric_Training), [interval training](/source/Interval_training), [sprinting](/source/Sprint_(running)), and [high-intensity interval training](/source/High-intensity_interval_training) which increase short-term muscle strength.[10][12]

- [Flexibility](/source/Flexibility_(anatomy)) exercises stretch and lengthen [muscles](/source/Muscle).[10] Activities such as [stretching](/source/Stretching) help to improve [joint](/source/Joint) flexibility and keep muscles limber.[10] The goal is to improve the [range of motion](/source/Range_of_motion) which can reduce the chance of injury.[10][13]

Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on [accuracy](/source/Accuracy), [agility](/source/Sport_agility), [power](/source/Human_power), and [speed](/source/Speed).[14]

Types of exercise can also be classified as dynamic or static. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the [diastolic](/source/Diastole) blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the [systolic](/source/Systole_(medicine)) pressure to rise significantly, albeit transiently, during the performance of the exercise.[15]

## Health effects

Main article: [Exercise physiology](/source/Exercise_physiology)

Exercise affects many organs.

Physical exercise is important for maintaining [physical fitness](/source/Physical_fitness) and can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight, regulating the digestive system, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life.[16] People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active.[17] Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential.[18]

The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 [metabolic equivalent](/source/Metabolic_equivalent) (MET) minutes per week, with diminishing returns at higher levels of activity.[19] For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for transportation 25 minutes on a daily basis would *together* achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week.[19] Only doing half the usual recommended level exercise still reduces the risk of early death, [cardiovascular disease](/source/Cardiovascular_disease), [stroke](/source/Stroke), and [cancer](/source/Cancer).[20][21]

A lack of [physical activity](/source/Physical_activity) causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer, and 10% of colon cancer worldwide.[22] Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide.[22]

In his 2019 book *[The Body: A Guide for Occupants](/source/The_Body%3A_A_Guide_for_Occupants),* the American-British writer [Bill Bryson](/source/Bill_Bryson) wrote: "If someone invented a pill that could do for us all that a moderate amount of exercise achieves, it would instantly become the most successful drug in history."[23]

### Fitness

Main article: [Physical fitness](/source/Physical_fitness)

Most people can increase fitness by increasing [physical activity](/source/Physical_activity) levels.[24] Increases in muscle size from resistance training are primarily determined by diet and testosterone.[25] This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.[26][27] There is evidence that exercising in [middle age](/source/Middle_age) may lead to better physical ability later in life.[28]

Early motor skills and development is also related to physical activity and performance later in life. Children who are more proficient with motor skills early on are more inclined to be physically active, and thus tend to perform well in sports and have better fitness levels. Early motor proficiency has a positive correlation to childhood physical activity and fitness levels, while less proficiency in motor skills results in a more sedentary lifestyle.[29]

The type and intensity of physical activity performed may have an effect on a person's fitness level. There is some weak evidence that [high-intensity interval training](/source/High-intensity_interval_training) may improve a person's [VO2 max](/source/VO2_max) slightly more than lower intensity endurance training.[30] However, unscientific fitness methods could lead to sports injuries.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Cardiovascular system

Main article: [Cardiovascular fitness](/source/Cardiovascular_fitness)

Central (cardiovascular) and peripheral (skeletal muscle) adaptations to exercise training

The beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. There is a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of [coronary artery disease](/source/Coronary_artery_disease). Low levels of physical exercise increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality.[31][32]

Children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness.[33] Studies have shown that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years; however, these risks can be greatly decreased with regular physical exercise.[34]

There is a dose-response relationship between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700–2000 [kcal](/source/Kcal) of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly men. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is seen in sedentary individuals who become moderately active.

Studies have shown that since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in aging women leads to healthier cardiovascular profiles.

The most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40–60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age). After a myocardial infarction, survivors who changed their lifestyle to include regular exercise had higher survival rates. Sedentary people are most at risk for mortality from cardiovascular and all other causes.[35] According to the [American Heart Association](/source/American_Heart_Association), exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke.[32]

Some have suggested that increases in physical exercise might decrease healthcare costs, increase the rate of job attendance, as well as increase the amount of effort women put into their jobs.[36]

### Immune system

Although there have been hundreds of studies on physical exercise and the [immune system](/source/Immune_system), there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness.[37] [Epidemiological](/source/Epidemiology) evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system; an effect which is modeled in a [J curve](/source/J_curve). Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of [upper respiratory tract infections](/source/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection) (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of infection occurrence.[37] However, another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. Studies have shown that strenuous stress for long durations, such as training for a marathon, can suppress the immune system by decreasing the concentration of lymphocytes.[38] The immune systems of athletes and nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have a slightly elevated [natural killer cell](/source/Natural_killer_cell) count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.[37]

Vitamin C supplementation has been associated with a lower incidence of [upper respiratory tract infections](/source/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection) in marathon runners.[37]

[Biomarkers](/source/Biomarker) of [inflammation](/source/Inflammation) such as [C-reactive protein](/source/C-reactive_protein), which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. In individuals with heart disease, exercise interventions lower blood levels of fibrinogen and C-reactive protein, an important cardiovascular risk marker.[39] The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.[37]

### Cancer

A systematic review evaluated 45 studies that examined the relationship between physical activity and cancer survival rates. According to the review, "[there] was consistent evidence from 27 observational studies that physical activity is associated with reduced all-cause, breast cancer–specific, and colon cancer–specific mortality. There is currently insufficient evidence regarding the association between physical activity and mortality for survivors of other cancers."[40] Evidence suggests that exercise may positively affect the quality of life in cancer survivors, including factors such as anxiety, self-esteem and emotional well-being.[41] For people with cancer undergoing active treatment, exercise may also have positive effects on health-related quality of life, such as fatigue and physical functioning.[42] This is likely to be more pronounced with higher intensity exercise.[42]

Exercise may contribute to a reduction of [cancer-related fatigue](/source/Cancer-related_fatigue) in survivors of breast cancer.[43] Although there is only limited scientific evidence on the subject, people with [cancer cachexia](/source/Cancer_cachexia) are encouraged to engage in physical exercise.[44] Due to various factors, some individuals with cancer cachexia have a limited capacity for physical exercise.[45][46] [Compliance](/source/Compliance_(medicine)) with prescribed exercise is low in individuals with cachexia and clinical trials of exercise in this population often have high drop-out rates.[45][46]

There is low-quality evidence for an effect of aerobic physical exercises on anxiety and serious adverse events in adults with [hematological malignancies](/source/Tumors_of_the_hematopoietic_and_lymphoid_tissues).[47] Aerobic physical exercise may result in little to no difference in the mortality, quality of life, or physical functioning.[47] These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression and reduction in fatigue.[47]

### Neurobiological

This section is an excerpt from [Neurobiological effects of physical exercise](/source/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise&action=edit)]

A woman engaging in aerobic exercise (jogging)

The [neurobiological effects of physical exercise](/source/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise) involve possible interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and [cognition](/source/Cognition).[48][49][50][51] Research in humans has demonstrated that consistent [aerobic exercise](/source/Aerobic_exercise) (e.g., 30 minutes every day) may induce improvements in certain [cognitive functions](/source/Cognitive_function), [neuroplasticity](/source/Neuroplasticity) and [behavioral plasticity](/source/Behavioral_plasticity); some of these long-term effects may include increased [neuron growth](/source/Adult_neurogenesis), increased neurological activity (e.g., [c-Fos](/source/C-Fos) and [BDNF](/source/Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor) signaling), improved stress coping, enhanced [cognitive control of behavior](/source/Cognitive_control_of_behavior), improved [declarative](/source/Declarative_memory), [spatial](/source/Spatial_memory), and [working](/source/Working_memory) memory, and structural and functional improvements in brain structures and [pathways](/source/Neural_pathways) associated with cognitive control and memory.[52][53][54] The effects of exercise on cognition may affect [academic performance](/source/Academic_performance) in children and college students, improve adult productivity, preserve [cognitive function](/source/Cognitive_function) in old age, prevent or treat certain [neurological disorders](/source/Neurological_disorder), and improve overall [quality of life](/source/Quality_of_life).[55][56][57][58]

In healthy adults, aerobic exercise has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after a single exercise session and persistent effects on cognition following consistent exercise over the course of several months.[48][54][59] People who regularly perform an aerobic exercise (e.g., running, [jogging](/source/Jogging), brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have greater scores on [neuropsychological function and performance tests](/source/Neuropsychological_test) that measure certain cognitive functions, such as [attentional control](/source/Attentional_control), [inhibitory control](/source/Inhibitory_control), [cognitive flexibility](/source/Cognitive_flexibility), [working memory](/source/Working_memory) updating and capacity, [declarative memory](/source/Declarative_memory), [spatial memory](/source/Spatial_memory), and [information processing speed](/source/Mental_chronometry).[52][54][59][60][61]

Aerobic exercise has both short and long term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting [positive affect](/source/Positive_affect), inhibiting [negative affect](/source/Negative_affect), and decreasing the biological response to acute [psychological stress](/source/Psychological_stress).[59] Aerobic exercise may affect both [self-esteem](/source/Self-esteem) and overall [well-being](/source/Well-being) (including sleep patterns) with consistent, long term participation.[62] Regular aerobic exercise may improve symptoms associated with [central nervous system disorders](/source/Central_nervous_system_disorders) and may be used as [adjunct therapy](/source/Adjunct_therapy) for this disorders. There is some evidence of exercise treatment efficacy for [major depressive disorder](/source/Major_depressive_disorder).[56][63][64]

Some [preclinical](/source/Preclinical) evidence and emerging clinical evidence supports the use of exercise as an adjunct therapy for the treatment and prevention of [drug addictions](/source/Drug_addiction).[65][66][67][68]

Reviews of clinical evidence also support the use of exercise as an adjunct therapy for certain [neurodegenerative disorders](/source/Neurodegenerative_disorder), particularly [Alzheimer's disease](/source/Alzheimer's_disease) and [Parkinson's disease](/source/Parkinson's_disease).[69][70] Regular exercise may be associated with a lower risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders.[71]

#### Depression

This is an excerpt from [Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Major depressive disorder](/source/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Major_depressive_disorder).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise&action=edit)]

Numerous [systematic reviews](/source/Systematic_review) and [meta-analyses](/source/Meta-analysis) have indicated that exercise has a marked and persistent [antidepressant](/source/Antidepressant) effect in humans,[72][63][73][64][74] an effect believed to be mediated through enhanced BDNF signaling in the brain.[64] Several systematic reviews have analyzed the potential for physical exercise in the treatment of [depressive disorders](/source/Major_depressive_disorder). The 2026 [Cochrane Collaboration](/source/Cochrane_Collaboration) review on physical exercise for depression noted that, based upon limited evidence, it is more effective than a control intervention and comparable to psychological or antidepressant drug therapies.[74] Three subsequent 2014 systematic reviews that included the Cochrane review in their analysis concluded with similar findings: one indicated that physical exercise is effective as an [adjunct treatment](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adjunct_treatment) (i.e., treatments that are used together) with antidepressant medication;[64] the other two indicated that physical exercise has marked antidepressant effects and recommended the inclusion of physical activity as an adjunct treatment for mild–moderate depression and mental illness in general.[63][73] A 2016 meta-analysis concluded that physical exercise improves overall quality of life in individuals with depression relative to controls. One systematic review noted that [yoga](/source/Yoga_as_exercise) may be effective in alleviating symptoms of [prenatal depression](/source/Prenatal_depression).[75] Another review asserted that evidence from [clinical trials](/source/Clinical_trials) supports the efficacy of physical exercise as a treatment for depression over a 2–4 month period.[52] These benefits have also been noted in [old age](/source/Old_age), with a review conducted in 2019 finding that exercise is an effective treatment for clinically diagnosed depression in older adults.[76]

A 2024 systematic review and network meta-analysis of 218 [randomized controlled trials](/source/Randomized_controlled_trial) involving over 14,000 participants found that various forms of exercise, including walking or [jogging](/source/Jogging), yoga, [resistance training](/source/Strength_training), and mixed [aerobic activities](/source/Aerobic_exercise), were associated with reductions in depressive symptoms. The review observed that the effects of exercise were comparable to those of [psychotherapy](/source/Psychotherapy) and [pharmacotherapy](/source/Pharmacotherapy), with more intensive exercise yielding greater benefits. Resistance training was identified as particularly effective for younger individuals, while yoga appeared to be more beneficial for older adults. While confidence in the findings was limited by methodological concerns in the included studies, the review noted that exercise produced significant improvements in symptoms across a wide range of participants and treatment contexts.[72]

Continuous aerobic exercise can induce a transient state of [euphoria](/source/Euphoria), colloquially known as a "runner's high" in [distance running](/source/Distance_running) or a "rower's high" in [crew](/source/Rowing_(sport)), through the increased biosynthesis of at least three [euphoriant](/source/Euphoriant) neurochemicals: [anandamide](/source/Anandamide) (an [endocannabinoid](/source/Endocannabinoid)),[77] [β-endorphin](/source/%CE%92-endorphin) (an [endogenous opioid](/source/Endogenous_opioid)),[78] and [phenethylamine](/source/Phenethylamine) (a [trace amine](/source/Trace_amine) and [amphetamine](/source/Amphetamine) analog).[79][80][81]

#### Concussion

Supervised aerobic exercise without a risk of re-injury (falling, getting hit on the head) is prescribed as treatment for acute concussion.[82] Some exercise interventions may also prevent sport-related concussion.[83]

### Sleep

Preliminary evidence from a 2012 review indicated that physical training for up to four months may increase sleep quality in adults over 40 years of age.[84] A 2010 review suggested that exercise generally improved [sleep](/source/Sleep) for most people, and may help with [insomnia](/source/Insomnia), but there is insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep.[85] A 2018 systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that exercise can improve sleep quality in people with insomnia.[86]

### Libido

One 2013 study found that exercising improved sexual arousal problems related to antidepressant use.[87]

### Respiratory system

People who participate in physical exercise experience increased cardiovascular fitness.[*[medical citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine))*] There is some level of concern about additional exposure to air pollution when [exercising outdoors](/source/Outdoor_fitness), especially near traffic.[88]

## Mechanism of effects

### Skeletal muscle

Main article: [Skeletal muscle](/source/Skeletal_muscle)

Resistance training and subsequent consumption of a protein-rich meal promotes [muscle hypertrophy](/source/Muscle_hypertrophy) and gains in [muscle strength](/source/Muscle_strength) by stimulating [myofibrillar](/source/Myofibrillar) muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown (MPB).[89][90] The stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by resistance training occurs via [phosphorylation](/source/Phosphorylation) of the [mechanistic target of rapamycin](/source/Mechanistic_target_of_rapamycin) (mTOR) and subsequent activation of [mTORC1](/source/MTORC1), which leads to [protein biosynthesis](/source/Protein_biosynthesis) in cellular [ribosomes](/source/Ribosome) via phosphorylation of mTORC1's immediate targets (the [p70S6 kinase](/source/P70S6_kinase) and the [translation](/source/Protein_translation) repressor protein [4EBP1](/source/4EBP1)).[89][91] The suppression of muscle protein breakdown following food consumption occurs primarily via increases in [plasma](/source/Blood_plasma) [insulin](/source/Insulin).[89][92][93] Similarly, increased muscle protein synthesis (via activation of mTORC1) and suppressed muscle protein breakdown (via insulin-independent mechanisms) has also been shown to occur following ingestion of [β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid](/source/%CE%92-hydroxy_%CE%B2-methylbutyric_acid).[89][92][93][94]

Aerobic exercise induces [mitochondrial biogenesis](/source/Mitochondrial_biogenesis) and an increased capacity for [oxidative phosphorylation](/source/Oxidative_phosphorylation) in the [mitochondria](/source/Mitochondria) of skeletal muscle, which is one mechanism by which aerobic exercise enhances submaximal endurance performance.[95][89][96] These effects occur via an exercise-induced increase in the intracellular [AMP](/source/Adenosine_monophosphate):[ATP](/source/Adenosine_triphosphate) ratio, thereby triggering the activation of [AMP-activated protein kinase](/source/AMP-activated_protein_kinase) (AMPK) which subsequently phosphorylates [peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α](/source/PGC-1%CE%B1) (PGC-1α), the [master regulator](/source/Master_regulator) of mitochondrial biogenesis.[89][96][97]

Diagram of the molecular [signaling cascades](/source/Signaling_cascade) that are involved in [myofibrillar](/source/Myofibrillar) muscle protein synthesis and [mitochondrial biogenesis](/source/Mitochondrial_biogenesis) in response to physical exercise and specific [amino acids](/source/Amino_acid) or their derivatives (primarily [L-leucine](/source/Leucine) and [HMB](/source/Beta-Hydroxy_beta-methylbutyric_acid)).[89] Many amino acids derived from food protein promote the activation of [mTORC1](/source/MTORC1) and increase [protein synthesis](/source/Protein_translation) by [signaling](/source/Signal_transduction) through [Rag GTPases](/source/Rag_GTPase).[89][98]

Abbreviations and representations

 • PLD: [phospholipase D](/source/Phospholipase_D)
 • PA: [phosphatidic acid](/source/Phosphatidic_acid)
 • mTOR: [mechanistic target of rapamycin](/source/Mechanistic_target_of_rapamycin)
 • AMP: [adenosine monophosphate](/source/Adenosine_monophosphate)
 • ATP: [adenosine triphosphate](/source/Adenosine_triphosphate)
 • AMPK: [AMP-activated protein kinase](/source/AMP-activated_protein_kinase)
 • PGC-1α: [peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α](/source/PGC-1%CE%B1)
 • S6K1: [p70S6 kinase](/source/P70S6_kinase)
 • 4EBP1: [eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1](/source/EIF4EBP1)
 • eIF4E: [eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E](/source/Eukaryotic_translation_initiation_factor_4E)
 • RPS6: [ribosomal protein S6](/source/Ribosomal_protein_S6)
 • eEF2: [eukaryotic elongation factor 2](/source/Eukaryotic_elongation_factor_2)
 • RE: resistance exercise; EE: endurance exercise
 • Myo: [myofibrillar](/source/Myofibrillar); Mito: [mitochondrial](/source/Mitochondria)
 • AA: [amino acids](/source/Amino_acid)
 • HMB: [β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid](/source/%CE%92-hydroxy_%CE%B2-methylbutyric_acid)
 • ↑ represents activation
 • Τ represents inhibition

Resistance training stimulates muscle protein synthesis (MPS) for a period of up to 48 hours following exercise (shown by dotted line).[90] Ingestion of a protein-rich meal at any point during this period will augment the exercise-induced increase in muscle protein synthesis (shown by solid lines).[90]

### Other peripheral organs

Summary of long-term adaptations to regular aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise can cause several central cardiovascular adaptations, including an increase in [stroke volume](/source/Stroke_volume) (SV)[99] and maximal aerobic capacity ([VO2 max](/source/VO2_max)),[99][100] as well as a decrease in [resting heart rate](/source/Resting_heart_rate) (RHR).[101][102][103] Long-term adaptations to resistance training, the most common form of anaerobic exercise, include [muscular hypertrophy](/source/Muscular_hypertrophy),[104][105] an increase in the [physiological cross-sectional area](/source/Physiological_cross-sectional_area) (PCSA) of muscle(s), and an increase in [neural drive](/source/Neural_drive),[106][107] both of which lead to increased [muscular strength](/source/Muscular_strength).[108] Neural adaptations begin more quickly and plateau prior to the hypertrophic response.[109][110]

Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as [myokines](/source/Myokine) which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and multiple anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.[111] Exercise reduces levels of [cortisol](/source/Cortisol), which causes many health problems, both physical and mental.[112] Endurance exercise before meals lowers [blood glucose](/source/Blood_sugar_level) more than the same exercise after meals.[113] There is evidence that vigorous exercise (90–95% of [VO2 max](/source/VO2_max)) induces a greater degree of physiological [cardiac hypertrophy](/source/Cardiac_hypertrophy) than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO2 max), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality.[114] Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). [Ventricular hypertrophy](/source/Ventricular_hypertrophy), the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise.

### Central nervous system

Further information: [Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Neuroplasticity](/source/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Neuroplasticity)

The effects of physical exercise on the [central nervous system](/source/Central_nervous_system) may be mediated in part by specific [neurotrophic factor](/source/Neurotrophic_factor) [hormones released into the blood by muscles](/source/Myokine), including [BDNF](/source/Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor), [IGF-1](/source/Insulin-like_growth_factor_1), and [VEGF](/source/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor).[115][116][117]

## Public health measures

Community-wide and school campaigns are often used in an attempt to increase a population's level of physical activity. Studies to determine the effectiveness of these types of programs need to be interpreted cautiously as the results vary.[24] There is some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes for older adults, such as those involving gait, balance, co-ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance.[118] Following progressive resistance training, older adults also respond with improved physical function.[119] Brief interventions promoting physical activity may be cost-effective, however this evidence is weak and there are variations between studies.[120]

Environmental approaches appear promising: signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels.[121] The city of [Bogotá](/source/Bogot%C3%A1), [Colombia](/source/Colombia), for example, blocks off 113 kilometers (70 mi) of roads on Sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. Such [pedestrian zones](/source/Pedestrian_zone) are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases and to maintain a healthy [BMI](/source/Body_Mass_Index).[122]

Parents can promote physical activity by modelling healthy levels of physical activity or by encouraging physical activity.[123] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day.[124] Implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential.

The [European Commission](/source/European_Commission)'s Directorate-General for Education and Culture (DG EAC) has dedicated programs and funds for Health Enhancing Physical Activity (HEPA) projects[125] within its [Horizon 2020](/source/Horizon_2020) and [Erasmus+](/source/Erasmus%2B) program, as research showed that too many Europeans are not physically active enough. Financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this field across the EU and around the world, the promotion of HEPA in the EU and its partner countries, and the European Sports Week. The DG EAC regularly publishes a [Eurobarometer](/source/Eurobarometer) on sport and physical activity.

## Exercise trends

Main article: [Exercise trends](/source/Exercise_trends)

Worldwide there has been a large shift toward less physically demanding work.[126] This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor-saving technology in the home, and fewer active [recreational pursuits](/source/Recreational_pursuits).[126] [Personal lifestyle changes](/source/Exercise_trends#Solutions_to_address_the_lack_of_exercise), however, can correct the lack of physical exercise.[*[medical citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine))*]

Research published in 2015 suggests that incorporating [mindfulness](/source/Mindfulness) into physical exercise interventions increases exercise adherence and self-efficacy, and also has positive effects both psychologically and physiologically.[127]

	- Sports activities for exercising

		- Running helps in achieving [physical fitness](/source/Physical_fitness).[128]

		- [Skateboarding](/source/Skateboarding) is good for cardiovascular health.[129][*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources)*]

		- Swimming as an exercise tones muscles and builds strength.[130]

		- [Athletics](/source/Sport_of_athletics) (ex. [pole vault](/source/Pole_vault)) as a form of exercise

		- [Football](/source/Association_football) as an exercise

### Social and cultural variation

Exercising looks different in every country, as do the motivations behind exercising.[4] In some countries, people exercise primarily indoors (such as at home or [health clubs](/source/Health_club)), while in others, people primarily [exercise outdoors](/source/Outdoor_fitness). People may exercise for personal enjoyment, health and well-being, social interactions, competition or training, etc. These differences could potentially be attributed to a variety of reasons including geographic location and social tendencies.

In Colombia, for example, citizens value and celebrate the outdoor environments of their country. In many instances, they use outdoor activities as social gatherings to enjoy nature and their communities. In Bogotá, Colombia, a 70-mile stretch of road known as the Ciclovía is shut down each Sunday for bicyclists, runners, rollerbladers, skateboarders and other exercisers to work out and enjoy their surroundings.[131]

Similarly to Colombia, citizens of [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia) tend to exercise socially outside. In this country, public gyms have become quite popular. People will congregate at these outdoor gyms not only to use the public facilities, but also to organize aerobics and dance sessions, which are open to the public.[132]

Sweden has also begun developing outdoor gyms, called *utegym*. These gyms are free to the public and are often placed in beautiful, picturesque environments. People will swim in rivers, use boats, and run through forests to stay healthy and enjoy the natural world around them. This works particularly well in Sweden due to its geographical location.[133]

Exercise in some areas of China, particularly among those who are retired, seems to be socially grounded. In the mornings, [square dances](/source/Square_dancing_(China)) are held in public parks; these gatherings may include Latin dancing, ballroom dancing, tango, or even the jitterbug. Dancing in public allows people to interact with those with whom they would not normally interact, allowing for both health and social benefits.[134]

These sociocultural variations in physical exercise show how people in different geographic locations and social climates have varying motivations and methods of exercising. Physical exercise can improve health and well-being, as well as enhance community ties and appreciation of natural beauty.[4]

### Adherence

Adhering or staying consistent with an exercise program can be challenging for many people.[135] Studies have identified many different factors. Some factors include why a person is exercising (e.g, health, social), what types of exercises or how the exercise program is structured, whether or not professionals are involved in the program, education related to exercise and health, monitoring and progress made in exercise program, goals setting, and involved a person is in choosing the exercise program and setting goals.[136]

## Nutrition and recovery

Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of [macronutrients](/source/Macronutrient_(nutrition)) while providing ample [micronutrients](/source/Micronutrient), to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.[137]

Active recovery is recommended after participating in physical exercise because it removes [lactate](/source/Lactic_acid) from the blood more quickly than inactive recovery. Removing lactate from circulation allows for an easy decline in body temperature, which can also benefit the immune system, as an individual may be vulnerable to minor illnesses if the body temperature drops too abruptly after physical exercise.[138] Exercise physiologists recommend the "4-Rs framework":[139]

**Rehydration**
- Replacing any fluid and electrolyte deficits

**Refuel**
- Consuming carbohydrates to replenish muscle and liver glycogen

**Repair**
- Consuming high-quality protein sources with additional supplementation of creatine monohydrate

**Rest**
- Getting long and high-quality sleep after exercise, additionally improved by consuming casein proteins, antioxidant-rich fruits, and high-glycemic-index meals

Exercise has an effect on appetite, but whether it increases or decreases appetite varies from individual to individual, and is affected by the intensity and duration of the exercise.[140]

## Excessive exercise

This section is an excerpt from [Overtraining](/source/Overtraining).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Overtraining&action=edit)]

[Overtraining](/source/Overtraining) occurs when a person exceeds their body's ability to recover from strenuous exercise.[141] Overtraining can be described as a point at which a person may have a decrease in performance or plateau as a result of failure to perform at a certain level or training-load consistently; a load which exceeds their recovery capacity.[142] People who are overtrained cease making progress, and can even begin to lose [strength](/source/Physical_strength) and [fitness](/source/Physical_fitness). Overtraining is also known as chronic fatigue, burnout, and overstress in athletes.[143][144]

It is suggested that there are different forms of overtraining. Firstly, "monotonous program overtraining" suggests that repetition of the same movement, such as certain weight lifting and baseball batting, can cause performance plateau due to an adaption of the central nervous system, which results from a lack of stimulation.[142] A second example of overtraining is described as "chronic overwork-type," wherein the subject may be training with too high intensity or high volume and not allowing sufficient recovery time for the body.[142]

Up to 10% of elite endurance athletes and 10% of American college swimmers are affected by overtraining syndrome (i.e., unexplained underperformance for approximately 2 weeks, even after having adequate resting time).[145]

## History

This article is missing information about times and places when exercise was viewed negatively. Please expand the article by making an edit requestto include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (August 2021)

See also: [Aerobic exercise § History](/source/Aerobic_exercise#History), [Fitness culture](/source/Fitness_culture), and [History of physical training and fitness](/source/History_of_physical_training_and_fitness)

Roper's gymnasium, Philadelphia, US, c. 1831

The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Dating back to 65 BCE, it was [Marcus Cicero](/source/Cicero), Roman politician and lawyer, who stated: "It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor."[146] Exercise was also seen to be valued later in history during the [Early Middle Ages](/source/Early_Middle_Ages) as a means of survival by the [Germanic peoples](/source/Germanic_peoples) of Northern Europe.[147]

More recently, exercise was regarded as a beneficial force in the 19th century. In 1858, [Archibald MacLaren](/source/Archibald_MacLaren) opened a gymnasium at the [University of Oxford](/source/University_of_Oxford) and instituted a training regimen for Major [Frederick Hammersley](/source/Frederick_Hammersley_(born_1824)) and 12 non-commissioned officers.[148] This regimen was assimilated into the training of the [British Army](/source/British_Army), which formed the [Army Gymnastic Staff](/source/Royal_Army_Physical_Training_Corps) in 1860 and made sport an important part of military life.[149][150][151] Several mass exercise movements were started in the early twentieth century as well. The first and most significant of these in the UK was the Women's League of Health and Beauty, founded in 1930 by [Mary Bagot Stack](/source/Mary_Bagot_Stack), that had 166,000 members in 1937.[152]

The link between physical health and exercise (or lack of it) was further established in 1949 and reported in 1953 by a team led by [Jerry Morris](/source/Jerry_Morris).[153][154] Morris noted that men of similar social class and occupation (bus conductors versus bus drivers) had markedly different rates of heart attacks, depending on the level of exercise they got: bus drivers had a sedentary occupation and a higher incidence of heart disease, while bus conductors were forced to move continually and had a lower incidence of heart disease.[154]

## Other animals

Animals like [chimpanzees](/source/Chimpanzee), [orangutans](/source/Orangutan), [gorillas](/source/Gorilla) and [bonobos](/source/Bonobo), which are closely related to humans, without ill effect engage in considerably less physical activity than is required for human health, raising the question of how this is biochemically possible.[155]

Studies of animals indicate that physical activity may be more adaptable than changes in food intake to regulate [energy balance](/source/Energy_homeostasis).[156]

[Mice](/source/Mouse) having access to [activity wheels](/source/Hamster_wheel) engaged in voluntary exercise and increased their propensity to run as adults.[157] [Artificial selection](/source/Selective_breeding) of mice exhibited significant [heritability](/source/Heredity) in voluntary exercise levels,[158] with "high-runner" [breeds](/source/Breed) having enhanced [aerobic capacity](/source/VO2_max),[159] [hippocampal](/source/Hippocampus) [neurogenesis](/source/Neurogenesis),[160] and skeletal muscle [morphology](/source/Morphology_(biology)).[161]

The effects of exercise training appear to be heterogeneous across non-mammalian species. As examples, exercise training of [salmon](/source/Salmon) showed minor improvements of endurance,[162] and a forced swimming regimen of [yellowtail amberjack](/source/Yellowtail_amberjack) and [rainbow trout](/source/Rainbow_trout) accelerated their growth rates and altered muscle morphology favorable for sustained swimming.[163][164] Crocodiles, alligators, and ducks showed elevated aerobic capacity following exercise training.[165][166][167] No effect of endurance training was found in most studies of lizards,[165][168] although one study did report a training effect.[169] In lizards, [sprint training](/source/Sprint_(running)) had no effect on maximal exercise capacity,[169] and muscular damage from over-training occurred following weeks of forced treadmill exercise.[168]

## See also

- [Medicine portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Medicine)
- [Society portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Society)
- [Sports portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Sports)

Main article: [Outline of exercise](/source/Outline_of_exercise)

- [Active living](/source/Active_living)

- [Behavioural change theories](/source/Behavioural_change_theories)

- [Bodybuilding](/source/Bodybuilding)

- [Cyclability](/source/Cyclability)

- [Exercise hypertension](/source/Exercise_hypertension)

- [Exercise intensity](/source/Exercise_intensity)

- [Exercise intolerance](/source/Exercise_intolerance)

- [Exercise-induced anaphylaxis](/source/Exercise-induced_anaphylaxis)

- [Exercise-induced asthma](/source/Exercise-induced_asthma)

- [Exercise-induced nausea](/source/Exercise-induced_nausea)

- [Green exercise](/source/Green_exercise)

- [Kinesiology](/source/Kinesiology)

- [List of exercise activities](/source/List_of_exercise_activities)

- [Metabolic equivalent](/source/Metabolic_equivalent)

- [Neurobiological effects of physical exercise](/source/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise)

- [Non-exercise associated thermogenesis](/source/Non-exercise_associated_thermogenesis)

- [Supercompensation](/source/Supercompensation)

- [Unilateral training](/source/Unilateral_training)

- [Walkability](/source/Walkability)

- [Warming up](/source/Warming_up)

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## External links

**Exercise**  at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects)

- [Definitions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/exercise) from Wiktionary
- [Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_exercises) from Commons
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Exercise) from Wikiquote

- [Adult Compendium of Physical Activities](https://sites.google.com/site/compendiumofphysicalactivities/) – a website containing lists of [Metabolic Equivalent of Task](/source/Metabolic_Equivalent_of_Task) (MET) values for a number of physical activities, based upon [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [8292105](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8292105), [10993420](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10993420) and [21681120](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21681120)

- [MedLinePlus Topic on Exercise and Physical Fitness](https://www.medlineplus.gov/exerciseandphysicalfitness.html)

- [Physical activity and the environment](http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/PH8) – guidance on the promotion and creation of physical environments that support increased levels of physical activity.

- [Science Daily's reference on physical exercise](https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/physical_exercise.htm)

v t e Exercise Types Aerobic exercise Aerobics Cycling Dancing Distance running Endurance training Hiking Jogging Running Swimming Walking Nordic walking Yoga Yoga as exercise Anaerobic exercise High-intensity interval training Sprinting Strength training Bodybuilding Bodyweight exercise Flywheel training Suspension training Weight training Weightlifting Other Athletic training Calisthenics Circuit training Climbing Cross-training Interval training Muscle hypertrophy Outdoor fitness Physical therapy Sport List of sports Stretching Yoga Related Abdominal exercise Brain training Burpee (exercise) Epigenetics Exercise and music Exercise ball Exercise dress Exercise equipment Exercise intolerance Exercise mimetic Exercise physiology Neurobiological effects Exercise prescription Exercise trends Exercise-induced anaphylaxis Exercise-induced nausea Fitness app Fitness culture History Incremental exercise Isometric exercise Kegel exercise Lunge (exercise) Non-exercise activity thermogenesis Outline of exercise Physical culture Physical fitness Plank (exercise) Push-down (exercise) Rebound exercise Squat (exercise) Vacuum exercise Category

v t e Sport Types Individual Team Military sports Parasports Women Professional Semi-professional Amateur Animal Esports Science Exercise Biomechanics Practice Periodization Physiology Strength training Doping Medicine Athletic training Chriopractic Injury Physicians Psychology Nutrition Bodybuilding supplements Sports drink Pedagogy Physical education Physical activity Rating system Sociology Organizations Clubs Governing bodies Leagues Season Postseason School Teams International Business Agents Broadcasting Economics Industry Marketing Sponsorship Trade Communication General managers Journalism Magazines Podcasts Radio Promoters Culture Betting Cheerleaders Entertainment Fan History Memorabilia Naming Nicknames Numbering Olympic culture Philosophy Rivalries Sports mascots Sportsmanship Violence Equipment Artificial turf Balls Caving Exercise Flying disc Sportswear Politics Sports law Ministries National sport Regulation Sport by region Africa Asia South Asia Europe North America Oceania Australia South America Other regions Western world Latin America Sports portal Category Outline List

Authority control databases International FAST National United States 2 Czech Republic Israel Other NARA

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Exercise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.