# Equine intelligence

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{{Short description|Cognitive capacity of horses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{AI-generated|date=February 2026|reason=since initial translation, user has created other unreviewed LLM translations}}
[[File:Bond Of Love Lukas And Nevat (69946279).jpeg|thumb|Training a free-roaming horse, using its response to [conditioning](/source/Classical_conditioning)]]
'''Equine intelligence''', long described in myths and anecdotes, has been the subject of scientific study since the early 20th century. The worldwide fascination for clever horses, such as [Clever Hans](/source/Clever_Hans), gave rise to a long-running controversy over the cognitive abilities of horses. The discovery of the [Clever Hans effect](/source/Clever_Hans_effect), followed by the development of [ethological](/source/Ethology) studies, has progressively revealed a high level of [social intelligence](/source/social_intelligence) evident in  [horse's behavior](/source/Horse_behavior). The scientific discipline that studies equine cognition, at the crossroads of ethology and [animal psychology](/source/animal_psychology), is [cognitive ethology](/source/cognitive_ethology).

Although the existence of [consciousness](/source/consciousness) among horses is yet to be proven, their remarkable memory has been recognized for centuries. Because of their wild herd lifestyle, horses also exhibit advanced cognitive abilities related to the [theory of mind](/source/theory_of_mind), enabling them to understand interactions with other individuals. They can recognize a human by their facial features, communicate with them through [body language](/source/Nonverbal_communication), and learn new skills by observing a person's behavior. Horses are also adept at [categorizing](/source/Cognitive_categorization) and conceptual learning. In terms of working intelligence, horses respond well to [habituation](/source/habituation), [desensitization](/source/Desensitization_(psychology)), [classical conditioning](/source/classical_conditioning), and [operant conditioning](/source/operant_conditioning). They can also improvise and adapt to suit their rider. Understanding how horses' cognitive abilities function has practical applications in the relationship between domesticated horses and humans, particularly in areas such as training, breeding, and day-to-day management, which can ultimately improve their well-being.

The perception of horse intelligence varies across cultures. This intelligence is often portrayed as human-like in tales and legends about wise, talking horses, such as the Kyrgyz epic [''Er-Töshtük''](/source/Er_T%C3%B6sht%C3%BCk) and the [Russian tale](/source/Russian_fairy_tale) of ''[The Little Humpbacked Horse](/source/The_Little_Humpbacked_Horse)'', as well as in novels, films, comics, and series for young people, including [The Black Stallion](/source/The_Black_Stallion), [Jolly Jumper](/source/Jolly_Jumper), and ''[Black Beauty](/source/Black_Beauty)''.

== History ==
The horse has played an important socio-economic role across various historical periods, serving humans in labor, combat, sports, therapy, consumption, and religious practices.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Blondeau |2023|pp=5–6}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":0">{{Harvtxt|Brubaker|Udell|2016|p=121}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Barreau |Porcher |2023|p=33}}</ref> However, the intrinsic qualities of horses have sometimes been overlooked, with a variety of cultural narratives and perceptions surrounding them.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=7}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":11">{{Harvtxt|Hanggi|2005|p=246}}</ref> Humans have shown interest in horses since prehistoric times, prior to their [domestication](/source/Domestication_of_the_horse), and horses have inspired written works since antiquity.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|pp=13–14}}</ref> Vanina Deneux-le Barh observes a recurring theme in equestrian literature, both technical and literary: humans can train horses to become skilled fighters.<ref group="S" name=":1">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=14}}</ref> This suggests that, in their shared lives with humans, horses are believed to demonstrate situational intelligence.<ref group="S" name=":1"/>

Many equestrian authors have expressed a desire for horses to demonstrate intelligence and dedication to work.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher|2023|p=34}}</ref> Despite this, horses have often been subjected to harsh treatment.<ref group="S" name=":4">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher|2023|p=36}}</ref> The oldest known equestrian treatise, written by [Kikkuli](/source/Kikkuli) of the kingdom of [Mittani](/source/Mitanni) in the [14th century BC](/source/14th_century_BC), is an instruction manual for the training of [chariot](/source/chariot) horses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gouraud |first=Jean-Louis |title=Le tour du monde en 80 chevaux: Petit abécédaire insolite |publisher=Actes Sud Nature |year=2018 |isbn=978-2-330-10203-6 |language=fr |trans-title=Around the world in 80 horses: An unusual glossary |chapter=Kikkuli |chapter-url=}}</ref> This text is characterized by its stringent selection methods.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fagan |first=Brian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZFHDwAAQBAJ&dq=Kikkuli+cheval&pg=PT52 |title=La Grande Histoire de ce que nous devons aux animaux |publisher=La Librairie Vuibert |year=2017 |isbn=978-2-311-10212-3 |page=198 |language=fr |trans-title=The Great Story of what we owe to animals}}</ref>
[[File:The Art of Horsemanship - Notes Headpiece.png|thumb|1893 illustration of an edition of Xenophon's treatise [On Horsemanship](/source/On_Horsemanship)]]
[Xenophon](/source/Xenophon) (430-355 B.C.), the first European author whose equestrian writings have survived, frequently discussed horses in his works.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=17}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":5">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher |2023|p=37}}</ref> He recognized situational intelligence in warhorses of Athens<ref group="S" name=":2">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh |2023|p=18}}</ref> and strongly advocated against using violence in training:
{{Blockquote|text=What a horse does by force it does not learn, and that cannot be beautiful, any more than if one wanted to make a man dance with a whip and a goad: ill-treatment will never produce anything but clumsiness and bad grace.|author=Xenophon|title=''[On Horsemanship](/source/On_Horsemanship)''|source=Book IX<ref group="S" name=":2"/>}}

=== From the Middle Ages to modern times ===
[[File:Maroccus extaticus.png|thumb|1860 engraving depicting the performing horse [Marocco](/source/Bankes's_Horse)]]
A significant portion of [medieval technical literature](/source/Medieval_literature) consists of treatises on [veterinary](/source/Veterinarian) care.<ref group="S" name=":3">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh |2023|p=19}}</ref> Arab and Muslim scholars made notable contributions to the knowledge of equine medicine, education,<ref name=":4">{{Harvtxt|Lansade |2023|pp=25–26}}</ref> and training, in part due to the contributions of the translator Ibn Akhî Hizâm, who wrote around 895,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lignereux |first=Yves |url=https://www.academia.edu/9856300 |title=Une Bibliographie hippiatrique pour le Moyen-Âge |publisher=Bulletin du centre d'étude d'histoire de la médecine |year=2003 |volume=46 |page=11 |language=fr |trans-title=A Hippiatric Bibliography for the Middle Ages |access-date=July 11, 2022}}</ref> and [Ibn al-Awam](/source/Ibn_al-'Awwam), who advocated for non-violent training methods and pioneered the application of [habituation](/source/habituation) methods.<ref name=":4"/>

There are historical accounts of horses reported to be extraordinarily intelligent, such as the Catalan knight Giraud de Cabrières' horse, described by the medieval English chronicler [Gervais de Tilbury](/source/Gervase_of_Tilbury) as both refined and invincible in races, capable of dancing, and even advising its knight and helping him in his victories by communicating with him through a secret language.<ref group="S" name=":16">{{Harvtxt|Dubost |2014|p=190}}</ref> Similarly, the English horse [Marocco](/source/Bankes's_Horse) ({{Circa|1586–1606}}), nicknamed "The Thinking Horse" or "The Talking Horse," was trained and performed in public shows.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Stollznow | first=Karen  | year=2014 | title=Language Myths, Mysteries and Magic|chapter=Talking Animals|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-137-40486-2|pages=165–178| doi=10.1057/9781137404862_17 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137404862_17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Bondeson | first=Jan   | year=1999 | title=The Feejee Mermaid and Other Essays in Natural and Unnatural History|location=USA|chapter=The Dancing Horse|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-3609-5|pages=1–18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsQAc_QlB5cC}}</ref>

During the Renaissance, the printing press revolutionized the production and dissemination of equestrian literature.<ref group="S" name=":3"/> Writings primarily focused on methods to achieve obedience and maneuverability in horses.<ref group="S" name=":3"/> The Italian horseman [Federico Grisone](/source/Federico_Grisone), for instance, promoted the use of physical punishment to control horses he considered difficult to train.<ref name=":4" group="S" />

With the rise of philosophical debates in France, [René Descartes](/source/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes)' concept of the "[animal machine](/source/animal_machine)" contrasted with [Michel de Montaigne](/source/Michel_de_Montaigne)'s perspective, which viewed animals as possessing intelligence and virtues.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh |2023|p=20}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Cite book |last=Gray |first=Floyd |url=https://classiques-garnier.com/la-renaissance-des-mots-de-jean-lemaire-de-belges-a-agrippa-d-aubigne.html |title=La renaissance des mots. De Jean Lemaire de Belges à Agrippa d'Aubigné |publisher=Classiques Garnier |year=2008 |isbn=978-2-37312-205-3 |language=fr |trans-title=The renaissance of words. From Jean Lemaire de Belges to Agrippa d'Aubigné |chapter=Chapitre 2. Le langage des animaux |trans-chapter=Chapter 2. Animal language}}</ref> [Antoine de Pluvinel](/source/Antoine_de_Pluvinel), influenced by Xenophon, acknowledged the sensitivity, individuality, and psychology of horses, emphasizing the importance of understanding the brain.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh |2023|p=21}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade |2023|p=26}}</ref> [François Robichon de La Guérinière](/source/Fran%C3%A7ois_Robichon_de_La_Gu%C3%A9rini%C3%A8re) (1733) also recognized a form of intelligence in horses, noting that some horses exhibited challenging behaviors or appeared indecisive.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh |2023|p=22}}</ref> According to Sophie Barreau and zootechnician-sociologist Jocelyne Porcher, Guérinière was among the first to reject harsh methods, prioritizing the horse's cooperation over submission.<ref name=":5" group="S" />

=== In the 19th century ===
thumb|1876 engraving showing a horse being desensitized to the smell of a dead cattle hide
From the 19th century onwards, numerous equestrian treatises acknowledged the intelligence of horses.<ref group="S" name=":6">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh |2023|p=23}}</ref><ref name=":5" group="S" /> People who interacted with horses daily observed their ability to communicate and their sensitivity.<ref group="S" name=":7">{{Harvtxt|Porcher|2023|p=9}}</ref> The era's interest in animal intelligence was reflected in the organization of numerous horse-focused performances,<ref group="S">{{Cite journal |last=Hamm |first=Elisabeth |year=2019 |title=Le cheval astronomique à la croisée des savoirs: une lecture des scènes de foire dans Woyzeck de Georg Büchner |trans-title=The astronomical horse at the crossroads of knowledge: a reading of the fairground scenes in Georg Büchner's Woyzeck |url=https://journals.openedition.org/allemagne/1981 |journal=Revue d'Allemagne et des pays de langue allemande |language=fr |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=357–370 |doi=10.4000/allemagne.1981 |issn=0035-0974 |access-date=November 15, 2023}}</ref> which became a common [circus](/source/circus) feature during the mid-19th century, especially at Victor Franconi's circus, which was inaugurated in Paris in 1845.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Dray|2023|p=77}}</ref> In 1868, the Spanish writer Carlos Frontaura observed the "great intelligence" (gran inteligencia) of the horses pulling Parisian [omnibuses](/source/Horsebus), praising their initiative.<ref group="H">{{Cite book |last=Frontaura |first=Carlos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kIUpAAAAYAAJ&q=inteligencia+de+los+caballos |title=Viaje cómico á la exposición de París |publisher=Librería de Rosa y Bouret |year=1868 |edition=2nd |page=309 |language=es |trans-title=Comic trip to the Paris exhibition}}</ref>

[François Baucher](/source/Fran%C3%A7ois_Baucher) included a detailed discussion of the term "intelligence" where he expressed his firm belief in the horse's intelligence:

{{Blockquote|text=The horse has perception as it has sensation, comparison, and memory: therefore it has judgment and memory; therefore it has intelligence [...]|author=[François Baucher](/source/Fran%C3%A7ois_Baucher)|title=''Dictionnaire raisonné d'équitation'' (1833)<ref group="S" name=":6"/>}}

The structured training system promoted by Baucher emphasized engaging with the horse's intelligence.<ref group="S" name=":8">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=24}}</ref> Similarly, zoologist [Ernest Menault](/source/Ernest_Menault) also recognized "signs of intelligence" in horses, though his observations were less grounded in scientific evidence.<ref group="S" name=":12">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=57}}</ref> [Gustave Le Bon](/source/Gustave_Le_Bon) was one of the early researchers in horse psychology, and his 1892 equestrian treatise acknowledged the horse's intellectual abilities.<ref group="S" name=":8" />

According to Jocelyne Porcher, 19th- and 20th-century [zootechnicians](/source/Zootechnics) applied the "[animal machine](/source/animal_machine)" hypothesis to horses, drawing on the ideas of [René Descartes](/source/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes), [Nicolas Malebranche](/source/Nicolas_Malebranche), and [Francis Bacon](/source/Francis_Bacon). This perspective held that horses could not think, feel pain, or possess consciousness and emotions.<ref name=":7" group="S" /> [Social pressures](/source/Social_influence) discouraged researchers from challenging these views, as their findings might not be well received, given that the "animal machine" concept was easier to defend in the context of industrialized farming practices.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=8}}</ref><ref name=":7" group="S" /> In 1892, T. B. Redding reported on a societal divide: some attributed intelligence and reason to horses, while others dismissed their actions as purely instinctual.<ref group="H">{{Cite journal |last=Redding |first=T. B. |year=1892 |title=The Intelligence of a Horse |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ns-20.500.133.b |journal=Science |volume=ns-20 |issue=500 |pages=133–134|doi=10.1126/science.ns-20.500.133.b |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Additionally, misconceptions persisted. One of the most widely disputed misconceptions, according to equestrian journalist Maria Franchini, was the belief—circulating since at least 1898—that a horse's obedience stems from seeing humans as seven times taller than they actually are.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=12–13}}</ref>

=== The worldwide popularity of "Learned Horses" ===

Until the mid-20th century, discussions about animal intelligence were framed through [ontological](/source/Ontology) comparison with human cognition.<ref group="S" name=":9">{{Harvtxt|Dray |2023|p=74}}</ref> In 1901, French military [veterinarian](/source/veterinarian) Adolphe Guénon published a [comparative psychology](/source/comparative_psychology) study titled ''L'Âme du cheval'', where he characterized the horse's brain as relatively simple compared to that of humans.<ref group="H">{{Cite book |last=Guénon |first=Adolphe |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6527322r |title=L'âme du cheval: étude de psychologie comparée |publisher=Imprimerie-librairie de l'Union républicaine |year=1901 |location=Chalons-sur-Marne |language=fr |trans-title=The soul of the horse: a study in comparative psychology}}</ref> Starting in the late 19th century, there was a global interest in animals believed to demonstrate intelligence.<ref group="S" name=":10">{{Harvtxt|Dray |2023|p=80}}</ref> These horses, described as "calculating," were equipped with specially designed tools—such as cubes, sticks, and boards—and demonstrated patience in performing tasks.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Dray |2023|p=81}}</ref>

<gallery mode="nolines" class="center" widths="180" caption="Manifestations of the learned horse craze">
File:Jim Key, the spelling horse standing by his numbers and letters. (attraction on the Pike at the 1904 World's Fair).jpg|[Beautiful Jim Key](/source/Beautiful_Jim_Key) presented as an attraction at the [1904 World's Fair](/source/Louisiana_Purchase_Exposition)
File:Jim Key, The Educated Horse on the Pike at the 1904 World's Fair.jpg|Entrance to the attraction around Beautiful Jim Key
File:Hans am Tretbrett.jpg|[Clever Hans](/source/Clever_Hans) performing with Karl Krall in 1909
File:Lady Wonder Horse.png|The mare [Lady Wonder](/source/Lady_Wonder), photographed in 1940 for ''[Life](/source/Life_(magazine))'' magazine
File:Lady Wonder sign.png|Sign photographed in 1952, indicating Lady Wonder's ability to [read minds](/source/Pet_psychic)
</gallery>

Numerous journalists wrote articles about the intelligence of horses. In 1904, C. Mader questioned the view of the horse as a "living machine".<ref group="H">{{Cite book |last=Mader |first=C. |title=De l'intelligence du cheval |publisher=La province |year=1904 |location=Le Havre |language=fr |trans-title=On the intelligence of the horse}}</ref><ref name=":5" group="S" /> In 1912, [Remy de Gourmont](/source/Remy_de_Gourmont) commented on the growing fascination with horse intelligence in a society that had previously considered horses to be of average intellect at best.<ref group="H" name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=de Gourmont |first=Rémy |year=1912 |title=Les chevaux qui parlent |trans-title=Talking horses |url=http://www.remydegourmont.org/de_rg/autres_ecrits/revues/depechedetoulouse/chevaux.htm |journal=La Dépêche de Toulouse |language=fr |access-date=July 13, 2010 |page=1}}</ref> In 1913, a writer for ''[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)'' published an article asking whether horses were capable of "thinking".<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=68}}</ref>

The case of [Clever Hans](/source/Clever_Hans) ({{Langx|de|Kluger Hans|links=no}}) is a notable example of this interest.<ref group="H" name=":11"/><ref group="H">{{Cite journal|last=Meehan|first=Joseph|year=1904|pages=602–603 |title=The Berlin "Thinking" Horse|journal=Nature|volume=70|issue=1825|doi=10.1038/070602c0 |bibcode=1904Natur..70R.602M |issn=1476-4687|access-date=September 29, 2023|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/070602c0|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|De Waal|2018|pp=65–68}}</ref><ref name=":8" group="S" /> This black horse, raised in Germany, became an international sensation in the early 20th century due to his supposed ability to solve complex arithmetic problems by tapping his hoof to indicate answers:<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini |2009|pp=212–213}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|De Waal|2018|p=66}}</ref><ref name=":0" group="S" />

{{Blockquote|text=Crowds flock daily to the inner courtyard of Griebenow Street in northern Berlin, where his master puts him to work, to witness the extraordinary performance of the one who would henceforth be known as "Clever Hans".|author=Vinciane Despret|title=''Hans: the horse that could count''<ref>{{Harvtxt|Despret|2015|p=14}}</ref>}}

Belgian philosopher [Vinciane Despret](/source/Vinciane_Despret) notes the prolonged scientific debate sparked by Hans's abilities, questioning whether horses possess conceptual intelligence.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Despret|2015|pp=120–121}}</ref> German psychologist [Oskar Pfungst](/source/Oskar_Pfungst) later revealed that Hans was not actually calculating but was instead highly attuned to human [body language](/source/Nonverbal_communication), stopping his hoof taps when he detected subtle cues. This discovery contributed to the development of the [Clever Hans Effect](/source/Clever_Hans_Effect).<ref>{{Harvtxt|De Waal|2018|pp=66–67}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":15">{{Harvtxt|Brubaker |Udell |2016|pp=121–122}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=289}}</ref>

Another notable example is [Beautiful Jim Key](/source/Beautiful_Jim_Key), a horse which was trained to perform complex tasks and gained widespread fame in the early 20th century.<ref group="S" name=":10"/> Similarly, the case of the mare [Lady Wonder](/source/Lady_Wonder) sparked a debate about whether horses could communicate telepathically with humans.<ref group="S">{{Cite book | last=Stollznow | first=Karen  | year=2014 | title=Language Myths, Mysteries and Magic|chapter=Pet Psychics and Psychic Pets|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-137-40486-2|pages=179–192| doi=10.1057/9781137404862_18 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137404862_18}}</ref><ref group="H" name=":12">{{Cite journal| last1=Rhine | first1=J. B. |last2=Rhine|first2=L. E.| year=1929 | title=Second report on Lady, the "mind-reading" horse |journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology  |issn=0096-851X|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?| volume=24|issue=3 | pages=287–292| doi=10.1037/h0073302 |access-date=October 3, 2023 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Despite doubts, some individuals continued to believe in equine telepathy well into the 1970s.<ref group="S" name=":13">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=69}}</ref><ref group="note">This is particularly the case of Henry Blake, in his work "I speak to horses... They answer me."</ref>

=== Implications of the Clever Hans case for equine cognition research ===
{{See also|Morgan's Canon}}
[[File:C. Lloyd Morgan. Photogravure by Synnberg Photo-gravure Co., Wellcome L0023072 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|English psychologist and biologist [Lloyd Morgan](/source/C._Lloyd_Morgan), theorist of the Morgan Canon]]
Dutch [primatologist](/source/Primatology) and ethologist [Frans de Waal](/source/Frans_de_Waal) discusses the relevance of [Morgan's Canon](/source/Morgan's_Canon)—a scientific principle stating that animal behavior should not be attributed to higher mental faculties if it can be explained by simpler processes—illustrated by the case of Clever Hans.<ref>{{Harvtxt|De Waal|2018|pp=65–66}}</ref> According to Jocelyne Porcher, Morgan's Canon had a lasting impact on research into animal cognition.<ref group="S" name=":7"/>

De Waal also observes that the experiments on Hans were interpreted in ways that undermined his intelligence, even though the experiments demonstrated his ability to read and interpret human body language.<ref>{{Harvtxt|De Waal|2018|p=67}}</ref> Ethologist Léa Lansade emphasizes that, at the time and up until the 1960s, animals were considered "intelligent" only if they demonstrated human-like abilities—such as calculating or learning [sign language](/source/sign_language)—even though these skills were not necessarily aligned with their natural behaviors.<ref group="P">{{Cite web |last=Mieusset |first=Michel |date=August 7, 2012 |title=Les chevaux sont-ils intelligents? |trans-title=Are horses intelligent? |url=https://www.chevalmag.com/divers-hipposcope/les-chevaux-sont-ils-intelligents/ |access-date=September 3, 2023 |website=Cheval Magazine |language=fr}}</ref>

The Clever Hans case had a significant impact on subsequent studies of animal cognition, contributing to the adoption of more rigorous experimental protocols.<ref>{{Harvtxt|De Waal|2018|p=68}}</ref> As Deneux-Le Barh notes, "experimental sciences aim to minimize the influence of the mètis (cunning intelligence) of the individuals being studied."<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=25}}</ref>

In the first half of the 20th century, research was primarily focused on [behaviorism](/source/behaviorism). Over time, this field divided into two main currents: [ethology](/source/ethology) and [cognitive animal psychology](/source/Cognitive_psychology),<ref group="S" name=":14">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=77}}</ref> which later converged into [cognitive ethology](/source/cognitive_ethology).<ref group="S" name=":14"/>

=== Highlighting the cognitive faculties of the horse ===
thumb|Horses showing curiosity towards a human.
The behaviorist hypothesis that horses are merely "machines" reacting to stimuli has been critically reassessed, partly due to Maurice Hontang's ''Psychology of the Horse'' (1954) and subsequent scientific studies.<ref name=":15">{{Harvtxt|Blondeau |2023|p=6}}</ref>  Early research in equine ethology began with Pearl Gardner in the 1930s,<ref name=":16">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=276}}</ref> where horses were initially tested under controlled conditions commonly used for laboratory animals, using mechanisms that granted access to food. These experiments were later refined,<ref group="S">{{Cite journal | last=McCall | first=Cynthia A. | year=2007 | title=Making equine learning research applicable to training procedures | journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=76|issue=1| pages=27–8; discussion 57–60 | doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2006.12.008 | pmid=17433568 |issn=0376-6357|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635707001039|access-date=October 1, 2023| url-access=subscription }}</ref> incorporating visual discrimination tasks and maze tests to evaluate learning abilities.<ref name=":16"/>

Recent studies have shown that horses do not simply follow "pre-programmed routines" but engage in cognitive processes to solve problems, indicating [cognitive flexibility](/source/cognitive_flexibility).<ref group="S" name=":17">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=86}}</ref> The number of scientific publications on animal intelligence has increased steadily since the 2000s,<ref group="S" name=":7"/> particularly as cognitive ethology began including horses among its subjects of study.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=13, 25}}</ref>

=== Knowledge still incomplete ===
Despite these advancements, there are still gaps in knowledge about equine mental faculties. In 2022, psychologist and neuroscientist Michel-Antoine Leblanc observed significant gaps in research,<ref group="S" name=":18">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=13}}</ref> noting the relatively small number of scientific publications,<ref group="S" name=":18"/> particularly before 2005.<ref name=":11" group="S" /> Many earlier studies were anecdotal or speculative rather than systematic.<ref group="S" name=":18"/>

Horses have been the subject of less research compared to other species. While [primate](/source/primate)s have benefited from groundbreaking studies like those of [Jane Goodall](/source/Jane_Goodall),<ref group="S" name=":19">{{Harvtxt|Porcher|2023|p=10}}</ref> and dogs are the primary focus among domestic animals, equine cognition has been less studied by comparison.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|pp=53–54}}</ref> In 2016, researchers Lauren Brubaker and Monique A.R. Udell noted that studies on rat cognition outnumber those on horse cognition by a factor of seven.<ref group="S" name=":20">{{Harvtxt|Brubaker|Udell|2016|p=122}}</ref> The question of whether horses possess consciousness remains unresolved.<ref group="S" name=":17"/>

In 2023, ''Éditions Quæ'' published the first book dedicated to the intelligence of working horses.<ref group="P">{{Cite web |date=April 19, 2023 |title=Le travail pour mieux appréhender l'intelligence des chevaux |trans-title=Work to better understand the intelligence of horses |url=https://www.depecheveterinaire.com/le-travail-pour-mieux-apprehender-l-intelligence-des-chevaux_679F53833768A566.html |access-date=September 3, 2023 |website=La dépêche Vétérinaire |language=fr}}</ref><ref group="P">{{Cite journal |last=Gouraud |first=Jean-Louis |date=2023 |title=Comment devenir plus intelligent |trans-title=How to become smarter |journal=Cheval Magazine |language=fr |issue=621 |page=12 |issn=0245-3614}}</ref> Jocelyne Porcher emphasized the potential insights gained from observing animals in work-related contexts, a field long overlooked by researchers despite its potential to reveal complex cognitive abilities.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Porcher|2023|pp=10–11}}</ref>

== Definition of equine intelligence ==
thumb|upright|French zootechnician and sociologist Jocelyne Porcher has worked on equine intelligence.
Michel-Antoine Leblanc highlights the long-standing debate over equine intelligence, which has generated a range of responses.<ref name=":12" group="S" /><ref name=":21">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=275}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":22">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher|2023|p=35}}</ref> He notes that there is no singular or unambiguous definition of intelligence, particularly when applied to horses.<ref name=":23">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|pp=15, 57}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=71}}</ref> Historian and journalist [Stephen Budiansky](/source/Stephen_Budiansky) discusses the broader question of how intelligence itself is defined, as its meaning has evolved over time.<ref name=":24">{{Harvtxt|Budiansky|1997|p=148}}</ref> Jocelyne Porcher and Sophie Barreau emphasized the importance of originality in behavioral responses as a characteristic of intelligence, distinguishing it from simple conditioned reactions.<ref group="S" name=":22"/> Instinctual behaviors in horses, such as fighting biting insects or seeking cooler areas during hot weather, are sometimes interpreted as signs of intelligence.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=19}}</ref>

Modern interpretations of intelligence focus on the ability to solve problems,<ref name=":24"/><ref group="S" name=":9"/> establish relationships between elements, and assimilate new information, rather than merely demonstrating good memory.<ref name=":24"/> Jocelyne Porcher underscores the subjective nature of these assessments, noting that horses possess "the intelligence that researchers are willing to attribute to them", as it is researchers who define the experimental conditions and cognitive tests.<ref group="S" name=":19"/> As human evaluators, researchers inherently influence the interpretation of equine cognition, particularly in comparisons with other mammal species.<ref name=":25">{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=77}}</ref>

To navigate these definitional challenges, some researchers, including Michel-Antoine Leblanc<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=73}}</ref> and Léa Lansade,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=141–142}}</ref> focus on describing horses' cognitive processes without attempting to quantify their intellectual performance. Leblanc rejects efforts to measure an [intelligence quotient](/source/intelligence_quotient) (IQ) equivalent for horses,<ref name=":26">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=15}}</ref> as well as attempts to determine whether horses are "more" or "less" intelligent than other species like dogs or cats.<ref name=":26"/><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=75}}</ref> Horses, as herbivorous prey animals, exhibit cognition and behavior that present different scientific questions compared to carnivorous domestic species like dogs and cats.<ref name=":0" group="S" />

=== Intelligence studied through interaction with humans ===
Among domestic animals, horses hold a unique position. Their modern domestic lifestyle differs significantly from that of their wild ancestors, while their intensive training for roles in [sport](/source/List_of_equestrian_sports), work, or companionship involves learning tasks far removed from their natural instincts—for instance, a movie horse learning to simulate death.<ref group="S" name=":20"/><ref group="S" name=":22"/><ref name=":27">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=274}}</ref> Beyond suppressing their innate flight responses in frightening situations, horses are trained to communicate and cooperate with humans, a species they might naturally associate with [predators](/source/Predation).<ref group="S" name=":20"/><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher|2023|p=41}}</ref><ref group="note">The hypothesis of a human assimilation to a predator from the point of view of the horse is controversial. [Hominids](/source/Hominidae) are not a family of mammals known to have large predators.</ref> Authors like Alexis L'Hotte, François Baucher, [Alois Podhajsky](/source/Alois_Podhajsky), and [Nuno Oliveira](/source/Nuno_Oliveira) suggest that intelligence in equestrian work is closely associated with affectivity and mutual understanding:<ref group="S" name=":28">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher|2023|p=39}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Two living beings who are asked to collaborate harmoniously must understand each other to achieve a result.|author=[Alois Podhajsky](/source/Alois_Podhajsky)|title=''L'équitation''<ref group="S" name=":28"/>}}

A survey conducted in France by [sociologist](/source/Sociology) Vanina Deneux-le Barh, involving 800 professionals in the equestrian sector and published in 2021<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=27}}</ref> and 2023, reveals that equestrian professionals often describe their horses as "partners".<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=1}}</ref> These professionals highlight situational intelligence in horses, recognizing their ability to adapt and take initiative.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=12}}</ref> Notably, the mental demands placed on horses often correspond to the complexity of their tasks.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=13}}</ref>

Respondents also stressed the importance of rewarding horses to foster cooperation and nurture their intelligence.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|pp=12–13}}</ref> Equine intelligence often reflects the skills and methods of their trainers,<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher|2023|pp=50–51}}</ref> particularly when conditioning and positive reinforcement align with the horse's natural inclinations.<ref group="P" name=":29">{{Cite web |last=Coarse |first=Jim |date=June 17, 2008 |title=What Big Brown Couldn't Tell You and Mr. Ed Kept to Himself |url=https://www.bloodhorse.com/horse-racing/bloodhorse-magazine |access-date=September 16, 2008 |website=The Blood-Horse}}</ref>

<gallery mode="nolines" class="center" widths="180" caption="Examples of mobilizing equine intelligence through interaction with humans">
File:Pas espagnol.jpg|Learning the [Spanish walk](/source/Spanish_walk) with the help of a stick to give cues
File:Шпагат конный Ксении Ф.jpg|Training two circus horses in Russia
File:Horse clicker training italy 2.jpg|Training a horse using clicker conditioning
File:Female equestrian riding her beautiful horse with her new pony aside her.jpg|Training a young horse alongside an older, more experienced one
File:Joe Heim training 3 yr old NCHA Futurity prospect.jpg|Training a young horse for cattle work
File:Représentation publique du Cadre noir-19052012-4.jpg|Mounted [Cadre Noir](/source/Cadre_Noir) horse, jumping a table
File:京都競馬場の馬事アトラクション「ファンタジックホースショー」（2015年10月25日）.JPG|Japanese horses trained in freedom
</gallery>

The outcomes of horse-human collaboration highlight both the physical and cognitive contributions of horses to their activities.<ref group="S" name=":30">{{Harvtxt|Deneux–Le Barh|2023|p=13}}</ref> Deneux-le Barh describes equestrian disciplines as [communities of practices](/source/Community_of_practice) that highlight the recognition of equine subjectivity and intelligence:<ref group="S" name=":30"/>

{{Blockquote|text=[Driving](/source/Driving_(horse)), [dressage](/source/dressage), [western riding](/source/western_riding), and so on, are disciplines that require not only exceptional mastery of each movement but also a synthetic and immediate understanding of the messages of the driver or rider.|title=''De l'intelligence des chevaux'' <ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=65}}</ref>}}

Horses demonstrate intelligence through [isopraxis](/source/Isopraxism)—their ability to subtly perceive and respond to the movements of their riders.<ref group="S" name=":31">{{Harvtxt|Dray|2023|p=79}}</ref> Furthermore, studies on equine cognition suggest that familiarity with humans or other partners may influence how a horse's cognitive abilities are expressed.<ref group="S" name=":32">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=326}}</ref>

=== Conditions of experience and limits ===
Like all mammals, horses construct their understanding of the world through sensory information.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=19}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=93–94}}</ref> However, their sensory perception and understanding of the world differ from that of humans.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=16–17}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=11}}</ref> Any evaluation of equine intelligence should consider their unique [perceptual](/source/Perception) capacities.<ref group="S" name=":33">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|p=55}}</ref>

Horses are sometimes studied under experimental conditions suited to their species.<ref name=":34">{{Harvtxt|Budiansky|1997|pp=150–151}}</ref> Both Budiansky and Leblanc suggest that comparing the intelligence of different species may reflect [cultural bias](/source/cultural_bias)es and may not fully account for differences in sensory perception and physical capabilities.<ref name=":34"/><ref group="S" name=":35">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=59}}</ref> For instance, while horses are sometimes considered "less intelligent" than octopuses or equated with the intelligence of three-year-old children,<ref name=":34"/><ref group="S" name=":35"/> comparisons with octopuses often overlook the differences in their anatomical adaptations,<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|p=54}}</ref> particularly regarding their ability to manipulate objects:<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=193–194}}</ref>center|thumb|671x671px|Behavior of a horse facing a box containing food: Sniffing the lid, lifting the lid, opening the box, eating the food. Excerpted from the article ''Do horses expect humans to solve their problems?'' (2012).<ref group="S" name=":37">{{Cite journal|last1=Lesimple|first1=Clémence |last2=Sankey|first2=Carol |last3=Richard|first3=Marie-Annick|last4=Hausberger|first4=Martine |year=2012|title=Do Horses Expect Humans to Solve Their Problems?|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=3|page=306 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00306 |doi-access=free |pmid=22936923 |pmc=3426792 |issn=1664-1078}}</ref>

Another major limitation in cognitive studies is the insufficient consideration of the horse's emotional state. Stress or discomfort can negatively influence performance in experiments.<ref name=":36">{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=10}}</ref> Ethologist Martine Hausberger and her team highlight the impact of living conditions on cognitive outcomes, noting that horses subjected to poor living conditions tend to exhibit diminished cognitive abilities.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Hausberger|first1=M. |last2=Stomp|first2=M. |last3=Sankey |first3=C.|last4=Brajon|first4=S. |year=2019|title=Mutual interactions between cognition and welfare: The horse as an animal model|journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=107|pages=540–559|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.022 |pmid=31491471 |issn=0149-7634|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0149763419303549|access-date=September 3, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Earlier studies, especially those conducted before the 2000s, did not always account for the potential influence of prior learning on experimental outcomes.<ref group="S" name=":38">{{Cite journal|last1=Krueger |first1=Konstanze  |last2=Flauger|first2=Birgit|year=2007|title=Social learning in horses from a novel perspective|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=76|issue=1 |pages=37–39|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2006.08.010 |pmid=17428621 |issn=0376-6357|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11549699.pdf}}</ref>

Although [anthropomorphism](/source/anthropomorphism) has traditionally been viewed as inappropriate, it can occasionally help in understanding horses' cognitive abilities through comparisons with [human behavior](/source/human_behavior).<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=14}}</ref> However, attributing human-like emotions and reasoning to horses—such as jealousy or premeditated malice—may oversimplify their behaviors.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=15–16}}</ref>

=== Factors influencing cognitive performance in horses ===
thumb|Young horses show more curiosity than older ones. Here, a foal examines a domestic dog.
Leblanc also points out that expressions of intelligence can vary greatly within the same individual and species,<ref name=":23"/> depending on factors such as social preferences or the ability to engage in abstract thinking.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=72, 86}}</ref> There is no evidence to suggest that horses dominant in the social hierarchy are more intelligent than other members of their group.<ref name=":39">{{Harvtxt|Budiansky|1997|p=162}}</ref> Young horses tend to demonstrate more investigative behavior (curiosity) and interact more with test devices than older horses, which may influence their learning in certain contexts.<ref group="S" name=":40">{{Cite journal|last1=Lindberg |first1=A. C.  |last2=Kelland|first2=A.|last3=Nicol|first3=C. J.|year=1999|title=Effects of observational learning on acquisition of an operant response in horses|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=61|issue=3|pages=187–199|doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00184-1 |issn=0168-1591|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159198001841|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":41">{{Cite journal|last1=Krueger |first1=Konstanze  |last2=Farmer |first2=Kate |last3=Heinze|first3=Jürgen |year=2014|title=The effects of age, rank and neophobia on social learning in horses|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=17|issue=3|pages=645–655|doi=10.1007/s10071-013-0696-x |pmid=24170136 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-013-0696-x|access-date=October 1, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In addition to age, a lower hierarchical rank may be a factor that promotes learning, potentially due to reduced [neophobia](/source/neophobia).<ref group="S" name=":41"/>

=== Breed differences ===
{{Main article|Horse breed}}
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 49193 Wildlife and Plants of Israel.jpg|thumb|The [Arabian horse](/source/Arabian_horse) is a breed often described as more intelligent than others. The concept has not been scientifically demonstrated.]]
There are very few comparative studies on equine intelligence by [breed](/source/Horse_breed), but Budiansky suggests that the [American Quarter Horse](/source/American_Quarter_Horse) might perform differently from the [Thoroughbred](/source/Thoroughbred).<ref>{{Harvtxt|Budiansky|1997|pp=162–163}}</ref> This hypothesis is consistent with the findings of Lindberg et al., who propose that cold-blooded horses (such as [ponies](/source/Pony) and [draft horse](/source/draft_horse)s) may complete conditioning tasks faster than [hot-blooded horse](/source/hot-blooded_horse)s such as the Thoroughbred and the [Arabian](/source/Arabian_horse).<ref group="S" name=":40" /> In 1933, L. P. Gardner concluded that the [Belgian Draft](/source/Belgian_Draught) horse, under certain conditions, learned tasks more quickly than the [Percheron](/source/Percheron).<ref group="H">{{Cite journal|last=Gardner |first=L. P.|year=1933|title=The responses of horses to the situation of a closed feed box|journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=445–467|doi=10.1037/h0074308 |issn=0093-4127|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?|access-date=October 1, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Many older<ref group="H">{{Cite book |last=de Lancosme-Brèves |first=Savary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f-w9AAAAcAAJ&q=cheval+arabe+intelligent |title=Guide de l'ami du cheval: revue scientifique, historique et pratique |publisher=Madame Ve Bouchard-Huzard |year=1855 |page=396 |language=fr |trans-title=Guide de l'ami du cheval: revue scientifique, historique et pratique}}</ref> and more recent<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=P. J.|last2=Montague|first2=Sarah|year=2003|title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Horses: The Inside Track on the Care and Grooming of the Most Common Breeds|publisher=Penguin|page=320|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQE_DtUcPN8C&q=arabian+most+intelligent+horse|isbn=978-1-4406-9584-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Schofler|first=Patti |year=2006|title=Flight without Wings: The Arabian Horse And The Show World|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=304|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHjTCwAAQBAJ&q=arabian+intelligent+horse|isbn=978-1-4617-4892-2}}</ref> studies describe the Arabian as a breed with certain cognitive traits that are sometimes perceived as more 'intelligent' compared to other breeds. This view is expressed in ''The Illustrated Horse Management'' by Edward Mayhew, published in 1864:<ref group="note">This book was reprinted around ten times at the end of the 19th century.</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=The Arab horse is undoubtedly the most beautiful and the most intelligent specimen of its race.|title=''The Illustrated Horse Management''|source=preface p.VI<ref group="H">{{Cite book|last=Mayhew|first=Edward |year=1864|title=The Illustrated Horse Management: Containing Descriptive Remarks Upon Anatomy, Medicine, Teeth, Food, Vices, Stables (...)|publisher=W. M. H. Allen and co|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_rfznl97zsC&q=arabian+most+intelligent+horse}}</ref>
}}

French veterinarian Alexandre-Bernard Vallon (1863) considered oriental horses, such as the Arabian and the [Barb](/source/Barb_horse), to be more intelligent than those of "common breeds."<ref group="H">{{Cite book |last=Vallon |first=Alexandre-Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eiRCAAAAcAAJ&q=cheval+pur-sang+intelligent |title=Cours d'hippologie à l'usage de MM. les officiers de l'armée |publisher=Javaud |year=1863 |page=125 |language=fr |trans-title=Hippology course for army officers}}</ref> Maurice Hontang notes that the Arabian and Thoroughbred have been bred for their competitive nature, which might contribute to their psychological differences.<ref group="H">{{Cite book |last=Hontang |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5E-AAAAIAAJ&q=cheval+pur-sang+intelligent |title=Psychologie du cheval: sa personnalité |publisher=Payot |year=1954 |page=178 |language=fr |trans-title=Horse psychology: personality}}</ref>

== The Horse's Brain ==
As with other large mammals, the horse's brain regulates its nervous system, processing perceptions to help the animal respond to them.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc |2022|p=29}}</ref> The brain has an ovoid shape, with a length greater than its width, and contains numerous tightly packed [gyri](/source/Gyrus).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=35}}</ref> Some studies suggest that the right [cerebral hemisphere](/source/cerebral_hemisphere) may be more involved in processing communication signals, while the left cerebral hemisphere may play a greater role in [categorization](/source/Cognitive_categorization) [stimuli](/source/Stimulus_(psychology)).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc |2022|p=46}}</ref>

The brain of an adult horse weighs approximately 510 grams;<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc |2022|p=51}}</ref> however, [brain size](/source/brain_size) relative to body size is not considered a definitive factor in measuring intelligence.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc |2022|p=52}}</ref> The [encephalization](/source/Encephalization_quotient) quotient (EQ) for horses is 0.9%<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=51}}</ref>

== Cognitive abilities of horses ==
As riding instructor Nicolas Blondeau observes, a horse possesses [learning](/source/learning) and [adaptation](/source/adaptation) abilities that enable them to acquire new skills.<ref name=":15"/> Training enables horses to acquire specific skills through repeated practice and reinforcement.<ref name=":15"/> Horses display intelligence in solving various daily tasks, such as [finding food](/source/Animal_feed) and managing [social interactions](/source/social_organization).<ref group="P" name=":42">{{Cite web |last1=Clarkson |first1=Neil |last2=Hanggi |first2=Evelyn B. |year=2012 |title=Understanding horse intelligence |url=https://horsetalk.co.nz/2012/10/11/understanding-horse-intelligence/ |access-date=September 3, 2023 |website=Horsetalk.co.nz}}</ref> Discriminative learning is an important aspect to assess when studying horse cognition, as it provides insights into their abilities and contributes to understanding other cognitive domains.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Brubaker|Udell|2016|p=125}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+State of knowledge of the cognitive capacities of the horse
!Capacity or aptitude
!State of knowledge
!'''Sources'''
|-
|Self-awareness
|To be studied further. Not demonstrated by the mirror test.
|<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=86, 88–90}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":10"/>
|-
|[Theory of mind](/source/Theory_of_mind)
|Proven for the attribution of certain mental states, beginnings of proof for the attribution of attentional state (Trösch et al. 2019); to be explored.
|<ref name=":49">{{Cite web |last1=Vidament |first1=Marianne |last2=Lansade |first2=Léa |title=Compréhension par les chevaux de certains états mentaux des humains |trans-title=Horses' understanding of certain human mental states |url=https://equipedia.ifce.fr/sante-et-bien-etre-animal/bien-etre-et-comportement-animal/relation-homme-cheval/comprehension-par-les-chevaux-de-certains-etats-mentaux-des-humains |access-date=October 2, 2023 |website=equipedia.ifce.fr |language=fr}}</ref><ref group="P">{{Cite web |last=Greffoz |first=Valérie|title=Les chevaux aussi font preuve d'esprit|year=2020|trans-title=Horses also show spirit|url=https://www.science-et-vie.com/nature-et-environnement/les-chevaux-aussi-font-preuve-desprit-6465.html|access-date=October 2, 2023|website=Science et Vie|language=fr}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":43">{{Cite journal|last1=Trösch|first1=Miléna |last2=Ringhofer|first2=Monamie|last3=Yamamoto|first3=Shinya|last4=Lemarchand|first4=Julie|year=2019|title=Horses prefer to solicit a person who previously observed a food-hiding process to access this food: A possible indication of attentional state attribution|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=166|pages=103–906|article-number=103906 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103906 |pmid=31301426 |issn=0376-6357|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=167}}</ref>
|-
|[Emotional contagion](/source/Emotional_contagion)
|Some evidence (Trösch et al. 2020). Emotional contagion between horses remains to be studied.
|<ref group="P" name=":44">{{Cite web |last=Mayer |first=Nathalie |year=2022 |title=Bêtes de science: le cheval, un champion de l'intelligence sociale |trans-title=Beasts of science: the horse, a champion of social intelligence |url=https://www.futura-sciences.com/planete/actualites/animaux-betes-science-cheval-champion-intelligence-sociale-95882/ |access-date=September 2, 2023 |website=futura-sciences.com |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":45">{{Cite web|last1=Vidament|first1=Marianne |last2=Lansade |first2=Léa |last3=Jardat|first3=Plotine |website=equipedia.ifce.fr|year=2022|title=Attribution d'une réputation aux humains et contagion émotionnelle entre chevaux|url=https://equipedia.ifce.fr/sante-et-bien-etre-animal/bien-etre-et-comportement-animal/perception-et-comprehension/attribution-dune-reputation-aux-humains-et-contagion-emotionnelle-entre-chevaux|access-date=October 2, 2023|language=fr|trans-title=Reputation attribution to humans and emotional contagion among horses}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Pérez-Manrique|first1=Ana|last2=Gomila|first2=Antoni |year=2022|title=Emotional contagion in nonhuman animals: A review|journal=WIREs Cognitive Science|volume=13|issue=1|article-number=e1560 |doi=10.1002/wcs.1560 |pmid=33951303 |pmc=9285817 |issn=1939-5078}}</ref>
<ref group="S" name=":46">{{Cite journal|last1=Trösch|first1=Miléna |last2=Pellon|first2=Sophie |last3=Cuzol |first3=Florent |last4=Parias|first4=Céline |pages=643–653 |year=2020|title=Horses feel emotions when they watch positive and negative horse–human interactions in a video and transpose what they saw to real life|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=23|issue=4|doi=10.1007/s10071-020-01369-0 |pmid=32162112 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-020-01369-0|access-date=October 3, 2023}}</ref>
|-
|Assigning a [reputation](/source/reputation)
|Proven.
|<ref group="P">{{Cite web|last=Hubert|first=Bettina |year=2022|title=Une étude sur notre réputation auprès des chevaux|url=https://www.chevalmag.com/bien-etre/connaissance/une-etude-sur-notre-reputation-aupres-des-chevaux/|website=Cheval Magazine|access-date=October 2, 2023|language=fr|trans-title=A study on our reputation among horses}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":47">{{Cite book |last=Trosch |first=Miléna |url=https://mediatheque.ifce.fr/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=67983 |title=Cognition sociale interspécifique du cheval à l'égard de l'être humain |publisher=Université de Tours |year=2020 |location=Tours |page=213 |language=fr |trans-title=Interspecific social cognition of horses towards humans}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":48">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=26}}</ref><ref name=":45"/>
|-
|Referential communication (movements to attract attention)
|Some evidence.
|<ref group="S" name=":47"/><ref name=":49"/><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=322–323}}</ref>
|-
|[Mental representation](/source/Mental_representation)
|Proven, [sense of direction](/source/Wayfinding) only mentioned by anecdotes.
|<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=55, 93}}</ref><ref name=":50">{{Harvtxt|Franchini |2009|pp=50–51}}</ref>
|-
|[Long-term memory](/source/Long-term_memory)
|Proven (Hanggi and Ingersoll 2009), up to ten years.
|<ref group="S" name=":51">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=26}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":52">{{Cite journal|last1=Hanggi|first1=Evelyn B.|last2=Ingersoll|first2=Jerry F.|year=2009|title=Long-term memory for categories and concepts in horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=12|issue=3|pages=451–462|doi=10.1007/s10071-008-0205-9 |pmid=19148689 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-008-0205-9|access-date=September 4, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":53">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=65}}</ref>
|-
|[Working memory](/source/Working_memory)
|Low, about twenty seconds.
|<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Valenchon|first1=Mathilde |last2=Lévy|first2=Frédéric |last3=Fortin |first3=Margot |last4=Leterrier|first4=Christine|year=2013|title=Stress and temperament affect working memory performance for disappearing food in horses, Equus caballus|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=86|issue=6|pages=1233–1240|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.09.026 |issn=0003-3472|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347213004302|access-date=October 31, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":54">{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=181–183}}</ref>
|-
|[Short-term memory](/source/Short-term_memory)
|Proven (Hanggi 2010), about thirty seconds.
|<ref name=":55">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=64}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":56">{{Cite journal|last=Hanggi|first=Evelyn B.|year=2010|title=Short-term Memory Testing in Domestic Horses: Experimental Design Plays a Role|journal=Journal of Equine Veterinary Science|volume=30|issue=11|pages=617–623|doi=10.1016/j.jevs.2010.10.004 |issn=0737-0806|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0737080610004132|access-date=September 29, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":57">{{Harvtxt|Whishaw|Burke|2020|p=211}}</ref>
|-
|[Categorization](/source/Cognitive_categorization)
|Proven.
|<ref group="S" name=":58">{{Cite journal|last=Hanggi|first=Evelyn B.|year=1999|title=Categorization learning in horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology|volume=113|issue=3|pages=243–252|doi=10.1037/0735-7036.113.3.243 |issn=1939-2087|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?|access-date=September 29, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":59">{{Harvtxt|Hanggi|2005|pp=246, 252–254}}</ref><ref name=:"60">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=52}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":61">{{Cite journal|last=Hanggi|first=Evelyn B.|year=2003|title=Discrimination learning based on relative size concepts in horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=83|issue=3|pages=201–213|doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(03)00136-9 |issn=0168-1591|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159103001369|access-date=September 29, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Sappington |first1=B. F.|last2=Goldman|first2=L.|year=1994|title=Discrimination learning and concept formation in the Arabian horse|journal=Journal of Animal Science|volume=72|issue=12|pages=3080–3087|doi=10.2527/1994.72123080x |pmid=7759356 |issn=0021-8812|url=https://academic.oup.com/jas/article-abstract/72/12/3080/4719310?redirectedFrom=fulltext|access-date=September 29, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
|-
|Enumeration
|Controversial, perhaps an ability to count to four.
|<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|pp=53–55}}</ref>
|-
|[Object permanence](/source/Object_permanence)
|Failure (a study).
|<ref group="S" name=":63">{{Cite journal|last1=Trösch|first1=Miléna |last2=Flamand|first2=Anna |last3=Chasles |first3=Manon |last4=Nowak|first4=Raymond|year=2020|title=Horses Solve Visible but Not Invisible Displacement Tasks in an Object Permanence Paradigm|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=11|article-number=562989|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.562989 |doi-access=free |pmid=33117229 |pmc=7552213 |issn=1664-1078}}</ref>
|-
|[Telepathy](/source/Telepathy)
|Supported by Henry Blake<ref group="S" name=":13"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Blake|first=Henry |year=2011|title=Talking with Horses|publisher=Souvenir Press|isbn=978-0-285-63945-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyqGDwAAQBAJ|page=176}}</ref> and Rupert Sheldrake,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kidd|first1=Ian James|last2=McKinnell|first2=Liz |year=2015|title=Science and the Self: Animals, Evolution, and Ethics: Essays in Honour of Mary Midgley|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-48293-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wNxzCgAAQBAJ&q=Sheldrake+horse+telepathy|page=252}}</ref> always mentioned by testimonies,<ref group="P">{{Cite web|last=Rampert|first=Margaux |year=2016|title=Communication animale: le jour où mes chevaux m'ont "parlé"|language=fr|trans-title=Animal Communication: The Day My Horses "Spoke" to Me|url=https://www.psychologies.com/Planete/Les-animaux-et-nous/Articles-et-Dossiers/Communication-animale-le-jour-ou-mes-chevaux-m-ont-parle|website=psychologies.com|access-date=October 3, 2023}}</ref><ref group="P">{{Cite journal|year=1995|title=Horse Telepathy|journal=Yoga Journal|publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cukDAAAAMBAJ&dq=horse+telepathy&pg=PA16|access-date=October 4, 2023}}</ref> never demonstrated.
|<ref>{{Harvtxt|Despret|2015|pp=35, 41–44}}</ref><ref group="H" name=":12"/>
|}
The ability to learn [conspecifically](/source/Biological_specificity) (by observing other horses) was long unknown,<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Baer|first1=K. L.|last2=Potter|first2=G. D.|last3=Friend|first3=T. H.|last4=Beaver|first4=B. V.|year=1983|title=Observation effects on learning in horses|journal=Applied Animal Ethology|volume=11|issue=2|pages=123–129|doi=10.1016/0304-3762(83)90121-9 |issn=0304-3762|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0304376283901219|access-date=October 1, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref> until it was demonstrated in 2008.<ref group="S" name=":64">{{Harvtxt|Brubaker|Udell|2016|p=123}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":65">{{Cite journal|last1=Krueger |first1=Konstanze |last2=Heinze|first2=Jürgen |year=2008|title=Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horses' behavior|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=11|issue=3|pages=431–439|doi=10.1007/s10071-007-0133-0 |pmid=18183432 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-007-0133-0|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":41"/>

=== Horse problem solving performance ===

Domestic horses, which live in controlled environments and are trained to perform specific tasks, are often tested in problem-solving contexts, but direct comparisons to  [wild horses](/source/Feral_horse) are limited.<ref name=":11" group="S" />

Budiansky suggests that, compared to some other species, horses may not be as adept at [problem-solving](/source/Problem_solving).<ref name=":66">{{Harvtxt|Budiansky|1997|p=153}}</ref> Some studies suggest that carnivores and primates may perform better in certain problem-solving tasks, such as avoiding obstacles.<ref name=":66"/> He also hypothesizes that differences between carnivores and [herbivore](/source/herbivore)s, such as evolutionary adaptations, might influence their performance in these tasks.<ref name=":66"/> Herbivores, such as horses, may approach problem-solving differently from carnivores due to their distinct evolutionary behaviors. Veterinarian Robert M. Miller suggests that horses are capable of making decisions when faced with challenging situations.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Robert M.|year=2001|title=Behavior and Misbehavior of the Horse|journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice|volume=17|issue=2|pages=379–387|doi=10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30068-8 |pmid=15658182 |issn=0749-0739|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0749073917300688|access-date=October 1, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

[Ethnologist](/source/Ethnology) María Fernanda de Torres Álvarez suggests that working relationships may allow horses to apply their cognitive abilities to solve practical problems.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|pp= 59, 69}}</ref> She cites the example of [Camargue horse](/source/Camargue_horse)s, which, when used for [cattle work](/source/Working_equitation), are reported to help manage the situation by responding to their rider's cues and adjusting their actions.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|p= 64}}</ref> According to some observations, horses demonstrate problem-solving abilities in contexts where they need to find solutions to tasks.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|p= 65}}</ref> Budiansky notes that horses tend to perform at an average level in most maze tests. The learning performance of horses in maze tests has been found to be similar to that of other species, including tropical fish, octopuses, and guinea pigs, in some studies.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|p=67}}</ref> Maria Franchini points out that rats, being subterranean animals, may be better suited to navigating maze-like environments, which could explain some of the differences in performance compared to horses, which naturally inhabit more open spaces.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|pp= 69–70}}</ref>

=== Horse performance in maze tests ===
thumb|Example of a small "T" shaped maze used for experiments on animal cognition.
According to Budiansky, horses tend to perform at an average level in most [maze](/source/Labyrinth) tests.<ref name=":67">{{Harvtxt|Budiansky|1997|p=151}}</ref> These tests typically involve a "T" or "Y" shaped maze with two options: one leading to a dead end and the other leading to food, water, or social contact with other horses. The horse cannot see the end of either branch of the maze in advance.<ref name=":67"/><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last=Murphy|first=Jack|year=2009|title=Assessing equine prospective memory in a Y-maze apparatus|journal=The Veterinary Journal|volume=181|issue=1|pages=24–28|doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.03.028 |pmid=19398355 |issn=1090-0233|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090023309001129|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The performance of horses in these tests is generally similar to that of tropical fish, octopuses, and [guinea pig](/source/guinea_pig)s.<ref name=":67"/> In the experiment cited by [Budiansky](/source/Stephen_Budiansky), 20% of the horses made errors in finding the exit even after five trials.<ref name=":67"/>

Maria Franchini points out that while rats tend to perform better than horses in maze tests, this may be influenced by the rats' subterranean behavior, as they are accustomed to navigating confined spaces, while wild horses typically inhabit larger, open environments.<ref name=":36"/>

=== Memory ===
thumb|Horse examining a cat
thumb|Two-choice memory test.<br />
(A) A horse mounted at the midpoint between two plates containing droppings approaches the right plate and sniffs the target.<br />
(B) About 5 minutes later, the horse is presented with a second choice and chooses the left target.<br />
(C) About 5 minutes later, the horse is presented with a third choice and walks past the previous two targets without examining either.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Whishaw|Burke|2020|p=212}}</ref>
Horses' strong memory is one of the few characteristics commonly acknowledged by both 19th-century horsemen and modern researchers.<ref name=":68">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=59}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":31"/><ref group="S" name=":69">{{Harvtxt|Álvares|2023|p=56}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Whishaw|Burke|2020|p=209}}</ref> In 1892, the sociologist [Gustave Le Bon](/source/Gustave_Le_Bon) wrote:

{{Blockquote|text=The fundamental characteristic of the horse's psychology is memory. Not very intelligent, it seems to have a representative memory far superior to that of man.|author=[Gustave Le Bon](/source/Gustave_Le_Bon)|title=''L'équitation actuelle et ses principes''<ref name=":68"/><ref group="S" name=":12"/>}}

In the equestrian world, there are numerous reports of horses recalling individuals who [mistreated](/source/Cruelty_to_animals) them, even years later.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=84–85}}</ref> However, Michel-Antoine Leblanc notes that scientific research on this topic has historically been limited, and the consensus on horses' memory has often been based on [anecdotal evidence](/source/anecdotal_evidence).<ref group="S" name=":51"/><ref name=":68"/>

In 1995, Dr. R. M. Miller suggested that horses possess excellent memory due to their [evolutionary history](/source/Evolution_of_the_horse), though he did not provide empirical evidence to support this.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R. M.|year=1995|title=The amazing memory of the horse|journal=Journal of Equine Veterinary Science|volume=15|issue=8|pages=340–341|doi=10.1016/S0737-0806(07)80538-7 |issn=0737-0806|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0737080607805387|access-date=September 4, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 2009, a study by Evelyn Hanggi and Jerry Hingersol provided the first scientific evidence of [long-term memory](/source/long-term_memory) in horses, showing that they could retain complex [memories](/source/Recall_(memory))—such as learning rules and performing mental tasks—for up to ten years.<ref group="S" name=":51"/><ref group="S" name=":52"/><ref name=":53"/> Horses also appear to remember people they interact with, recalling both positive and negative experiences.<ref group="S" name=":20"/> Ethologist Marthe Kiley-Worthington reported training two horses from a young age to understand approximately two hundred words.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=128–129}}</ref>

When horses were exposed daily to an [arena](/source/Riding_hall) with new objects, they demonstrated the ability to recognize and remember objects previously inspected earlier in the day, but would continue to explore them on subsequent days.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Whishaw|Burke|2020|pp=212–213}}</ref>

Regarding [short-term memory](/source/short-term_memory), horses perform similarly to other mammals such as donkeys, cats, and dogs, retaining information for at least 30 seconds.<ref name=":55"/><ref group="S" name=":56"/> Their short-term memory is particularly strong when exploring new objects.<ref group="S" name=":57"/> However, their [working memory](/source/working_memory) is more limited, lasting about 20 seconds.<ref name=":54"/> Lansade suggests that this limitation may be due to the lower demand for extensive working memory in grazing herbivores.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=184}}</ref>

=== Spatial visualization ===
{{Main article|Equine vision}}Despite misconceptions about their [visual perception](/source/visual_perception),<ref group="S" name=":70">{{Harvtxt|Hanggi|2005|p=251}}</ref> horses have [eyesight](/source/Equine_vision) adapted to open environments.<ref group="S" name=":71">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=303}}</ref> While they do not have sharp<ref group="S" name=":33"/><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=132–133}}</ref> and their color perception is [dichromatic](/source/Dichromacy),<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Blackmore|first1=T. L.|last2=Foster|first2=T. M.|last3=Sumpter |first3=C. E.|last4=Temple|first4=W.|year=2008|title=An investigation of colour discrimination with horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=78|issue=3|pages=387–396|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2008.02.003 |pmid=18359171 |issn=0376-6357|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635708000454|access-date=October 1, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=216}}</ref> horses excel in spatial visualization.<ref group="P" name=":42"/> This makes sense, as sight plays an important role in their social interactions.<ref group="S" name=":71"/> Their ability to navigate suggests they rely on a [cognitive map](/source/Mind_map) of their surroundings.<ref group="S" name=":72">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=93}}</ref>

Horses perform well on spatial ([3D](/source/Three-dimensional_space))<ref group="S" name=":70"/> visual discrimination tasks but struggle more with [2D](/source/Plane_(mathematics)) object discrimination, such as patterns on colored backgrounds.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Hothersall|first1=B.|last2=Gale|first2=E. V.|last3=Harris |first3=P.|last4=Nicol|first4=C. J.|year=2010|title=Cue use by foals (Equus caballus) in a discrimination learning task|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=13|issue=1|pages=63–74|doi=10.1007/s10071-009-0245-9 |pmid=19521725 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-009-0245-9|access-date=October 1, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref> There is no scientific evidence to support the myth that horses need to see an object with both eyes to recognize it,<ref group="S" name=":73">{{Harvtxt|Hanggi|2005|p=250}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":74">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=66}}</ref> as the [optic nerve](/source/optic_nerve) fibers from each eye are connected to the opposite [hemisphere of the brain](/source/cerebral_hemisphere).<ref group="S" name=":74"/>

Hanggi provides examples of horses noticing changes in their surroundings, such as when objects are moved.<ref group="S" name=":70"/> These reactions highlight their ability to detect alterations in their visual environment.<ref group="S" name=":73"/> This skill applies to both concrete objects, such as toys or doors, and abstract ones, like patterns or figures.<ref group="S" name=":73"/> In contrast, experiments on [object permanence](/source/object_permanence) suggest that horses may struggle to track objects once they are no longer visible.<ref group="S" name=":63"/>

Maria Franchini speculates that some horses may be able to perceive small animals or insects in their path, citing the example of a mare which avoided live insects but stepped on dead ones.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=32–33}}</ref> Additionally, many riders report that horses exhibit a strong sense of direction, which psychologist Sara J. Shettleworth suggests is closely linked to their memory.<ref name=":50"/>

=== Counting and categorizing ===

Horses have demonstrated the ability to solve complex cognitive tasks, including [categorizing](/source/Cognitive_categorization) and understanding concepts.<ref group="S" name=":58"/><ref group="S" name=":59"/> Researcher Evelyn Hanggi demonstrated that horses can grasp the relational concept of size by sorting objects of different dimensions.<ref name=:"60"/><ref group="S" name=":61"/> Horses can also distinguish complex patterns, such as certain geometric [shape](/source/shape)s, and are particularly adept at recognizing [triangles](/source/triangle).<ref group="S" name=":62"/>

Studies on horses' counting abilities often reference the famous case of Clever Hans, though it remains unclear whether horses truly possess the ability to count.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|pp=53–54}}</ref> Some research indicates that horses can differentiate between quantities, such as one apple and two, or two apples and three, but may not distinguish between larger quantities like four and six.<ref name=":74">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2019|p=55}}</ref> This suggests that horses can "count" up to four.<ref group="P">{{Cite web|last=Lesté-Lasserre|first=Christa|year=2009|title=Horses Demonstrate Ability to Count in New Study|url=https://thehorse.com/153867/horses-demonstrate-ability-to-count-in-new-study/|website=The Horse|access-date=September 10, 2023}}</ref>

These studies also show that horses can form [mental representations](/source/mental_representation) and perform simple counting tasks.<ref name=":74"/>

=== An ability to improvise? ===
thumb|Horses on a show stage in freedom, in front of an audience.
Based on practical experiences, Doctor of Theatre Studies Charlène Dray suggests that show horses are capable of [improvising](/source/Improvisation) on stage without expecting a reward, provided they have exploratory objects available.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Dray|2023|pp=82–94}}</ref> However, some riders who work with show horses agree that these animals are not aware of creating artistic [emotions](/source/emotion).<ref group="S" name=":10"/>

Shelly R. Scott describes a similar practical example, involving a horse race for where neither the horses nor their riders were prepared, requiring both to improvised during the event.<ref group="S">{{Cite book|last=Scott|first=Shelly R.|year=2009|title=The racehorse as protagonist: agency, independence, and improvisation|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-474-2924-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICawCQAAQBAJ&q=horse+improvisation}}</ref>

== Social intelligence of the horse ==
{{Main article|Social intelligence}}
[[File:Stopp.jpg|thumb|Example of [interspecific communication](/source/interspecies_communication) through body language: here, the woman asks the horse to stop its interaction.]]
Many studies have highlighted horses' advanced [social intelligence](/source/social_intelligence).<ref group="P" name=":44"/><ref group="S" name=":47"/><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=326–327}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=170}}</ref> According to Lansade, scientific research on horses' social cognition toward humans has yielded significant findings, especially in the late 2010s.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=142}}</ref> These studies suggest that horses have a complex representation of the individuals they interact with,<ref group="S" name=":32"/> which has led to their consideration as potential subjects for research on the [theory of mind](/source/theory_of_mind).<ref group="S" name=":64"/> These findings contribute to understanding their broader learning capabilities.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=81}}</ref>

In the wild, horses live in groups and learn from one another within these social structures.<ref group="S" name=":40"/><ref group="S" name=":38"/> Social learning is influenced by [hierarchy](/source/hierarchy), with horses more likely to learn from dominant members of their group than from subordinate members or those outside the group.<ref group="S" name=":65"/> While visual social communication is a key aspect of equine interaction, it is more difficult to study in comparison to species that rely on sound-based communication.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp=117–118}}</ref> Additionally, horses can experience [emotional contagion](/source/emotional_contagion), as seen in their responses to films.<ref group="P" name=":44"/><ref group="S" name=":46"/>

When working with humans, horses tend to seek cooperation, [calmness](/source/Tranquillity), and avoidance of [conflict](/source/Conflict_(process)).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Barreau|Porcher|2023|p=50}}</ref> They are capable of interpreting human body language,<ref group="P">{{Cite web|last=Lesté-Lasserre|first=Christa|year=2009|title=Horses Read Human Body Cues, Researchers Say|url=https://thehorse.com/153232/horses-read-human-body-cues-researchers-say/|website=TheHorse.com|access-date=June 24, 2016}}</ref> reading human [emotion](/source/emotion)s, and attributing mental states to humans.<ref group="S" name=":47"/> For example, Maria Franchini describes a situation in which a horse distinguishes between a helpful gesture, such as swatting an insect off its body, and an aggressive gesture, such as an attempt to hit it. In response to the latter, the horse may react by fleeing or resisting.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=137}}</ref> An Icelandic study involving two groups of horses exposed to a peer's visual demonstration in solving spatial maze tasks found that the horses exposed to demonstrations did not perform better than control animals, suggesting that social learning was not effective in this context.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Rørvang|first1=Maria Vilain|last2=Ahrendt |first2=Line Peerstrup|last3=Christensen|first3=Janne Winther|year=2015|title=Horses fail to use social learning when solving spatial detour tasks|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=18|issue=4|pages=847–854|doi=10.1007/s10071-015-0852-6 |pmid=25716720 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-015-0852-6|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Recognition of other horses and humans ===
{{Main article|Face perception}}

Horses can recognize individual humans and other horses<ref group="S" name=":72"/> using simple auditory cues, such as a voice, or visual cues, like facial features.<ref group="S" name=":32"/><ref group="P">{{Cite web|last=Miserey|first=Yves|year=2012|title=Le cheval reconnaît la voix et le visage|url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/sciences/2012/05/15/01008-20120515ARTFIG00841-le-cheval-reconnait-la-voix-et-le-visage.php|website=Le Figaro|access-date=July 28, 2013|language=fr|trans-title=The horse recognizes the voice and the face}}</ref><ref name=":75">{{Cite web|last1=Vidament|first1=Marianne|last2=Lansade|first2=Léa|last3=Jardat|first3=Plotine|year=2021|title=Reconnaissance des êtres humains par les chevaux|url=https://equipedia.ifce.fr/sante-et-bien-etre-animal/bien-etre-et-comportement-animal/relation-homme-cheval/reconnaissance-des-etres-humains-par-les-chevaux|website=equipedia.ifce.fr|access-date=September 4, 2023|language=fr|trans-title=Recognition of Human Beings by Horses}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=143–148}}</ref> Experiments have shown that horses can discriminate between faces in photographs or films<ref group="S" name=":19"/> and associate these with real individuals.<ref name=":75"/> Horses have also demonstrated the ability to differentiate between photographs of identical twins.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Sherril M.|year=2010|title=Human facial discrimination in horses: can they tell us apart?|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=13|issue=1|pages=51–61|doi=10.1007/s10071-009-0244-x |pmid=19533185 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-009-0244-x|access-date=September 4, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":75"/> Additionally, horses can remember familiar faces they have not seen for up to six months and can recognize them in photos.<ref name=":75"/><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Lansade|first1=Léa |last2=Colson|first2=Violaine |last3=Parias |first3=Céline |last4=Trösch|first4=Miléna|year=2020|title=Female horses spontaneously identify a photograph of their keeper, last seen six months previously|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10|issue=1|page=6302 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-62940-w |pmid=32286345 |pmc=7156667 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.6302L |issn=2045-2322}}</ref><ref name=":76">{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=148}}</ref> This ability to recognize faces appears to be holistic, similar to how humans perceive faces as a whole, rather than focusing on individual features.<ref name=":75"/><ref>{{Cite web|last=Lansade|first=Léa|year=2023a|title=Les chevaux nous reconnaissent-ils?|url=https://theconversation.com/les-chevaux-nous-reconnaissent-ils-214497|website=The Conversation|access-date=October 5, 2023|language=fr|trans-title=Do horses recognize us?}}</ref> Lansade notes the significance of this discovery, drawing a comparison with humans who are accustomed to cows, as they may struggle to differentiate individual cows, while most horses can differentiate human faces with ease in just a few days.<ref name=":76"/>

thumb|Differences in horse behavior when listening to a human voice associated with positive experiences, and a human voice associated with negative experiences
Horses can also differentiate between human voices and associate a voice heard through a [speaker](/source/loudspeaker) with the person when they hear it in real life.<ref name=":75"/> They link voices with past experiences, whether positive or negative.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=d'Ingeo|first1=Serenella|last2=Quaranta|first2=Angelo|last3=Siniscalchi|first3=Marcello|last4=Stomp|first4=Mathilde|year=2019|title= Horses associate individual human voices with the valence of past interactions: a behavioural and electrophysiological study|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=9|issue=1|page=11568|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47960-5 |pmid=31399629 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911568D |issn=2045-2322|pmc=6689011}}</ref> Furthermore, horses can recognize emotions expressed through human [facial expression](/source/facial_expression)s and vocalizations and respond accordingly.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Trösch|first1=Miléna|last2=Cuzol|first2=Florent|last3=Parias|first3=Céline|last4=Calandreau|first4=Ludovic|year=2019|title=Horses Categorize Human Emotions Cross-Modally Based on Facial Expression and Non-Verbal Vocalizations|journal=Animals |volume=9|issue=11|page=862|doi=10.3390/ani9110862 |doi-access=free |pmid=31653088 |pmc=6912773 |issn=2076-2615}}</ref>

Finally, horses seem to have an intermodal [mental representation](/source/mental_representation) of both their peers<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Proops|first1=Leanne|last2=McComb|first2=Karen|last3=Reby|first3=David|year=2009|title=Cross-modal individual recognition in domestic horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106|issue=3|pages=947–951|doi=10.1073/pnas.0809127105 |doi-access=free |pmid=19075246 |issn=0027-8424|pmc=2630083}}</ref> and humans.<ref group="S" name=":77">{{Cite journal|last1=Sankey|first1=Carol|last2=Henry|first2=Séverine|last3=André|first3=Nicolas|last4=Richard-Yris|first4=Marie-Annick|year=2011|title=Do Horses Have a Concept of Person?|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=6|issue=3|article-number=e18331 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0018331 |doi-access=free |pmid=21479184 |pmc=3068175 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...618331S |issn=1932-6203}}</ref> They associate faces, [smells](/source/Odor), voices,<ref name=":75"/><ref group="S" name=":78">{{Cite journal|last1=Lampe|first1=Jessica Frances|last2=Andre|first2=Jeffrey|year=2012|title=Cross-modal recognition of human individuals in domestic horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=15|issue=4|pages=623–630|doi=10.1007/s10071-012-0490-1 |pmid=22526687 |issn=1435-9448|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-012-0490-1|access-date=September 4, 2023}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Proops|first1=Leanne|last2=McComb|first2=Karen|year=2012|title=Cross-modal individual recognition in domestic horses (Equus caballus) extends to familiar humans|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=279|issue=1741|pages=3131–3138|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0626 |pmid=22593108 |pmc=3385734 |issn=0962-8452}}</ref> and expectations based on past experiences.<ref group="S" name=":77"/> Horses deprived of one sense are likely to compensate by relying on their remaining senses to recognize individuals.<ref group="S" name=":78"/>

=== Interspecific communication ===
{{Main article|Interspecies communication}}

Horses can communicate with humans when they feel the need to do so.<ref group="P">{{Cite web|last=Lesté-Lasserre|first=Christa|year=2016|title=Study Confirms Horses 'Talk' to Human Handlers|url=https://thehorse.com/17891/study-confirms-horses-talk-to-human-handlers/|website=thehorse.com|access-date=June 24, 2016}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":79">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=322–324}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":47"/> They are capable of drawing attention to gain access to a food source, such as through their gaze or, in some cases, by making physical contact.<ref group="S" name=":79"/><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Malavasi|first1=Rachele|last2=Huber|first2=Ludwig|year=2016|title=Evidence of heterospecific referential communication from domestic horses (Equus caballus) to humans|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=899–909 |doi=10.1007/s10071-016-0987-0 |pmid=27098164 |issn=1435-9456}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Ringhofer|first1=Monamie|last2=Yamamoto|first2=Shinya|year=2017|title=Domestic horses send signals to humans when they face with an unsolvable task|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=20|issue=3|pages=397–405 |doi=10.1007/s10071-016-1056-4 |pmid=27885519 |issn=1435-9456|hdl=20.500.14094/90003756|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=168–169}}</ref> The horse is the second domestic animal species, after the dog, in which this ability has been demonstrated.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=324}}</ref> Horses appear to be more interested in humans when they anticipate being provided with food,<ref group="S" name=":37"/><ref group="S" name=":43"/> the training method used may influence their interspecific learning abilities. Training that incorporates [ethological principles](/source/Natural_horsemanship) tends to yield better results.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Dorey|first1=Nicole R.|last2=Conover|first2=Alicia M.|last3=Udell|first3=Monique A. R.|year=2014|title=Interspecific communication from people to horses (Equus ferus caballus) is influenced by different horsemanship training styles|journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology|volume=128|issue=4|pages=337–342|doi=10.1037/a0037255 |pmid=25111631 |issn=1939-2087|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?|access-date=November 4, 2014|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

A study has identified a "symbolic communication primer" between humans and horses, which allows horses to express their preference for wearing a [blanket](/source/Horse_blanket) or not.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=324–325}}</ref> According to the 2016 study, horses can learn the meaning of symbols through positive reinforcement (one symbol for putting on a blanket, one for staying as they are, and one for removing the blanket), and can use these symbols to communicate their preferences to humans.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Mejdell|first1=Cecilie M.|last2=Buvik|first2=Turid|last3=Jørgensen|first3=Grete H. M.|last4=Bøe|first4=Knut E.|year=2016|title=Horses can learn to use symbols to communicate their preferences|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=184|pages=66–73|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2016.07.014 |issn=0168-1591|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=324–326}}</ref>

In interspecific communication, horses can consider a human's perspective. In an experiment where two people are present—one knowing where food is hidden and inaccessible to the horse—the horse will instinctively ask for help from the person who knows where the food is.<ref group="P" name=":44"/><ref name=":49"/><ref group="S" name=":43"/> This ability, once thought to be exclusive to large primates and dogs, is considered complex.<ref group="P" name=":44"/>

Experiments on horses' sensitivity to human pointing gestures (e.g., pointing at an object containing food with a finger) have shown that horses value these gestures, though it remains unclear whether they interpret them as communicative signals directed at them..<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=318}}</ref> Four different pointing methods were tested; horses performed well in all tasks except for distal dynamic-momentary pointing, which was significantly more cognitively demanding than the other styles.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Maros|first1=Katalin|last2=Gácsi|first2=Márta|last3=Miklósi|first3=Ádám|year=2008|title=Comprehension of human pointing gestures in horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=11|issue=3|pages=457–466|doi=10.1007/s10071-008-0136-5 |pmid=18247069 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-008-0136-5|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Horses are also sensitive to human attention and are more likely to approach a person who is looking at them while feeding them than one who is not.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Proops|first1=Leanne|last2=McComb|first2=Karen|year=2010|title=Attributing attention: the use of human-given cues by domestic horses (Equus caballus)|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=13|issue=2|pages=197–205|doi=10.1007/s10071-009-0257-5 |pmid=19588176 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-009-0257-5|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Krueger|first1=Konstanze|last2=Flauger|first2=Birgit|last3=Farmer|first3=Kate|last4=Maros|first4=Katalin|year=2011|title=Horses (Equus caballus) use human local enhancement cues and adjust to human attention|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=14|issue=2|pages=187–201|doi=10.1007/s10071-010-0352-7 |pmid=20845052 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-010-0352-7|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Young horses do not seem to be inherently [predisposed](/source/Genetic_predisposition) to recognize or respond to human attention, suggesting that they acquire this skill through learning as they age.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|p=319}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Proops|first1=Leanne|last2=Rayner|first2=Jenny |last3=Taylor|first3=Anna M.|last4=McComb|first4=Karen|year=2013|title=The Responses of Young Domestic Horses to Human-Given Cues|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=6|article-number=e67000 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0067000 |doi-access=free |pmid=23840572 |pmc=3686775 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...867000P |issn=1932-6203}}</ref>

=== Interspecific learning ===

Horses can acquire new skills by observing humans.<ref group="S" name=":80">{{Cite journal|last1=Bernauer|first1=Kira|last2=Kollross|first2=Hanna  |last3=Schuetz |first3=Aurelia M.|last4=Farmer|first4=Kate |year=2019|title=How do horses (Equus caballus) learn from observing human action?|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–9 |doi=10.1007/s10071-019-01310-0 |pmid=31531748 |issn=1435-9448|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-019-01310-0|access-date=September 9, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Schuetz|first1=Aurelia|last2=Farmer|first2=Kate|last3=Krueger|first3=Konstanze|year=2016|title=Social learning across species: horses (Equus caballus) learn from humans by observation|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=567–573 |doi=10.1007/s10071-016-1060-8 |pmid=27866286 |issn=1435-9456|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-016-1060-8|access-date=January 12, 2017|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In one experiment, humans demonstrated to horses how to press a button to open a [feeder](/source/Manger), while another group of horses did not witness a demonstration. Some horses learned to open the feeder through observational conditioning, while most learned socially by observing humans, understanding where and how to manipulate the opening mechanism, and then using trial and error to access the food.<ref group="S" name=":80"/>

This ability to learn from humans may help explain why domestic horses can figure out how to open their stall doors or even operate the [handle](/source/Door_handle) of an [electric fence](/source/electric_fence).<ref group="P">{{Cite web|last=Imberti|first=Nestor|year=2020|title=Comment les chevaux apprennent-ils? (Partie I)|url=https://ampascachi.com/fr/blog-de-randonnee-equestre-et-chevaux/chevaux-dressage-entrainement/comment-les-chevaux-apprennent-ils-1.php|website=ampascachi.com/fr|access-date=December 6, 2024|language=fr|trans-title=How do horses learn? (Part I)}}</ref>

=== Reputation attribution ===

The horse can associate an emotional valence (a [reputation](/source/reputation)) with a human based on its own experiences, as well as its [observations](/source/observation) of interactions between an experimenter and another horse.<ref group="S" name=":47"/><ref group="S" name=":48"/> Lansade discusses this ability, noting that many horses respond to the arrival of a veterinarian, even one they have never encountered before. This seems to demonstrate an ability to recognize attributes specific to this profession (such as clothing or a particular [smell](/source/Odor)) and to associate them with past experiences.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=149–150}}</ref> In Lansade's cited experiments, horses retain memories for up to a year of being groomed by a person who provided either a positive or negative experience. They may even display characteristic [facial expression](/source/facial_expression)s anticipation before the [grooming](/source/Horse_grooming) begins.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=150–151}}</ref> Horses can also recognize, in a film, a person who provides a positive or negative experience to one of their peers, and they adjust their interactions with these individuals based on the information observed in the films.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=152–153}}</ref>

=== Applications of knowledge of equine cognition ===

Throughout its life, a horse must learn new skills, whether for [survival](/source/Survival_of_the_fittest) and adaptation to its environment or for human purposes.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=272}}</ref> From its historical roles in warfare and [agriculture](/source/Plough) to its modern uses in sports and [leisure](/source/Pleasure_riding), learning remains important.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=273}}</ref> [Breeding](/source/Animal_breeding) and selection practices have not eliminated the need for this learning.<ref name=":27"/> The horse industry relies on the animal's ability to learn under human guidance.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=65}}</ref>

A large body of literature exists on various methods for training horses for [riding](/source/Equitation), as well as on the diversity of training approaches that can be applied.<ref group="S" name=":20"/><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Murphy|first1=Jack|last2=Arkins|first2=Sean |year=2007|title=Equine learning behaviour|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=76|issue=1|pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2006.06.009 |pmid=17400403 |issn=0376-6357|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635707000976|access-date=September 11, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=25–29}}</ref> The horse's social intelligence is also utilized in "equicoaching" sessions, which aim to help humans "reconnect with their emotional intelligence."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Antoine |first1=Guillaume |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLU0EAAAQBAJ&dq=Certes,+le+cheval+est+moins+dou%C3%A9+que+nous+ne+le+sommes+en+mati%C3%A8re+d%27intelligence+rationnelle&pg=PT31 |title=Le cheval coach - L'équicoaching: une expérience transformante |last2=Soulage |first2=Laure |last3=Wattinne |first3=Stéphane |publisher=Yves Michel |year=2020 |isbn=978-2-36429-158-4 |page=31 |language=fr |trans-title=Le cheval coach - Equicoaching: a transforming experience}}</ref>

[Learning](/source/Learning) is a complex and multifactorial process that requires time and commitment. Horses generally respond best to short, frequent training sessions.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|pp=66–67}}</ref><ref name=":81">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=298}}</ref> Other influential factors include [genetics](/source/genetics), [motivation](/source/motivation), and the horse's [mood](/source/Mood_(psychology)).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=67}}</ref> An individual horse's [temperament](/source/temperament) can also affect its learning abilities, with calmer horses often learning more quickly.<ref name=":39"/> Personality may further influence how a horse responds to different experiences.<ref group="P" name=":29"/>

Understanding the horse's cognitive abilities allows for practical applications that can better integrate its learning capacity. This can improve relationships between horses and humans and contribute to the [horse's well-being](/source/Horse_welfare), training, [breeding](/source/Horse_breeding), and daily care:<ref name=":15" group="S" /><ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=McGreevy|first1=Paul D.|last2=McLean|first2=Andrew N.|year=2007|title=Roles of learning theory and ethology in equitation|journal=Journal of Veterinary Behavior|volume=2|issue=4|pages=108–118|doi=10.1016/j.jveb.2007.05.003 |issn=1558-7878|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1558787807001359|access-date=October 4, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
[[File:Evolutions de l'entaînement du cheval.jpg|center|thumb|585x585px|Major theoretical developments in taking into account the intelligence of the horse in training and work. This diagram remains a [generalization](/source/generalization), as well as a quick overview of theoretical developments.]]
However, many horses still live in conditions that may not meet their cognitive and emotional needs, such as stalls without [social contact](/source/Socialization), darkness, [dusty](/source/dust) environments, and a lack of mental stimulation.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Hanggi|2005|p=252}}</ref> The use of inappropriate punishments remains widespread, as [theoretical](/source/Theory) advancements in understanding horse behavior are not always accompanied by changes in practical training methods.<ref group="S" name=":82">{{Cite journal|last1=McGreevy|first1=Paul D.|last2=McLean|first2=Andrew N.|year=2009|title=Punishment in horse-training and the concept of ethical equitation|journal=Journal of Veterinary Behavior|volume=4|issue=5|pages=193–197|doi=10.1016/j.jveb.2008.08.001 |issn=1558-7878|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1558787808001123|access-date=October 4, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Responses to conditioning ===
{{Main article|Classical conditioning|Operant conditioning}}
[[File:Principes du conditionnement opérant.png|thumb|Principles of [operant conditioning](/source/operant_conditioning).]]
The concept of "conditioning" refers to the association between a stimulus and a response, which can lead to habitual behavior. It does not imply that the conditioned subject is like a machine.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|pp= 80–82}}</ref> Simple conditioning can be voluntary (for example, training circus horses)<ref name=":83">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=284}}</ref> or involuntary, such as horses that become agitated and [neigh](/source/neigh) at mealtime because they have associated a specific time or a noise in a food storage room with the impending arrival of their food.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=69}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=283}}</ref>

A series of experiments show that horses respond well to simple forms of learning, such as [classical conditioning](/source/classical_conditioning) (or Pavlovian conditioning) and [operant conditioning](/source/operant_conditioning).<ref name=":11" group="S" /><ref group="S" name=":20"/> These techniques, which involve rewarding or removing a constraint after a successful task, are commonly used by humans to train horses to perform expected tasks.<ref name=":11" group="S" /> Reinforcement can be positive or negative.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Hanggi|2005|p=248}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=291}}</ref> At the beginning of reinforcement learning, the horse may be unaware of what is expected and give random responses. The consequence of the response (reinforcement or punishment) is what enables learning.<ref name=":84">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=290}}</ref>

'''Examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment in horses'''
<gallery mode="nolines" class="center" widths="220" heights="120">
File:Cavalli Konik con i visitatori.jpg|Positive reinforcement: the horse receives a reward in the form of food immediately after exhibiting the desired behavior.
File:Ahal Velayat Hippodrome - Flickr - Kerri-Jo (132).jpg|Positive punishment: This horse feels the unpleasant pressure of his halter behind his ears because he does not follow the movements of the man holding the lead rope of his halter.
File:Angerville (Essonne) le 9 avril 2015 - 03.jpg|Positive punishment: a horse that touches this fencing tape will receive a mild electric shock, dissuading it from doing it again.
File:Horse grooming.jpg|Negative punishment: this grooming, a pleasant moment for the horse, can be interrupted if it exhibits undesirable behavior.
</gallery>

In practice, horse professionals tend to use negative reinforcement more frequently than positive reinforcement.<ref name=":85">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=296}}</ref>

[Chaining](/source/Chaining) can also be useful,<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=76}}</ref> for example, in teaching complex movements, such as the [curtsy](/source/curtsy), step by step.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=75}}</ref> Regardless of the reinforcement method used, it is important to apply consistent techniques over the long term and avoid mistakes during the learning process, particularly due to the horse's memory.<ref group="S" name=":86">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=71}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":69"/> Lansade cites the example of a horse that learns to avoid its rider by leaping over them, and "will never forget that it has mastered this technique." The only way to extinguish this behavior is for the horse to discover that "it no longer has the desired effect."<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=185}}</ref> The conditioning response also implies that "any bad start permanently compromises future success."<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=186}}</ref>

==== Positive reinforcement learning ====

Among the operant conditioning techniques used with horses, positive reinforcement is considered highly effective,<ref group="S" name=":87">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=72}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=288}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|p=193}}</ref> even when applied to horses that [bite](/source/Animal_bite).<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Fox|first1=Adam E.|last2=Bailey|first2=Shana R.|last3=Hall|first3=Ezra G.|last4=Peter|first4=Claire C. St|year=2012|title=Reduction of biting and chewing of horses using differential reinforcement of other behavior|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=91|issue=1|pages=125–128|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2012.05.001 |pmid=22617186 |issn=1872-8308}}</ref> However, its effectiveness largely depends on maintaining a clear link between the desired behavior and the reward: the reward must be given immediately after the successful completion of an exercise.<ref group="S" name=":87"/><ref>{{Harvtxt|Lansade|2023|pp=187–188}}</ref> Initially, an incomplete response may be rewarded (e.g., a simple weight transfer onto the hind limbs in a horse learning to [back up](/source/Rein-back)).<ref name=":84"/> Then, increasingly complete responses are required before rewarding (in the case of backing up, this could be one step back, then two steps back).<ref name=":84"/>

Once positive reinforcement learning is mastered, rewards become less frequent, but it is important to continue soliciting this learning from the horse regularly to prevent its [extinction](/source/Extinction_(psychology)).<ref group="S" name=":86"/><ref name=":81"/>

Care should be taken not to inadvertently reinforce unwanted behaviors. For example, a horse that taps on the door of its stall out of boredom may have this behavior inadvertently reinforced if a person raises their voice at it until the tapping stops.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=297}}</ref> From the horse's perspective, attracting the attention of a human may be seen as a form of positive reinforcement, increasing the likelihood that it will tap on the door again to seek attention.<ref name=":85"/>

==== Negative reinforcement learning and punishment ====
[[File:Dakota at Brundage Barn, Great Falls, VA - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Example of negative reinforcement: This horse does not feel the pressure of his halter behind his ears if he follows the movement indicated by the woman holding the halter [lead](/source/Via_ferrata).]]
Negative reinforcement learning in horses should never involve intentionally inflicting [pain](/source/pain) but rather temporarily placing them in an uncomfortable situation (e.g., applying [pressure](/source/pressure) behind their ears with a [halter](/source/halter)) until they voluntarily change their behavior to regain comfort (in this example, by following the movement of the person holding the [lead rope](/source/Via_ferrata) of the halter).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=70}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":82"/> Negative reinforcement appears to be very effective in training [foal](/source/foal)s, but it can also increase their [stress](/source/Stress_(biology)) response.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last=Christensen|first=J. W.|year=2013|title= Object habituation in horses: the effect of voluntary versus negatively reinforced approach to frightening stimuli|journal=Equine Veterinary Journal|volume=45|issue=3|pages=298–301 |doi=10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00629.x |pmid=23009205 |issn=2042-3306}}</ref> When negative reinforcement occurs spontaneously (such as a horse touching an [electric fence](/source/electric_fence)), it can result in long-term memory of the experience.<ref group="S" name=":86"/> This may explain why some horses become anxious at the sight of a syringe, associating it with the pain of a subsequent injection.<ref group="S" name=":86"/> If a horse's defensive behavior is associated with the termination of a request (e.g., a request to remain calm during an [injection](/source/Vaccination) or clipping), the animal learns that its defense results in the cessation of the request, which may cause it to become uncontrollable by humans.<ref name=":88">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=295}}</ref> Horses may then develop threatening behaviors toward their veterinarian.<ref name=":88"/>

According to Australian researchers Paul D. McGreevy and Andrew N. McLean, the misuse of negative reinforcement can lead to [learned helplessness](/source/learned_helplessness) or [neurosis](/source/neurosis).<ref group="S" name=":82"/> It can be difficult for horses to make the connection between the behavior being punished and the punishment.<ref name=":85"/> For example, if a horse is [whipped](/source/Crop_(implement)) after refusing to jump an [obstacle](/source/Horse_jumping_obstacles), it may not associate the punishment with its refusal and might develop an aversion to the [show jumping](/source/show_jumping) arena, riding, or even to the person who punished it.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|pp=296–297}}</ref> A horse can also become "jaded" by harsh and inconsistent stimuli, making it insensitive to more subtle cues from a potential rider.<ref name=":84"/> Therefore, before using punishment, it is important to ensure that the behavior was clearly understood by the horse.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|pp=290, 293}}</ref>
thumb|These three Arabian horses can learn to play with this big ball through trial and error.

==== Trial and error learning ====
{{Main article|Trial and error}}
Horses are also capable of learning through [trial and error](/source/trial_and_error). For instance, they may discover how to use large balls by initiating a gentle push on the side of the ball after initially attempting to jump on them.<ref group="S" name=":89">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=73}}</ref> They may also learn how to operate an automatic [waterer](/source/Watering_trough) or accidentally figure out how to open the door of their stall after playing with the latch.<ref name=":83"/> In the latter case, if the horse discovers greater freedom of movement and access to food, positive reinforcement follows, increasing the likelihood that the horse will attempt to open the door again.<ref name=":83"/>

=== Responses to non-associative learning ===
Horses also respond well to [habituation](/source/habituation) and [desensitization](/source/Desensitization_(psychology)),<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Hanggi|2005|p=247}}</ref> which are two forms of non-associative learning.<ref name=":90">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=277}}</ref>

==== Habituation ====
{{Main article|Habituation}}

Habituation is a common learning process among all animal species. It allows the horse to filter perceptions in its environment by no longer associating them with potential [dangers](/source/Hazard) (for example, [plastic bag](/source/plastic_bag)s flying or [rope](/source/rope)s floating above its head).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|p=77}}</ref><ref name=":90"/> The response to the stimulus gradually diminishes.<ref name=":90"/> This type of learning is particularly important for foals or adult horses placed in a new environment, as it helps them adjust to noises, human touch, and the sight of unusual objects.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|pp=277–278}}</ref> For example, letting the horse hear the sound of [clippers](/source/Hair_clipper) during feeding can significantly reduce its fear reaction when the clippers are used on its neck and poll.<ref name=":91">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=278}}</ref>

An extreme form of habituation, called "behavioral [imprinting](/source/Imprinting_(psychology))", has been tested on foals. This involves intensive handling immediately after birth, including inserting fingers into natural orifices (mouth, ear, and anus), with the goal of producing horses that are easier to train and handle as adults.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|p=280}}</ref> However, its intrusive nature and mixed results have led many scientists to question its effectiveness and discourage its use.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|Bouissou|2021|pp=280–281}}</ref> Some breeders use it to accustom foals to the presence of humans and dogs at a young age.<ref group="S" name=":89"/>

==== Desensitization ====
{{Main article|Desensitization (psychology)}}
thumb|Young horse being desensitized to a plastic bag
Desensitization involves regularly exposing the horse to a stimulus that triggers a reaction until the response is reduced or [extinguished](/source/Extinction_(psychology)).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Beaver|2019|pp=79–80}}</ref> A classic example is opening an umbrella, which typically triggers a stress reaction, such as an increased [heart rate](/source/heart_rate). After about ten repetitions of opening the umbrella, the desensitized horse usually no longer reacts with stress.<ref name=":91"/>

The opposite of desensitization, sensitization, can result from mistreatment, such as a horse developing a strong reaction to a person who has caused it [pain](/source/Suffering) in the past.<ref name=":91"/>

== Controversies and preconceived ideas ==

PhD in [animal behavior](/source/Ethology) biology Evelyn B. Hanggi and sociologist Vanina Deneux-Le Barh emphasize the persistence of beliefs that attribute limited abilities to horses. These beliefs postulate, for instance, that horses react only by instinct or respond solely to conditioning, without demonstrating cognitive abilities.<ref name=":11" group="S" /><ref group="S" name=":92">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|p=27}}</ref> One common fallacy is the argument that intelligence is incompatible with being ridden or mistreated by humans, even though mistreatment also occurs between humans without being linked to reduced intelligence.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=95}}</ref>

These misconceptions continue to persist in professional equestrian circles.<ref name=":11" group="S" /><ref group="S" name=":92"/> The results of Deneux-Le Barh's 2021 survey reveal significant ambivalence in the perception of intelligence in working horses. Some breeders and users believe that responses to conditioning are merely the reproduction of behavior, despite their statements suggesting the horses' mètis (ingenuity or craftiness).<ref group="S" name=":92" /> Leblanc cites the example of many riders who "deny any intelligence in the horse" while simultaneously attributing complex mental processes to it, using [anthropomorphic](/source/Anthropomorphism) phrases such as "he did it on purpose to annoy me."<ref name=":21" /> [Linda Kohanov](/source/Linda_Kohanov) shares that, according to the American [cowboy](/source/cowboy)s she interviewed, horses are not intelligent enough to recognize their own names.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kohanov |first=Linda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjF4EAAAQBAJ&dq=cheval+intelligent&pg=PT170 |title=Pour un leadership socialement intelligent |publisher=Courrier du livre |year=2019 |isbn=978-2-7029-1716-9 |page=170 |language=fr |trans-title=For socially intelligent leadership}}</ref> Equestrian journalist Maria Franchini also reported in 2009 hearing frequent claims about horses' low intellectual capacities, both in stables and in major media outlets.<ref name=":25"/>

Memory and [empathy](/source/empathy), however, are more widely recognized in professional circles,<ref group="S" name=":92"/> as illustrated by stories of horses adapting to work with disabled individuals, such as in [equine therapy](/source/Equine-assisted_therapy).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Deneux-le Barh|2023|pp=28–29}}</ref>

In an appearance on the show ''La Tête au carré'' on October 3, 2007, geneticist [Axel Kahn](/source/Axel_Kahn) asserted that horses possess much more limited intellectual capacities than octopuses, [primate](/source/primate)s, and [cetacea](/source/cetacea)ns. He cited the example of a [mirror test](/source/mirror_test) where horses attacked the mirror placed in front of them.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Franchini|2009|p=9}}</ref> Maria Franchini expressed concern that this statement, made on a popular program, might contribute to misconceptions.<ref name=":36"/> Leblanc notes that the mirror test alone (or the [Gordon G. Gallup](/source/Gordon_G._Gallup) test)<ref group="S" name=":9"/> may not be sufficient to confirm or deny a species' [self-awareness](/source/Consciousness).<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=88–90}}</ref> He refers to a 2017 study by Paul Baragli and his colleagues, in which horses subjected to the mirror test displayed clear signs of distinguishing between the reflection and a real animal. However, there were no indications that they recognized themselves in the mirror.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Leblanc|2022|pp=90–91}}</ref>

== In culture ==

=== Mythology, legends and tales ===
{{Main article|Horse symbolism}}

Some stories from [mythology, legends](/source/Horse_symbolism), and folktales depict horses as extraordinarily intelligent. The [Scythian](/source/Scythians) mythology, many fabulous horses appear, including the ''kokcwal'', aquatic descendants of the sea god's horses, which are capable of understanding human speech.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last=Ivantchik|first=Askold I.|year=2002|title=Un fragment de l'épopée scythe: "le cheval de Colaxaïs" dans un partheneion d'Alcman|trans-title=A fragment of the Scythian epic: "the horse of Colaxaïs" in a partheneion of Alcman|journal=Ktèma|volume=27|issue=1|language=fr|pages=257–264|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ktema_0221-5896_2002_num_27_1_2341|access-date=September 29, 2023}}</ref> [Bucephalus](/source/Bucephalus), the horse of [Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great), is described in Greek sources and the ''[Alexander Romance](/source/Alexander_Romance)'' as "very intelligent," much like his young master, particularly because he, too, understands human speech.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Glanowski|first=Émilie|year=2015|title=Bucéphale, compagnon d'exception d'Alexandre: la construction d'un mythe|url=http://www.revue-circe.uvsq.fr/bucephale-compagnon-dexception-dalexandre-la-construction-dun-mythe/|website=Circé. Histoire, Savoirs, Sociétés|access-date=September 15, 2023|language=fr|trans-title=Bucephalus, Alexander's exceptional companion: the construction of a myth}}</ref> In the Turkish epic of ''[Er-Töshtük](/source/Er_T%C3%B6sht%C3%BCk)'', a folktale from Kyrgyzstan, the horse Tchal-Kouyrouk warns his rider, Töshtük, with these words: "Your chest is broad, but your mind is narrow; you think of nothing. You do not see what I see, you do not know what I know... You have courage, but you lack intelligence."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boratav |first=Pertev |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000083334 |title=Aventures merveilleuses sous terre et ailleurs de Er-Töshtük le géant des steppes |publisher=Gallimard/Unesco |year=1965 |isbn=2-07-071647-3 |location=Paris |page=312 |language=fr |trans-title=Er-Töshtük the steppe giant's wonderful adventures underground and elsewhere}}</ref> In some stories, the [psychopomp](/source/psychopomp) powers of the horse are portrayed as superior to those of humans.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chevalier |first1=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9qAAAAAMAAJ |title=Dictionnaire des symboles |last2=Gheerbrant |first2=Alain |publisher=Seghers |year=1982 |isbn=978-2-221-50211-2 |page=223 |language=fr |trans-title=Dictionary of symbols}}</ref>

[Medieval Christian literature](/source/Medieval_literature) features numerous "extraordinary horses" endowed with intelligence and human-like qualities.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Dubost|2014|pp=189–194}}</ref><ref group="S" name=":93">{{Cite journal|last=Zink|first=Michel|year=1984|title=Le monde animal et ses représentations dans la littérature du Moyen Âge|journal=Actes des congrès de la Société des historiens médiévistes de l'enseignement supérieur public|volume=15|issue=1|pages=47–71|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/shmes_1261-9078_1985_act_15_1_1436|access-date=November 15, 2023|language=fr|trans-title=The animal world and its representations in medieval literature}}</ref> Professor of medieval literature Francis Dubost cites examples such as [Bayard](/source/Bayard_(legend)),<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Dubost|2014|p=189}}</ref> the horse from the ''lai'' of [Lanval](/source/Lanval),<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Dubost|2014|p=188}}</ref> and ''The Song of the [Aliscans](/source/Aliscans)''.<ref name=":16" group="S" /> Even the horses of [pagans](/source/Paganism) are depicted as possessing formidable intelligence, capable of fighting independently.<ref group="S">{{Harvtxt|Dubost|2014|p=193}}</ref> The medievalist [Michel Zink](/source/Michel_Zink) also observes the presence of faithful horses in this literature, which "demonstrate an intelligence that exceeds their nature." Examples include ''[La Chevalerie d'Ogier](/source/Ogier_the_Dane),'' the ''Broiefort d'Ogier,'' and the ''Marchegai d'Aiol''.<ref group="S" name=":93"/>

Italian ethnologist [Angelo De Gubernatis](/source/Angelo_de_Gubernatis) identifies a [mytheme](/source/mytheme)—<ref group="note">The notion of [mytheme](/source/mytheme) was defined later by [Claude Lévi-Strauss](/source/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss).</ref> the transformation of a fool into an intelligent and wise man—as parallel to the transformation of a worthless nag into a noble horse:

{{Blockquote|text=The hero's horse, like the hero himself, begins by being ugly, deformed, and unintelligent, and ends by becoming beautiful, brilliant, heroic, and victorious.|author=[Angelo De Gubernatis](/source/Angelo_De_Gubernatis)|title=''Zoological Mythology''<ref group="H" name=":94">{{Cite book|last=de Gubernatis|first=Angelo|year=1872|title=Zoological Mythology, Or, The Legends of Animals|publisher=Trübner|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84JVAAAAcAAJ}}</ref>}}

thumb|1947 Russian animated film, based on the traditional tale of the Little Humpbacked Horse
De Gubernatis cites, among other examples, the [Russian tale](/source/Russian_fairy_tale) of ''The [Little Humpbacked Horse](/source/The_Little_Humpbacked_Horse)'', in which a small horse gifted with the ability to fly repeatedly saves its rider and wisely advises him.<ref group="H" name=":94" />

The [Dogon](/source/Dogon_people) tale "Why Doesn't the Horse Speak?" explains that in the past, horses spoke with humans, but an ungrateful and deceitful woman exploited the advice of a clever horse without thanking him or informing her family of his help. In retaliation, all horses stopped speaking to humans, choosing instead to [neigh](/source/neigh).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kersalé |first1=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VU9zAAAAMAAJ&q=cheval+dogon |title=Mali: parole d'ancêtre dogon: l'écho de la falaise |last2=Saye |first2=Zakari |publisher=Anako |year=2001 |isbn=978-2-907754-69-9 |page=172 |language=fr |trans-title=Mali: Dogon ancestor's word: the echo of the cliff}}</ref>

The [Mahi](/source/Mahi_people) tale (from central [Benin](/source/Benin)) titled ''Destiny'' tells of an [orphan](/source/orphan) abandoned by his brothers who spares three horses destroying his crops and gains their help to win the love of a princess.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gbado |first1=Béatrice Lalinon |title=Sagesses africaines |last2=Chevaux fabuleux |last3=Cotonou |last4=Ruisseaux d'Afrique |year=2011 |isbn=978-99919-63-66-2 |page=76 |language=fr |trans-title=African wisdom |chapter=Le Destin |publisher=Editions Ruisseaux d'Afrique |trans-chapter=Destiny}}</ref>

In the [Aarne-Thompson-Uther classification](/source/Aarne%E2%80%93Thompson%E2%80%93Uther_Index), these tales correspond to the ATU 531 type tale, "''The Intelligent Horse''."<ref group="S">{{Cite book|last=Canepa|first=Nancy L.|year=2019|title=Teaching Fairy Tales|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=978-0-8143-3936-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wK1rDwAAQBAJ&q=ATU+531+The+Clever+Horse|page=486}}</ref> This theme is also found in the Norwegian tale ''[Dapplegrim](/source/Dapplegrim)'',<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hodne|first=Ørnulf|year=1984|title=The Types of the Norwegian Folktale|publisher=Universitetsforlaget|isbn=978-82-00-06849-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SHzYAAAAMAAJ|location=Oslo|pages=123–125}}</ref> the Sicilian tale ''Lu cavadduzzu fidili'' (The Loyal Horse),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pitrè|first=Giuseppe|year=2009|title=The Collected Sicilian Folk and Fairy Tales of Giuseppe Pitrè|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-98031-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fIskVVNHEXoC&q=ATU+531+The+Clever+Horse|location=London|page=973}}</ref> the Guatemalan tale of the "''Bad Combadre'',"<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Duggan|first1=Anne E.|last2=Haase|first2=Donald|last3=Callow|first3=Helen J.|year=2016|title=Folktales and Fairy Tales: Traditions and Texts from around the World|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|isbn=978-1-61069-254-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykTPEAAAQBAJ&q=ATU+531+The+Clever+Horse|page=567}}</ref> and the medieval Jewish tale "''Joḥanan and the Scorpion''," one of the seven stories from the ''Sefer ha-ma'asim''.<ref group="S">{{Cite book|last=Kushelevsky|first=Rella|year=2017|title=Tales in context: Sefer ha-Ma'asim in medieval Northern France|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=978-0-8143-4272-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ys0DwAAQBAJ&dq=ATU+531+The+Clever+Horse&pg=PT458|location=Detroit}}</ref>

=== Religious and cultural particularisms ===
thumb|Julien Lavergne describing the horse's intelligence as inferior to that of man, 1872
Professor of religious studies Judy Skeen emphasizes the importance of questioning the "concept of human domination over nature" to move beyond the view of animals as "mere functions or resources for humans" and to challenge the assumption "that human beings have more value than other creatures." She advocates for evaluating intelligent life using criteria beyond human intelligence.<ref group="S" name=":95">{{Cite book |last=Skeen |first=Judy |title=The Psychology of the Human-Animal Bond |publisher= |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4419-9761-6 |series=Springer |pages=81–106 |chapter=Predator–Prey Relationships: What Humans Can Learn from Horses about Being Whole |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-9761-6_5 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-9761-6_5}}</ref> She also highlights a contrast between the perception of the horse's intelligence in Christian tradition, which assigns greater value to humans than to horses, and in other traditions, such as [Native Americans](/source/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas) beliefs, which readily acknowledge animal intelligence—for example, through observations of prey-predator relationships.<ref group="S" name=":95"/>

==== Christianity ====
According to historian Éric Baratay, the refusal to recognize animal intelligence was largely adopted<ref group="note">When [Constantine](/source/Constantine_the_Great) imposed Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, Christians represented only 4 to 5% of the total population of the Empire ([Robin Lane Fox](/source/Robin_Lane_Fox), Pagans and Christians: Religion and Religious Life in the Roman Empire from the Death of Commodus to the Council of Nicaea, Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 1997).</ref> by Western Christianity, drawing on [Platonist](/source/Theory_of_forms) and [Aristotelian](/source/Aristotelianism) philosophies to elevate humans while diminishing and devaluing animals.<ref group="S">{{Cite book |last=Baratay |first=Éric |url=https://www.academia.edu/96837018 |title=La personnalité juridique des animaux |publisher=LexisNexis |year=2020 |location=Paris |pages=11–25 |language=fr |trans-title=The legal personality of animals |chapter=Les dessous d'une personnalité non-humaine |trans-chapter=The underside of a non-human personality}}</ref>

Through Germanic pagan beliefs, historian Marc-André Wagner explores a progressive [demonization](/source/demonization) of the horse, aimed at Christian leaders ending the [ritualistic reverence](/source/Horse_worship) once afforded to the animal.<ref group="S">{{Cite book |last=Wagner |first=Marc-André |title=Paganism in the Middle Ages |publisher=Leuven University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-90-5867-933-8 |pages=85–108 |chapter=Le cheval dans les croyances germaniques entre paganisme et christianisme |trans-chapter=The horse in Germanic beliefs between paganism and Christianity |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qf0hm |jstor=j.ctt9qf0hm}}</ref> He specifically mentions the fight against [hippomancy](/source/hippomancy) (divination using horses), wherein [evangelists](/source/Evangelism) countered pagan claims that horses possessed divinatory powers by asserting instead that it was the [Christian God](/source/God_in_Christianity) speaking through the animal.<ref name=":96">{{Cite book |last=Wagner |first=Marc-André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVC1AAAAIAAJ&q=ni%C3%B0st%C3%B6ng |title=Le cheval dans les croyances germaniques: paganisme, christianisme et traditions |publisher=Champion |year=2005 |isbn=978-2-7453-1216-7 |pages=543–545 |language=fr |trans-title=The horse in Germanic beliefs: paganism, Christianity and traditions}}</ref> Wagner cites the example of the 7th-century text ''[Vita](/source/Hagiography) de [Columba of Iona](/source/Columba)'', in which the Irish saint's horse lays its head on his knees and begins to weep, apparently sensing its imminent death:<ref name=":96"/>

{{Blockquote|text=To this crude and irrational animal, in the manner he chose, the [Creator](/source/God) revealed in a manifest way that his master was going to leave him.|author=Adamnan von Hi|title=''Vita S. Columbae''|source=III, 23}}

==== In Ladakh ====

According to S. C. Gupta et al., [Tibetans](/source/Tibetan_people) in the cold, arid region of [Ladakh](/source/Ladakh) believe that the intelligence of their small local [Zanskari](/source/Zaniskari) horses enabled warriors to achieve superior performance in regional wars during the 18th century.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=S. C.|last2=Tundup|first2=T.|last3=Gupta|first3=Neelam|last4=Kumar|first4=Pushpendra|year=1996|title=Livestock wealth of the Ladakh: a cold arid region in India|journal=Animal Genetic Resources/Resources génétiques animales/Recursos genéticos animales|volume=19|pages=27–36|doi=10.1017/S1014233900000766 |issn=2076-4022|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/animal-genetic-resources-resources-genetiques-animales-recursos-geneticos-animales/article/abs/livestock-wealth-of-the-ladakh-a-cold-arid-region-in-india/3BE91F8FA840789AC0AE1765CB6C4599|access-date=September 27, 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==== In Mongolia ====
[Anthropology](/source/Anthropology) lecturer Gregory Delaplace (2015) notes that the [Mongols](/source/Mongols) regard horses as companions and recognize not only their intelligence (''uhaan'') but also their ability to perceive and feel the invisible—a quality independent of intellect.<ref group="P">{{Cite web |last=Delaplace |first=Grégory |year=2015 |title=L'invisible que les chevaux mongols ressentent |trans-title=The invisible feeling of Mongolian horses |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.fr/life/article/l-invisible-que-les-chevaux-mongols-ressentent_58960.html |access-date=September 17, 2023 |website=Le HuffPost |language=fr}}</ref> The Mongolian historian Françoise Aubin provides an example in the Mongolian phrase used to inquire about the best [gait](/source/Horse_gait) for a horse, "''ene jamar erdemtej mor' ve,"'' which literally translates as "What is its science?" or "What is its art?"<ref group="S">{{Cite book |last=Aubin |first=Françoise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhbbAAAAMAAJ |title=Le cheval en Eurasie: Pratiques quotidiennes et déploiements mythologiques |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=1999 |isbn=2-7384-7845-X |page=68 |language=fr |trans-title=The horse in Eurasia: Everyday practices and mythological deployments |chapter=Critères d'appréciation des chevaux dans la tradition des nomades mongols |trans-chapter=Criteria for judging horses in the Mongolian nomad tradition}}</ref>

=== Literature, film and television ===
[[File:BlackBeautyCoverFirstEd1877.jpeg|thumb|upright|In [Anna Sewell](/source/Anna_Sewell)'s novel ''[Black Beauty](/source/Black_Beauty)'', the horse-narrator is presented as an intelligent being.]]
The satirical novel ''[Gulliver's Travels](/source/Gulliver's_Travels)'' (1721) features noble, [rational](/source/Reason), and intelligent horses called the ''[Houyhnhnm](/source/Houyhnhnm)s.'' According to literature professor Bryan Alkemeyer, its author [Jonathan Swift](/source/Jonathan_Swift) may have intended to prompt a reevaluation of the definition of humans and their supposed superiority over animals.<ref group="S">{{Cite journal|last=Alkemeyer|first=Bryan|year=2016|title=The Natural History of the Houyhnhnms: Noble Horses in Gulliver's Travels|journal=The Eighteenth Century|volume=57|issue=1|pages=23–37|issn=0193-5380|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/eighcent.57.1.23|access-date=September 29, 2023}}</ref> The Mearas imagined by [J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien), include Grippoil, Gandalf's mount, a type of highly intelligent horse capable of understanding human language. These horses are said to be descended from Nahar, the steed of [Oromë](/source/Valar).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ferry|first=Ilan|year=2022|title= La Mythologie selon Le Seigneur des Anneaux|language=fr|trans-title=Mythology according to The Lord of the Rings|publisher=Les Éditions de l'Opportun|isbn=978-2-38015-258-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IKZgEAAAQBAJ&dq=gripoil+cheval+intelligent%24%24&pg=PT97|page=97}}</ref>

Professor Sylvine Pickel-Chevalier and Dr. Gwenaëlle Grefe identify an archetypal model of the horse in children's and youth literature and cinema, which they call "horse-love." Representative examples include the cultural productions surrounding ''[The Black Stallion](/source/The_Black_Stallion)'', ''[White Mane](/source/White_Mane)'', ''[Black Beauty](/source/Black_Beauty)'', ''[Running Free](/source/Running_Free_(film))'', the novels, films, and series of ''[My Friend Flicka](/source/My_Friend_Flicka)'' and ''[War Horse](/source/War_Horse_(novel))'', as well as the films ''[Spirit](/source/Spirit%3A_Stallion_of_the_Cimarron)'' and ''[Windstorm](/source/Windstorm_(film))''.<ref group="S" name=":97">{{Cite journal|last1=Pickel-Chevalier|first1=Sylvine|last2=Grefe|first2=Gwenaëlle|year=2017|title=Représentations et symbolismes du cheval|journal=Les Chevaux: De l'Imaginaire Universel Aux Enjeux Prospectifs Pour les Territoires|language=fr|trans-title=Representations and symbolisms of the horse|pages=109–128|isbn=978-2-84133-845-0|url=https://hal.science/hal-01573517/document|publisher=Presses universitaires de Caen|doi=10.4000/books.puc.10868 }}</ref>

In this type of narrative, which centers on a story of mutual affection between a human protagonist, often a child, and an equine companion, they note that the horse, "elevated to the rank of an epic hero to the point of sometimes becoming the narrator," is distinguished by physical and behavioral traits, including intelligence.<ref group="S" name=":97"/> However, the portrayal of the horse's abilities often includes a strong dose of anthropomorphism.<ref group="S" name=":97"/>

{{Blockquote|text=After all, maybe the [stallion](/source/stallion) didn't enter the park and is hiding in some corner of the city? ... But no! Black is much too intelligent to stay in the streets!|author=[Walter Farley](/source/Walter_Farley)|title=''[The Black Stallion](/source/The_Black_Stallion)''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Farley|first=Walter|year=2021|title=L'Étalon Noir|publisher=Hachette Jeunesse|isbn=978-2-01-714528-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5MqEAAAQBAJ&dq=Black+l%27%C3%A9talon+noir+intelligent&pg=PT131|page=131}}</ref>}}

In his children's book ''The Learned Horse'' (1991), Laurent Cresp tells the story of an intelligent horse living in [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul), that wishes to be treated like a sentient being.<ref group="P">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqY7AAAAMAAJ&q=Le+cheval+savant+Par+Laurent+Cresp+%C2%B7 |title=Livres Hebdo |publisher=Éditions professionnelles du livre |year=1991 |page=45 |language=fr |trans-title=Weekly Books |chapter=Le cheval savant |access-date=September 3, 2023}}</ref>

In comics, Lucky Luke's mount, [Jolly Jumper](/source/Jolly_Jumper) (created in 1946), is depicted as the most intelligent horse in the West. He is capable of speaking (and even engaging in philosophical discussions), counting, writing, playing [chess](/source/chess), and fishing on his own.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Delylle |first1=Antoinette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WJTAwAAQBAJ&dq=Jolly+Jumper+cheval+intelligent&pg=PA133 |title=L'Encyclo de la cavalière |last2=Muller |first2=Cathy |publisher=edi8 |year=2014 |isbn=978-2-324-00849-8 |page=133 |language=fr |trans-title=Rider's Encyclopaedia}}</ref> Similarly, the American television series of the 1960s ''[Mister Ed](/source/Mister_Ed)'' features a horse that speaks only to its owner, who has a fondness for drink. The intelligence of the horse actors in the series has often been praised.<ref group="S">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Kathy Merlock|year=2020|chapter=Mister Ed, 1960s and the Horse Who Was Not Just a Horse|title=Animals and Ourselves: Essays on Connections and Blurred Boundaries|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-4014-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7kH_DwAAQBAJ&dq=film+about+intelligent+horse&pg=PT31}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Horses|Science|Animals}}
* [Horse behavior](/source/Horse_behavior)
* [Clever Hans](/source/Clever_Hans)
* [Beautiful Jim Key](/source/Beautiful_Jim_Key)
* [Lady Wonder](/source/Lady_Wonder)
* [Animal cognition](/source/Animal_cognition)
* [Cognitive ethology](/source/Cognitive_ethology)

==Notes and references==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=note}}

===References===
{{reflist}}

====Academic references====
{{Reflist|group=S}}

====Historical references====
{{Reflist|group=H}}

====Press references====
{{Reflist|group=P}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{Cite journal |last=Deneux–Le Barh |first=Vanina |year=2023 |title="Les chevaux sont mes partenaires!" Quand les professionnels parlent du travail de leurs collaborateurs équins |journal=Revue d'anthropologie des connaissances |language=fr |volume=17 |issue=1 |trans-title="Horses are my partners!" When professionals talk about the work of their equine collaborators |url=https://journals.openedition.org/rac/29810 |issn=1760-5393}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Leblanc |first=Michel-Antoine |year=2022 |title=L'esprit du cheval: introduction à l'éthologie cognitive du cheval, intelligence, cerveau, perception |page=367 |location=Paris |publisher=Vigot |isbn=978-2-7114-2642-3 |language=fr |trans-title=The mind of the horse: introduction to the cognitive ethology of the horse, intelligence, brain, perception |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvgvzwEACAAJ}}
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* {{Cite book |last=De Waal |first=Frans |year=2018 |title=Sommes-nous trop "bêtes" pour comprendre l'intelligence des animaux? |publisher=Les liens qui libèrent |isbn=978-2-330-10323-1 |language=fr |trans-title=Are we too "stupid" to understand the intelligence of animals? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrY6DQAAQBAJ&dq=cheval+b%C3%AAte+intelligent&pg=PT64}}

Category:Cognitive psychology
Category:Animal intelligence
Category:Horse behavior

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Equine intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_intelligence) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_intelligence?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.