# Environmental issues

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Concerns and policies regarding the biophysical environment

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[Water pollution](/source/Water_pollution) is an environmental issue that affects many water bodies. This photograph shows foam on the [New River](/source/New_River_(Mexico%E2%80%93United_States)) as it enters the United States from Mexico.

**Environmental issues** are disruptions in the usual function of [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem).[1] Further, these issues can be caused by humans ([human impact on the environment](/source/Human_impact_on_the_environment))[2] or they can be natural. These issues are considered serious when the ecosystem cannot recover in the present situation, and catastrophic if the ecosystem is projected to certainly collapse.

[Environmental protection](/source/Environmental_protection) is the practice of protecting the [natural environment](/source/Natural_environment) on the individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment and humans. [Environmentalism](/source/Environmentalism) is a [social](/source/Social_movement) and [environmental movement](/source/Environmental_movement) that addresses environmental issues through advocacy, legislation education, and activism.[3]

Environment destruction caused by humans is a global, ongoing problem.[4] Water pollution also cause problems to marine life.[5] Some scholars believe that the projected peak global population of roughly 9–10 billion people could live sustainably within the earth's ecosystems if humans worked to live [sustainably](/source/Sustainably) within [planetary boundaries](/source/Planetary_boundaries).[6][7][8] The bulk of environmental impacts are caused by [excessive consumption of industrial goods](/source/Consumption_(economics)) by the world's wealthiest populations.[9][10][11] The UN Environmental Program, in its "Making Peace With Nature" Report in 2021, found addressing key planetary crises, like pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss, was achievable if parties work to address the [Sustainable Development Goals](/source/Sustainable_Development_Goals).[12]

## Types

Main articles: [List of environmental issues](/source/List_of_environmental_issues) and [List of environmental disasters](/source/List_of_environmental_disasters)

Major current environmental issues may include [climate change](/source/Climate_change), [pollution](/source/Pollution), [environmental degradation](/source/Environmental_degradation), and [resource depletion](/source/Resource_depletion). The [conservation movement](/source/Conservation_movement) lobbies for protection of [endangered species](/source/Endangered_species) and protection of any [ecologically](/source/Ecologically) valuable natural areas, [genetically modified foods](/source/Genetically_modified_food) and [global warming](/source/Global_warming). The UN system has adopted international frameworks for environmental issues in three key issues, which has been encoded as the "[triple planetary crises](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triple_planetary_crises&action=edit&redlink=1)": climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss.[13]

## Human impact

This section is an excerpt from [Human impact on the environment](/source/Human_impact_on_the_environment).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_the_environment&action=edit)]

Human impact on the environment. From top left, clockwise: satellite image of [Southeast Asian haze](/source/Southeast_Asian_haze); [IAEA](/source/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency) experts investigate the [Fukushima disaster](/source/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster);. a seabird during an [oil spill](/source/Oil_spill); [slaves](/source/Slavery_in_Brazil) clearing the Brazil's [Atlantic forest](/source/Atlantic_forest) on behalf of the Portuguese settlers, c. 1820–1825; [acid mine drainage](/source/Acid_mine_drainage) in the [Rio Tinto](/source/Rio_Tinto_(river)); [industrial fishing](/source/Industrial_fishing) in 1997, a practice that has led to [overfishing](/source/Overfishing).

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The impact of human expansion on ecosystems, highlighting how industrialization and deforestation for urban development lead to significant habitat loss and a severe decline in bird populations.

[Human impact on the environment](/source/Human_impact_on_the_environment) (or anthropogenic environmental impact) refers to changes to [biophysical environments](/source/Biophysical_environment)[14] and to [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem), [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity), and [natural resources](/source/Natural_resources)[15] caused directly or indirectly by [humans](/source/Human). Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society (as in the [built environment](/source/Built_environment)) is causing severe effects[16][17] including [global warming](/source/Global_warming),[14][18][19] [environmental degradation](/source/Environmental_degradation)[14] (such as [ocean acidification](/source/Ocean_acidification)[14][20]), [mass extinction](/source/Holocene_extinction), and [biodiversity loss](/source/Biodiversity_loss),[21][22][23][24] [ecological crisis](/source/Ecological_crisis), and [ecological collapse](/source/Ecological_collapse). Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to the environment on a global scale include [population growth](/source/Population_growth),[25][26][27] [neoliberal](/source/Neoliberal) economic policies,[28][29][30] and rapid [economic growth](/source/Economic_growth).[31] [Overconsumption](/source/Overconsumption), [overexploitation](/source/Overexploitation), [pollution](/source/Pollution), and [deforestation](/source/Deforestation) are also contributing to this problem.[32] Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss, have been proposed as representing [catastrophic risks](/source/Global_catastrophic_risk) to the survival of the human species.[33][34]

The term *anthropogenic* designates an effect or object resulting from [human activity](/source/Human_activity). The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist [Alexey Pavlov](/source/Alexey_Pavlov), and it was first used in English by British ecologist [Arthur Tansley](/source/Arthur_Tansley) in reference to human influences on [climax plant communities](/source/Climax_plant_communities).[35] The atmospheric scientist [Paul Crutzen](/source/Paul_Crutzen) introduced the term "[Anthropocene](/source/Anthropocene)" in the mid-1970s.[36] The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution produced from human activity since the start of the [Agricultural Revolution](/source/Third_Agricultural_Revolution) but also applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.[37][38][39] Many of the actions taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety of sources, such as electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests.[40]

### Pollution

This section is an excerpt from [Pollution](/source/Pollution).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollution&action=edit)]

[Pollution](/source/Pollution) is the introduction of [contaminants](/source/Contaminant) into the [natural environment](/source/Natural_environment) that cause harm.[41] Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). [Pollutants](/source/Pollutant), the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants [have a human source](/source/Human_impact_on_the_environment), such as [manufacturing](/source/Manufacturing), [extractive industries](/source/Extractivism), poor [waste management](/source/Waste_management), transportation or [agriculture](/source/Agricultural_pollution). Pollution is often classed as [point source](/source/Point_source_pollution) (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as a [factory](/source/Factory), [mine](/source/Environmental_effects_of_mining), [construction site](/source/Construction_site)), or [nonpoint source pollution](/source/Nonpoint_source_pollution) (coming from widespread distributed sources, such as [microplastics](/source/Microplastics) or [agricultural runoff](/source/Agricultural_runoff)).

Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts of [industrialization](/source/Industrialization) during the 19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmental [regulation](/source/Regulation) and pollution [policy](/source/Policy) in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically polluting industries released [persistent pollutants](/source/Persistent_pollutant) may have [legacy pollution](/source/Legacy_pollution) long after the source of the pollution is stopped. Major forms of pollution include [air pollution](/source/Air_pollution), [water pollution](/source/Water_pollution), [litter](/source/Litter), [noise pollution](/source/Noise_pollution), [plastic pollution](/source/Plastic_pollution), [soil contamination](/source/Soil_contamination), [radioactive contamination](/source/Radioactive_contamination), [thermal pollution](/source/Thermal_pollution), [light pollution](/source/Light_pollution), and [visual pollution](/source/Visual_pollution).[42]

Pollution has widespread consequences on human and [environmental health](/source/Environmental_health), having systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed approximately nine million people worldwide (about one in six deaths that year); about three-quarters of these deaths were caused by [air pollution](/source/Air_pollution).[43][44] A 2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded [planetary boundaries](/source/Planetary_boundaries) and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.[45][46] Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, and [marginalized communities](/source/Marginalized_communities), because polluting industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less economic and political power.[47][48] This outsized impact is a core reason for the formation of the [environmental justice movement](/source/Environmental_justice_movement),[49][50] and continues to be a core element of [environmental conflicts](/source/Environmental_conflict), particularly in the [Global South](/source/Global_South).

Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local, country-level, and international policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams. Regional and national policy is typically supervised by [environmental agencies or ministries](/source/Environmental_agency), while international efforts are coordinated by the [UN Environmental Program](/source/United_Nations_Environment_Programme) and other [treaty bodies](/source/Treaty_body). Pollution [mitigation](/source/Mitigation) is an important part of all of the [Sustainable Development Goals](/source/Sustainable_Development_Goals).[51]

### Degradation

This section is an excerpt from [Environmental degradation](/source/Environmental_degradation).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_degradation&action=edit)]

More than eighty years after the abandonment of [Wallaroo Mines](/source/Wallaroo_Mines) ([Kadina, South Australia](/source/Kadina%2C_South_Australia)), [mosses](/source/Mosses) remain the only vegetation in some areas of the site's grounds.

[Environmental degradation](/source/Environmental_degradation) is the deterioration of the [environment](/source/Environment_(biophysical)) through [depletion of resources](/source/Depletion_of_resources) such as quality of [air](/source/Air), [water](/source/Water) and [soil](/source/Soil); the destruction of [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystems); [habitat destruction](/source/Habitat_destruction); the [extinction](/source/Extinction) of [wildlife](/source/Wildlife); and [pollution](/source/Pollution). It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.[52][53] The environmental degradation process amplifies the impact of environmental issues which leave lasting impacts on the environment.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the [High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change](/source/High-level_Panel_on_Threats%2C_Challenges_and_Change) of the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations). The [United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction](/source/United_Nations_International_Strategy_for_Disaster_Reduction) defines environmental degradation as "the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs".[54]

Environmental degradation comes in many types. When [natural habitats are destroyed](/source/Habitat_destruction) or [natural resources](/source/Natural_resource) are depleted, the environment is degraded; direct environmental degradation, such as deforestation, which is readily visible; this can be caused by more indirect process, such as the build up of [plastic pollution](/source/Plastic_pollution) over time or the buildup of greenhouse gases that causes [tipping points in the climate system](/source/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system). Efforts to counteract this problem include [environmental protection](/source/Environmental_protection) and [environmental resources management](/source/Environmental_resources_management). Mismanagement that leads to degradation can also lead to [environmental conflict](/source/Environmental_conflict) where communities organize in opposition to the forces that mismanaged the environment.

### Conflict

This section is an excerpt from [Environmental conflict](/source/Environmental_conflict).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_conflict&action=edit)]

Part of a series on Environmental justice Key topics Climate change effects poverty litigation Climate crisis debt justice reparations resilience Corporate accountability crime environmental responsibility Energy democracy Environmental conflict crime inequality in the UK injustice in Europe justice racism in the USA in Western Europe Rights Amendments List of environmental conflicts Urban forest inequity Academia Decolonization of knowledge Human geography Ecological economics Environmental Justice Atlas Environmental sociology Political ecology Social ecology Scholars: Robert Bullard Dina Gilio-Whitaker Joan Martinez Alier Kyle Powys Whyte Dorceta Taylor By region Africa Europe Western Europe Central and Eastern Europe Russia United Kingdom United States US-Mexico border Related topics Blockadia Climate finance Corporate accountability for human rights violations Corporate social responsibility Decolonization Desertification Electronic waste Environmental defender Water protector Land defender Environmentalism of the poor Environmentalism Environmental law Extractivism Global waste trade Green imperialism Human rights and climate change Impact investing List of environmental killings Locally unwanted land use Political representation of nature Rights of nature Sacrifice zone Stewardship Sumak Kawsay Toxic colonialism Water conflict Zapatismo Category v t e

[Hambach Forest](/source/Hambach_Forest) protest against coal mine expansion

[Environmental conflicts, socio-environmental conflict](/source/Environmental_conflict) or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) are [social conflicts](/source/Social_conflict) caused by [environmental degradation](/source/Environmental_degradation) or by [unequal distribution of environmental resources](/source/Environmental_justice).[55][56][57] The [Environmental Justice Atlas](/source/Environmental_Justice_Atlas) documented 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020 and emphasised that many more conflicts remained undocumented.[55]

Parties involved in these conflicts include locally affected communities, states, companies and investors, and social or environmental movements;[58][59] typically [environmental defenders](/source/Environmental_defender) are protecting their homelands from [resource extraction](/source/Extractivism) or [hazardous waste](/source/Hazardous_waste) disposal.[55] Resource extraction and hazardous waste activities often create resource scarcities (such as by [overfishing](/source/Overfishing) or [deforestation](/source/Deforestation)), pollute the environment, and degrade the living space for humans and nature, resulting in conflict.[60] A particular case of environmental conflicts are forestry conflicts, or forest conflicts which "are broadly viewed as struggles of varying intensity between interest groups, over values and issues related to forest policy and the use of forest resources".[61] In the last decades, a growing number of these have been identified globally.[62]

Frequently environmental conflicts focus on [environmental justice](/source/Environmental_justice) issues, the [rights of indigenous people](/source/Rights_of_indigenous_people), the [rights of peasants](/source/Rights_of_peasants), or threats to communities whose livelihoods are dependent on the ocean.[55] Outcomes of local conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks that comprise the global environmental justice movement.[55][63]

Environmental conflict can complicate response to [natural disaster](/source/Natural_disaster) or exacerbate existing conflicts – especially in the context of [geopolitical](/source/Geopolitics) disputes or where communities have been displaced to create [environmental migrants](/source/Environmental_migrant).[64][57][60] The study of these conflicts is related to the fields of [ecological economics](/source/Ecological_economics), [political ecology](/source/Political_ecology), and environmental justice.

## Costs

See also: [Cost of pollution](/source/Cost_of_pollution) and [Cost of global warming](/source/Cost_of_global_warming)

Environmental issues impose a heavy and wide-ranging economic burden affecting public health, infrastructure, productivity, ecosystems, and long-term economic growth.

- **Health and public-health costs**: In the United States alone, the annual health costs from air pollution and climate change, including increased illness, hospitalizations, lost wages, and premature deaths — have been estimated to exceed US$820 billion per year.[65]

- **Global economic losses from climate change and extreme weather**: Worldwide, climate change–related damage to infrastructure, property, agriculture, and human health is projected to cost between US$1.7 and US$3.1 trillion per year by 2050.[66] World Economic Forum Across the period 2000–2019, extreme weather events alone caused roughly US$2.8 trillion in cumulative losses.[66]

- **Costs of environmental externalities and nature-decline**: Sectors that drive biodiversity loss, such as agriculture, fossil-fuels, forestry, infrastructure, fisheries, and mining, generate substantial environmental externalities. Recent estimates put the global cost of these negative externalities at US$10.5 to US$ 22.6 trillion annually.[67]

- **Lost economic potential and productivity**: Declines in ecosystem services, biodiversity, and natural capital can undermine long-term economic stability. For example, widespread deforestation, land degradation, and ecosystem collapse erode resources for agriculture, fisheries, water supply, and climate regulation, thereby threatening livelihoods and economic resilience.[68]

## Action

### Justice

This section is an excerpt from [Environmental justice](/source/Environmental_justice).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_justice&action=edit)]

This article may incorporate text from a large language model, which is prohibited in Wikipedia articles. It may include hallucinated information, copyright violations, claims not verified in cited sources, original research, or fictitious references. Any such material should be removed. (November 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

[Environmental justice](/source/Environmental_justice) is a [social movement](/source/Social_movement) that addresses injustice that occurs when poor or marginalized communities are harmed by [hazardous waste](/source/Hazardous_waste), [resource extraction](/source/Resource_extraction), and other [land uses](/source/Land_use) from which they do not benefit.[69][*[full citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include)*][70][71][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] The movement has generated hundreds of studies showing that exposure to [environmental harm](/source/Environmental_harm) is inequitably distributed.[72] Additionally, many marginalized communities, including [Black/racialized communities](/source/Black_communities) and the [LGBTQ community](/source/LGBTQ_community), are disproportionately impacted by natural disasters.

Environmental justice is broadly defined as fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all [people](/source/People) regardless of [race](/source/Racism), [color](/source/Complexion), [national origin](/source/National_origin), or [income](/source/Income) with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of [environmental laws](/source/Environmental_law), [regulations](/source/Regulation), and [policies](/source/Policy). Over time, [scholars](/source/Scholar) have elaborated multiple dimensions of the concept.[73]

The movement [began in the United States](/source/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States) in the 1980s. It was heavily influenced by the [American civil rights movement](/source/Civil_rights_movement) and focused on [environmental racism](/source/Environmental_racism) within rich countries. The movement was later expanded to consider gender, [LGBTQ people](/source/LGBTQ_people), international environmental injustice, and inequalities within marginalized groups. As the movement achieved some success in rich countries, environmental burdens were shifted to the [Global South](/source/Global_North_and_Global_South) (for example through [extractivism](/source/Extractivism) or the [global waste trade](/source/Global_waste_trade)).[74] The movement for environmental justice has thus become more global, with some of its aims now being articulated by the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations). The movement overlaps with movements for [Indigenous land rights](/source/Indigenous_land_rights) and for the [human right to a healthy environment](/source/Right_to_a_healthy_environment).[75][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

The goal of the environmental justice movement is to achieve [agency](/source/Agency_(sociology)) for marginalized communities in making environmental decisions that affect their lives. The global environmental justice movement arises from local [environmental conflicts](/source/Environmental_conflict) in which [environmental defenders](/source/Environmental_defender) frequently confront multi-national corporations in resource extraction or other industries. Local outcomes of these conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks.[76][77]

Environmental justice scholars have produced an interdisciplinary body of [social science](/source/Social_science) literature that includes contributions to [political ecology](/source/Political_ecology), [environmental law](/source/Environmental_laws), and theories on [justice](/source/Justice) and [sustainability](/source/Sustainability).[71][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*][78][79][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*][80][81]

The 2023 [IPCC](/source/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change) report highlighted the disproportionate effects of climate change on vulnerable populations. The report's findings make it clear that every increment of global warming exacerbates challenges such as extreme heatwaves, heavy rainfall, and other weather extremes, which in turn amplify risks for human health and ecosystems. With nearly half of the world's population residing in regions highly susceptible to climate change, the urgency for global actions that are both rapid and sustained is underscored. The importance of integrating diverse knowledge systems, including scientific, Indigenous, and local knowledge, into climate action is highlighted as a means to foster inclusive solutions that address the complexities of climate impacts across different communities.[82]

In addition, the report points out the critical gap in adaptation finance, noting that developing countries require significantly more resources to effectively adapt to climate challenges than what is currently available. This financial disparity raises questions about the global commitment to equitable climate action and underscores the need for a substantial increase in support and resources. The IPCC's analysis suggests that with adequate financial investment and international cooperation, it is possible to embark on a pathway towards resilience and sustainability that benefits all sections of society.[82]

### Law

This section is an excerpt from [Environmental law](/source/Environmental_law).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_law&action=edit)]

[Environmental laws](/source/Environmental_law) are laws that protect the environment.[83] The term "environmental law" encompasses [treaties](/source/Treaties), [statutes](/source/Statute), [regulations](/source/Regulation), [conventions](/source/Convention_(political_norm)), and [policies](/source/Policies) designed to protect the natural environment and manage the impact of human activities on [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem) and [natural resources](/source/Natural_resources), such as [forests](/source/Forest), [minerals](/source/Mineral), or fisheries. It addresses issues such as [pollution control](/source/Pollution_control), resource conservation, [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity) protection, [climate change mitigation](/source/Climate_change_mitigation), and [sustainable development](/source/Sustainable_development). As part of both national and international legal frameworks, environmental law seeks to balance environmental preservation with economic and social needs, often through regulatory mechanisms, enforcement measures, and incentives for compliance.

The field emerged prominently in the mid-20th century as industrialization and environmental degradation spurred global awareness, culminating in landmark agreements like the 1972 [Stockholm Conference](/source/Stockholm_Conference) and the 1992 [Rio Declaration](/source/Rio_Declaration). Key principles include the [precautionary principle](/source/Precautionary_principle), the [polluter pays principle](/source/Polluter_pays_principle), and [intergenerational equity](/source/Intergenerational_equity). Modern environmental law intersects with [human rights](/source/Human_rights), [international trade](/source/International_trade), and [energy policy](/source/Energy_policy).

Internationally, treaties such as the [Paris Agreement](/source/Paris_Agreement) (2015), the [Kyoto Protocol](/source/Kyoto_Protocol) (1997), and the [Convention on Biological Diversity](/source/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity) (1992) establish cooperative frameworks for addressing transboundary issues. Nationally, laws like the UK's [Clean Air Act 1956](/source/Clean_Air_Act_1956) and the US [Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976](/source/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976) establish regulations to limit pollution and manage chemical safety. Enforcement varies by jurisdiction, often involving governmental agencies, judicial systems, and international organizations. [Environmental impact assessments](/source/Environmental_impact_assessment) are a common way to enforce environmental law.

Challenges in environmental law include reconciling economic growth with sustainability, determining adequate levels of compensation, and addressing enforcement gaps in international contexts. The field continues to evolve in response to emerging crises such as [biodiversity loss](/source/Biodiversity_loss), [plastic pollution](/source/Plastic_pollution) in oceans, and [climate change](/source/Climate_change).

### Assessment

This section is an excerpt from [Environmental impact assessment](/source/Environmental_impact_assessment).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_assessment&action=edit)]

[Environmental impact assessment](/source/Environmental_impact_assessment) (EIA) is the assessment of the [environmental consequences](/source/Environmental_impact) of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term "environmental impact assessment" is usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term "[strategic environmental assessment](/source/Strategic_environmental_assessment)" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and programmes most often proposed by organs of state.[84][85] It is a tool of [environmental management](/source/Environmental_management_system) forming a part of project approval and decision-making.[86] Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of [administrative procedure](/source/Administrative_law) regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, and may be subject to judicial review.

The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The [International Association for Impact Assessment](/source/International_Association_for_Impact_Assessment) (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the [biophysical](/source/Biophysics), social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made".[87] EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision-makers to [account for environmental values](/source/Environmental_full-cost_accounting) in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed [environmental studies](/source/Environmental_studies) and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.[88]

### Movement

This section is an excerpt from [Environmental movement](/source/Environmental_movement).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_movement&action=edit)]

Levels of air pollution rose during the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution), sparking the first modern [environmental laws](/source/Environmental_law) to be passed in the mid-19th century.

The [environmental movement](/source/Environmental_movement), sometimes referred to as the ecology movement, is a [social movement](/source/Social_movement) that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create [sustainable living](/source/Sustainable_living).[89] In its recognition of humanity as a participant in (not an enemy of) [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem), the movement is centered on [ecology](/source/Ecology), [health](/source/Health), as well as [human rights](/source/Human_rights).

The environmental movement is an international movement, represented by a range of environmental organizations, from enterprises to [grassroots](/source/Grassroots) and varies from country to country. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental movement is not always united in its goals. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals, [religious devotees](/source/Religion_and_environmentalism), politicians, scientists, [nonprofit organizations](/source/Nonprofit_organization), and individual advocates like former Wisconsin Senator [Gaylord Nelson](/source/Gaylord_Nelson) and [Rachel Carson](/source/Rachel_Carson) in the 20th century.

Since the 1970s, public awareness, [environmental sciences](/source/Environmental_science), [ecology](/source/Ecology), and technology have advanced to include modern focus points like [ozone](/source/Ozone) depletion, [climate change](/source/Global_warming), [acid rain](/source/Acid_rain), [mutation breeding](/source/Mutation_breeding), [genetically modified crops](/source/Genetically_modified_crops) and [genetically modified livestock](/source/Genetically_modified_livestock). The [climate movement](/source/Climate_movement) can be regarded as a sub-type of the environmental movement.

### Organizations

Main article: [Environmental organization](/source/Environmental_organization)

Environmental issues are addressed at a regional, national or international level by government organizations.

The largest international agency, set up in 1972, is the [United Nations Environment Programme](/source/United_Nations_Environment_Programme). The [International Union for Conservation of Nature](/source/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature) brings [together](/source/Government_organizations) 83 states, 108 government agencies, 766 Non-governmental organizations and 81 international organizations and about 10,000 experts, scientists from countries around the world.[90] International [non-governmental organizations](/source/Non-governmental_organization) include [Greenpeace](/source/Greenpeace), [Friends of the Earth](/source/Friends_of_the_Earth) and [World Wide Fund for Nature](/source/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature). Governments enact [environmental policy](/source/Environmental_policy) and [enforce](/source/Government_organizations) [environmental law](/source/Environmental_law) and this is done to differing degrees around the world.

## Film and television

Main article: [Environmental issues in film and television](/source/Environmental_issues_in_film_and_television)

There are an increasing number of films being produced on environmental issues, especially on [climate change](/source/Climate_change) and [global warming](/source/Global_warming). Al Gore's 2006 film *[An Inconvenient Truth](/source/An_Inconvenient_Truth)* gained commercial success and a high media profile.

## See also

- [Citizen science](/source/Citizen_science)

- [Ecotax](/source/Ecotax)

- [Environmental impact statement](/source/Environmental_impact_statement)

- [Environmentalism](/source/Environmentalism)

- [Green politics](/source/Green_politics)

- [Index of environmental articles](/source/Index_of_environmental_articles)

- [Nature-based solutions](/source/Nature-based_solutions)

- [Triple planetary crisis](/source/Triple_planetary_crisis)

**Issues**

- [List of environmental issues](/source/List_of_environmental_issues) (includes mitigation and conservation)

**Specific issues**

- [Air pollution](/source/Air_pollution)

- [Environmental impact of agriculture](/source/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture)

- [Environmental impact of aviation](/source/Environmental_impact_of_aviation)

- [Environmental impact of reservoirs](/source/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs)

- [Environmental impact of the energy industry](/source/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry)

- [Environmental impact of fishing](/source/Environmental_impact_of_fishing)

- [Environmental impact of irrigation](/source/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation)

- [Environmental impact of mining](/source/Environmental_impact_of_mining)

- [Environmental impact of paint](/source/Environmental_impact_of_paint)

- [Environmental impact of paper](/source/Environmental_impact_of_paper)

- [Environmental impact of pesticides](/source/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides)

- [Environmental implications of nanotechnology](/source/Environmental_implications_of_nanotechnology)

- [Environmental impact of shipping](/source/Environmental_impact_of_shipping)

- [Environmental impact of war](/source/Environmental_impact_of_war)

- [Marine pollution](/source/Marine_pollution)

- [Pollution](/source/Pollution)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Lim, Chi Hong; Lim, Bong Soon; Kim, A. Reum; Kim, Dong Uk; Seol, Jae Won; Pi, Jeong Hoon; Lee, Hansol; Lee, Chang Seok (2022). "Climate change adaptation through ecological restoration". *Natural Resources Conservation and Advances for Sustainability*. pp. 151–172. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/B978-0-12-822976-7.00013-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-822976-7.00013-2). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-822976-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-822976-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Human Impacts on the Environment"](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-human-impacts-environment). *education.nationalgeographic.org*. Retrieved 2023-05-06.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Eccleston, Charles H.; March, Frederic (2010). "Environmental management systems". *Global Environmental Policy*. pp. 219–254. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1201/b17375-14](https://doi.org/10.1201%2Fb17375-14). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-429-11186-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-11186-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** McNeill, Z. Zane (2022-09-07). ["Humans Destroying Ecosystems: How to Measure Our Impact on the Environment"](https://sentientmedia.org/humans-destroying-ecosystems/). Retrieved 2023-05-06.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Marine Pollution"](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/marine-pollution). *education.nationalgeographic.org*. Retrieved 2023-05-06.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:112_6-0)** Alberro, Heather (28 January 2020). ["Why we should be wary of blaming 'overpopulation' for the climate crisis"](https://theconversation.com/why-we-should-be-wary-of-blaming-overpopulation-for-the-climate-crisis-130709). *The Conversation*. Retrieved 2020-12-31.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:132_7-0)** ["David Attenborough's claim that humans have overrun the planet is his most popular comment"](https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/environment/2020/11/david-attenborough-s-claim-humans-have-overrun-planet-his-most-popular). *www.newstatesman.com*. 4 November 2020. Retrieved 2021-08-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:142_8-0)** ["Dominic Lawson: The population timebomb is a myth The doom-sayers are becoming more fashionable just as experts are coming to the view it has all been one giant false alarm"](https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/dominic-lawson/dominic-lawson-the-population-timebomb-is-a-myth-2186968.html). *The Independent*. UK. 18 January 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Nässén, Jonas; Andersson, David; Larsson, Jörgen; Holmberg, John (June 2015). "Explaining the Variation in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Between Households: Socioeconomic, Motivational, and Physical Factors". *Journal of Industrial Ecology*. **19** (3): 480–489. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015JInEc..19..480N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JInEc..19..480N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/jiec.12168](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjiec.12168).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Moser, Stephanie; Kleinhückelkotten, Silke (July 2018). ["Good Intents, but Low Impacts: Diverging Importance of Motivational and Socioeconomic Determinants Explaining Pro-Environmental Behavior, Energy Use, and Carbon Footprint"](https://boris.unibe.ch/101420/). *Environment and Behavior*. **50** (6): 626–656. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018EnvBe..50..626M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018EnvBe..50..626M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/0013916517710685](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013916517710685).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Lynch, Michael J.; Long, Michael A.; Stretesky, Paul B.; Barrett, Kimberly L. (August 2019). "Measuring the Ecological Impact of the Wealthy: Excessive Consumption, Ecological Disorganization, Green Crime, and Justice". *Social Currents*. **6** (4): 377–395. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/2329496519847491](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2329496519847491).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Making Peace With Nature"](https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature). *UNEP - UN Environment Programme*. 11 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["SDGs will address 'three planetary crises' harming life on Earth"](https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/04/1090762). *UN News*. 2021-04-27. Retrieved 2022-02-18.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Human_impact_on_the_environment_CSSR2017_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Human_impact_on_the_environment_CSSR2017_14-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Human_impact_on_the_environment_CSSR2017_14-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Human_impact_on_the_environment_CSSR2017_14-3) Wuebbles DJ, Fahey DW, Hibbard KA, DeAngelo B, Doherty S, Hayhoe K, Horton R, Kossin JP, Taylor PC, Waple AM, Weaver CP (2017). "Executive Summary". In Wuebbles DJ, Fahey DW, Hibbard KA, Dokken DJ, Stewart BC, Maycock TK (eds.). *Climate Science Special Report – Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4)*. Vol. I. Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 12–34. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7930/J0DJ5CTG](https://doi.org/10.7930%2FJ0DJ5CTG) (inactive 4 January 2026).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2026 ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_January_2026))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** [Sahney, Benton & Ferry (2010)](#CITEREFSahneyBentonFerry2010); [Hawksworth & Bull (2008)](#CITEREFHawksworthBull2008); [Steffen et al. (2006)](#CITEREFSteffenSandersonTysonJäger2006) [Chapin, Matson & Vitousek (2011)](#CITEREFChapinMatsonVitousek2011)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Stockton, Nick (22 April 2015). ["The Biggest Threat to the Earth? We Have Too Many Kids"](https://www.wired.com/2015/04/biggest-threat-earth-many-kids/). *[Wired.com](/source/Wired.com)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191218185510/https://www.wired.com/2015/04/biggest-threat-earth-many-kids/) from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [Ripple, William J.](/source/William_J._Ripple); Wolf, Christopher; Newsome, Thomas M.; Barnard, Phoebe; Moomaw, William R. (5 November 2019). ["World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency"](https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biz088/5610806). *[BioScience](/source/BioScience)* biz088. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/biosci/biz088](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbiz088). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1808/30278](https://hdl.handle.net/1808%2F30278). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200103103553/https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biz088/5610806) from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2019. Still increasing by roughly 80 million people per year, or more than 200,000 per day (figure 1a–b), the world population must be stabilized—and, ideally, gradually reduced—within a framework that ensures social integrity. There are proven and effective policies that strengthen human rights while lowering fertility rates and lessening the impacts of population growth on GHG emissions and biodiversity loss. These policies make family-planning services available to all people, remove barriers to their access and achieve full gender equity, including primary and secondary education as a global norm for all, especially girls and young women (Bongaarts and O'Neill 2018).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Cook, John (13 April 2016). ["Consensus on consensus: a synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming"](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F11%2F4%2F048002). *[Environmental Research Letters](/source/Environmental_Research_Letters)*. **11** (4) 048002. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2016ERL....11d8002C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ERL....11d8002C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/048002](https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F11%2F4%2F048002). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1983/34949783-dac1-4ce7-ad95-5dc0798930a6](https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2F34949783-dac1-4ce7-ad95-5dc0798930a6). The consensus that humans are causing recent global warming is shared by 90%–100% of publishing climate scientists according to six independent studies

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Lenton, Timothy M.; Xu, Chi; Abrams, Jesse F.; Ghadiali, Ashish; Loriani, Sina; Sakschewski, Boris; Zimm, Caroline; Ebi, Kristie L.; Dunn, Robert R.; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Scheffer, Marten (2023). ["Quantifying the human cost of global warming"](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41893-023-01132-6). *[Nature Sustainability](/source/Nature_Sustainability)*. **6** (10): 1237–1247. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2023NatSu...6.1237L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023NatSu...6.1237L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s41893-023-01132-6](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41893-023-01132-6). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10871/132650](https://hdl.handle.net/10871%2F132650).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** ["Increased Ocean Acidity"](https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/signpost/cc.html). *[Epa.gov](/source/Epa.gov)*. [United States Environmental Protection Agency](/source/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency). 30 August 2016. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110623075211/https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange//kids/impacts/signs/acidity.html) from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 23 November 2017. Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere whenever people burn fossil fuels. Oceans play an important role in keeping the Earth's carbon cycle in balance. As the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rises, the oceans absorb a lot of it. In the ocean, carbon dioxide reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid. This causes the acidity of seawater to increase.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Weston, Phoebe (March 26, 2025). ["Biodiversity loss in all species and every ecosystem linked to humans – report"](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/mar/26/human-link-biodiversity-loss-species-ecosystems-climate-pollution-eawag-study-nature-aoe). *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*. Retrieved March 29, 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, *The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind*, Anchor, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-385-46809-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-46809-1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Ceballos, Gerardo; [Ehrlich, Paul R.](/source/Paul_Ehrlich); [Barnosky, Anthony D.](/source/Anthony_David_Barnosky); Garcia, Andrés; Pringle, Robert M.; Palmer, Todd M. (2015). ["Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4640606). *[Science Advances](/source/Science_Advances)*. **1** (5) e1400253. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015SciA....1E0253C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015SciA....1E0253C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/sciadv.1400253](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.1400253). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4640606](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4640606). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [26601195](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26601195).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Pimm, S. L.; Jenkins, C. N.; Abell, R.; Brooks, T. M.; Gittleman, J. L.; Joppa, L. N.; Raven, P. H.; Roberts, C. M.; Sexton, J. O. (30 May 2014). "The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection". *Science*. **344** (6187) 1246752. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1246752](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1246752). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [24876501](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24876501). The overarching driver of species extinction is human population growth and increasing per capita consumption.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Human_impact_on_the_environment_Crist2022_25-0)** Crist, Eileen; Ripple, William J.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Rees, William E.; Wolf, Christopher (November 2022). ["Scientists' warning on population"](https://scientistswarning.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/Crist2022.pdf) (PDF). *Science of the Total Environment*. **845** 157166. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2022ScTEn.84557166C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ScTEn.84557166C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2022.157166). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [35803428](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35803428).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Perkins, Sid (11 July 2017). "The best way to reduce your carbon footprint is one the government isn't telling you about". *Science*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.aan7083](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aan7083).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Nordström, Jonas; Shogren, Jason F.; Thunström, Linda (15 April 2020). ["Do parents counter-balance the carbon emissions of their children?"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7159189). *[PLOS One](/source/PLOS_One)*. **15** (4) e0231105. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020PLoSO..1531105N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PLoSO..1531105N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pone.0231105](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0231105). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [7159189](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7159189). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [32294098](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32294098). It is well understood that adding to the population increases CO2 emissions.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** [Harvey, David](/source/David_Harvey_(geographer)) (2005). [*A Brief History of Neoliberalism*](https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism-9780199283279?cc=us&lang=en&). [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). p. 173. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-928327-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928327-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** [Rees, William E.](/source/William_E._Rees) (2020). ["Ecological economics for humanity's plague phase"](https://mahb.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EE-Rees-2020.pdf) (PDF). *[Ecological Economics](/source/Ecological_Economics_(journal))*. **169** 106519. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020EcoEc.16906519R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020EcoEc.16906519R). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106519](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecolecon.2019.106519). the neoliberal paradigm contributes significantly to planetary unraveling. Neoliberal thinking treats the economy and the ecosphere as separate independent systems and essentially ignores the latter.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Jones, Ellie-Anne; Stafford, Rick (2021). ["Neoliberalism and the Environment: Are We Aware of Appropriate Action to Save the Planet and Do We Think We Are Doing Enough?"](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fearth2020019). *[Earth](/source/Earth_(journal))*. **2** (2): 331–339. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2021Earth...2..331J](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Earth...2..331J). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3390/earth2020019](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fearth2020019).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Cafaro, Philip (November 2022). ["Reducing Human Numbers and the Size of our Economies is Necessary to Avoid a Mass Extinction and Share Earth Justly with Other Species"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359182950). *Philosophia*. **50** (5): 2263–2282. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s11406-022-00497-w](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11406-022-00497-w). Conservation biologists agree that humanity is on the verge of causing a mass extinction and that its primary driver is our immense and rapidly expanding global economy.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Badri, Adarsh (2024-03-04). ["Feeling for the Anthropocene: affective relations and ecological activism in the global South"](https://academic.oup.com/ia/article/100/2/731/7596599). *International Affairs*. **100** (2): 731–749. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ia/iiae010](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiae010). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0020-5850](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** ["New Climate Risk Classification Created to Account for Potential "Existential" Threats"](https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/new-climate-risk-classification-created-account-potential-existential-threats). *[Scripps Institution of Oceanography](/source/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography)*. 14 September 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170915210037/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/new-climate-risk-classification-created-account-potential-existential-threats) from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2017. A new study evaluating models of future climate scenarios has led to the creation of the new risk categories "catastrophic" and "unknown" to characterize the range of threats posed by rapid global warming. Researchers propose that unknown risks imply existential threats to the survival of humanity.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Torres, Phil (11 April 2016). ["Biodiversity loss: An existential risk comparable to climate change"](https://thebulletin.org/biodiversity-loss-existential-risk-comparable-climate-change9329). *[Thebulletin.org](/source/Thebulletin.org)*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160413235655/https://thebulletin.org/biodiversity-loss-existential-risk-comparable-climate-change9329) from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Bampton, M. (1999) ["Anthropogenic Transformation"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0iX2z48qkUC&pg=PA22) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200922074051/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0iX2z48qkUC&pg=PA22) 22 September 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) in Encyclopedia of Environmental Science, D. E. Alexander and R. W. Fairbridge (eds.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0412740508](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0412740508).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Crutzen, Paul and [Eugene F. Stoermer](/source/Eugene_F._Stoermer). "The 'Anthropocene'" in International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme Newsletter. 41 (May 2000): 17–18

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Scott, Michon (2014). ["Glossary"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080917063754/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/glossary.php3?mode=all). *[NASA Earth Observatory](/source/NASA_Earth_Observatory)*. Archived from [the original](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/glossary.php3?mode=all) on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 3 November 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Syvitski, Jaia; Waters, Colin N.; Day, John; et al. (2020). ["Extraordinary human energy consumption and resultant geological impacts beginning around 1950 CE initiated the proposed Anthropocene Epoch"](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs43247-020-00029-y). *[Communications Earth & Environment](/source/Communications_Earth_%26_Environment)*. **1** (32): 32. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020ComEE...1...32S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ComEE...1...32S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s43247-020-00029-y](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs43247-020-00029-y). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10810/51932](https://hdl.handle.net/10810%2F51932).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Environmental_conflict_:23_63-0)** Martinez Alier, Joan; Temper, Leah; Del Bene, Daniela; Scheidel, Arnim (2016). ["Is there a global environmental justice movement?"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301694370). *[Journal of Peasant Studies](/source/Journal_of_Peasant_Studies)*. **43** (3): 731–755. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03066150.2016.1141198). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [156535916](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156535916).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Kennet, Miriam (27 July 2018). "Saving social justice and environmental justice in an age of tyranny and corruption". In Craig, Gary (ed.). *Handbook on Global Social Justice*. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–268. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4337/9781786431424](https://doi.org/10.4337%2F9781786431424). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78643-141-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78643-141-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinez-Alier2002_75-0)** [Martinez-Alier 2002](#CITEREFMartinez-Alier2002).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Kennet, Miriam (27 July 2018). "19. Saving social justice and environmental justice in an age of tyranny and corruption". In Craig, Gary (ed.). *Handbook on Global Social Justice*. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–267. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78643-141-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78643-141-7).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Holder, J., (2004), *Environmental Assessment: The Regulation of Decision Making*, Oxford University Press, New York; For a comparative discussion of the elements of various domestic EIA systems, see Christopher Wood *Environmental Impact Assessment: A Comparative Review* (2 ed, Prentice Hall, Harlow, 2002).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** McCormick, John (1991). [*Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xC16yGp9-HUC&pg=PA1). Indiana University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-253-20660-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20660-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230408120118/https://books.google.com/books?id=xC16yGp9-HUC&pg=PA1) from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** ["About"](https://www.iucn.org/about). *IUCN*. 2014-12-03. Retrieved 2017-05-20.

### Works cited

- Chapin, F. Stuart; Matson, Pamela A.; Vitousek, Peter (September 2, 2011). [*Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=68nFNpceRmIC). Springer Science+Business Media. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4419-9504-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-9504-9). Retrieved October 4, 2022.

- Hawksworth, David L.; Bull, Alan T. (2008). *Biodiversity and Conservation in Europe*. Springer. p. 3390. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1402068645](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402068645).

- Martinez-Alier, Joan (2002). *The Environmentalism of the Poor*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4337/9781843765486](https://doi.org/10.4337%2F9781843765486). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84376-548-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84376-548-6).

- Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J.; Ferry, P.A. (2010). ["Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2936204). *Biology Letters*. **6** (4): 544–547. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024](https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.1024). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2936204](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2936204). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20106856](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20106856).

- Steffen, Will; Sanderson, Regina Angelina; Tyson, Peter D.; Jäger, Jill; Matson, Pamela A.; Moore III, Berrien; Oldfield, Frank; Richardson, Katherine; Schellnhuber, Hans-Joachim (January 27, 2006). [*Global Change and the Earth System: A Planet Under Pressure*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kXUIwfmdgZwC). Springer Science+Business Media. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-540-26607-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-26607-5). Retrieved October 4, 2022.

- Schlosberg, David (2007). *Defining Environmental Justice*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286294.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199286294.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-928629-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928629-4).

## Further reading

- Ferguson, Robert (1999). *Environmental Public Awareness Handbook: Case Studies and Lessons Learned in Mongolia*. Ulaanbaatar: DSConsulting. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [99929-50-13-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/99929-50-13-7).

## External links

- Media related to [Environmental problems](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_problems) at Wikimedia Commons

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