# Engineering control

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For broader coverage of this topic, see [Hierarchy of hazard controls](/source/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls).

Hazard controls that are physical changes to the workplace

Occupational hazards Physical Chemical Biological Psychosocial Hierarchy of hazard controls Elimination Substitution Engineering controls Administrative controls Personal protective equipment Occupational hygiene Occupational exposure limit Exposure assessment Workplace exposure monitoring Study Occupational toxicology Occupational epidemiology Workplace health surveillance See also Aerosol NIOSH ratings Source control COVID-19 controls Fire fighter fatality investigation v t e

**Engineering controls** are strategies designed to protect workers from [hazardous conditions](/source/Occupational_hazard) by placing a barrier between the worker and the hazard or by removing a hazardous substance through air [ventilation](/source/Ventilation_(architecture)).[1][2] Engineering controls involve a physical change to the workplace itself, rather than relying on workers' behavior or requiring workers to wear protective clothing.[3]

Engineering controls is the third of five members of the [hierarchy of hazard controls](/source/Hierarchy_of_hazard_control), which orders control strategies by their feasibility and effectiveness. Engineering controls are preferred over [administrative controls](/source/Administrative_controls) and [personal protective equipment](/source/Personal_protective_equipment) (PPE) because they are designed to remove the hazard at the source, before it comes in contact with the worker. Well-designed engineering controls can be highly effective in protecting workers and will typically be independent of worker interactions to provide this high level of protection. The initial cost of engineering controls can be higher than the cost of administrative controls or PPE, but over the longer term, operating costs are frequently lower, and in some instances, can provide a cost savings in other areas of the process.[4]

[Elimination](/source/Hazard_elimination) and [substitution](/source/Hazard_substitution) are usually considered to be separate levels of hazard controls, but in some schemes they are categorized as types of engineering control.[5][6]

The U.S. [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/source/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health) researches engineering control technologies, and provides information on their details and effectiveness in the NIOSH Engineering Controls Database.[4][7]

## Background

Engineering controls are the third most effective member of the [hierarchy of hazard controls](/source/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls).  They are preferred over [administrative controls](/source/Administrative_controls) and [personal protective equipment](/source/Personal_protective_equipment), but are less preferred than [elimination](/source/Hazard_elimination) or [substitution](/source/Hazard_substitution) of the hazards.

Controlling exposures to occupational hazards is considered the fundamental method of protecting workers. Traditionally, a [hierarchy of controls](/source/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls) has been used as a means of determining how to implement feasible and effective controls, which typically include [elimination](/source/Hazard_elimination), [substitution](/source/Hazard_substitution), engineering controls, [administrative controls](/source/Administrative_controls), and [personal protective equipment](/source/Personal_protective_equipment). Methods earlier in the list are considered generally more effective in reducing the risk associated with a hazard, with process changes and engineering controls recommended as the primary means for reducing exposures, and personal protective equipment being the approach of last resort. Following the hierarchy is intended to lead to the implementation of inherently safer systems, ones where the risk of illness or injury has been substantially reduced.[8]

Engineering controls are physical changes to the workplace that isolate workers from hazards by containing them in an enclosure, or removing contaminated air from the workplace through [ventilation](/source/Ventilation_(architecture)) and [filtering](/source/Air_filter). Well-designed engineering controls are typically passive, in the sense of being independent of worker interactions, which reduces the potential for worker behavior to impact exposure levels. They also ideally do not interfere with productivity and ease of processing for the worker, because otherwise the operator may be motivated to circumvent the controls. The initial cost of engineering controls can be higher than [administrative controls](/source/Administrative_controls) or [personal protective equipment](/source/Personal_protective_equipment), but the long-term operating costs are frequently lower, and can sometimes provide cost savings in other areas of the process.[9]: 10–11

## Chemical and biological hazards

Main articles: [Chemical hazard](/source/Chemical_hazard) and [Biological hazard](/source/Biological_hazard)

Various [chemical hazards](/source/Chemical_hazard) and [biological hazards](/source/Biological_hazard) are known to cause disease. Engineering control approaches are often oriented towards reducing inhalation exposure through ventilation and isolation of the toxic material. However, isolation can also be useful for preventing skin and eye contact as well, reducing reliance on personal protective equipment which should be the control of last resort.[10]

### Ventilation

A [fume hood](/source/Fume_hood) is an example of an engineering control that uses local exhaust [ventilation](/source/Ventilation_(architecture)) combined with an enclosure to isolate a worker from airborne gasses or particulates.

Ventilation systems are distinguished as being either local or general. Local exhaust ventilation operates at or near the source of contamination, often in conjunction with an enclosure, while general exhaust ventilation operates on an entire room through a building's [HVAC system](/source/HVAC).[9]: 11–12

#### Local exhaust ventilation

Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is the application of an exhaust system at or near the source of contamination. If properly designed, it will be much more efficient at removing contaminants than dilution ventilation, requiring lower exhaust volumes, less make-up air, and, in many cases, lower costs. By applying exhaust at the source, contaminants are removed before they get into the general work environment.[9]: 12 Examples of local exhaust systems include [fume hoods](/source/Fume_hood), [vented balance enclosures](/source/Vented_balance_safety_enclosure), and [biosafety cabinets](/source/Biosafety_cabinet). [Exhaust hoods](/source/Exhaust_hood) lacking an enclosure are less preferable, and [laminar flow hoods](/source/Laminar_flow_cabinet) are not recommended because they direct air outwards towards the worker.[11]: 18–28

[Vented balance enclosures](/source/Vented_balance_safety_enclosure) used in the pharmaceutical industry can be used for nanomaterials, with the advantages of smaller size and lower turbulence.

Fume hoods are recommended to have an average inward velocity of 80–100 feet per minute (fpm) at the face of the hood. For higher toxicity materials, a higher face velocity of 100–120 fpm is recommended in order to provide better protection. However, face velocities exceeding 150 fpm are not believed to improve performance, and could increase hood leakage.[12] It is recommended that air exiting a fume hood should be passed through a [HEPA](/source/HEPA) filter and exhausted outside the work environment, with used filters being handled as hazardous waste. [Turbulence](/source/Turbulence) can cause materials to exit the front of the hood, and can be avoided by keeping the sash in the proper position, keeping the interior of the hood uncluttered with equipment, and not making fast movements while working.[11]: 19–24

Low-turbulence [balance enclosures](/source/Vented_balance_safety_enclosure) were initially developed for the weighing of [pharmaceutical](/source/Pharmaceutical_drug) powders and are also used for [nanomaterials](/source/Nanomaterials); these provide adequate containment at lower face velocities, typically operating at 65–85 fpm.[12] They are useful for weighing operations, which disturb the material and increase its aerosolization.[11]: 27–28

[Biosafety cabinets](/source/Biosafety_cabinet), although designed to contain [bioaerosols](/source/Bioaerosol), can also be used to contain nanomaterials.

Biosafety cabinets are designed to contain [bioaerosols](/source/Bioaerosol). However, common biosafety cabinets are more prone to turbulence. As with fume hoods, they are recommended to be exhausted outside the facility.[11]: 25–27

Dedicated large-scale ventilated enclosures for large pieces of equipment can also be used.[13]: 9–11

#### General exhaust ventilation

General exhaust ventilation (GEV), also called dilution ventilation, is different from local exhaust ventilation because instead of capturing emissions at their source and removing them from the air, general exhaust ventilation allows the contaminant to be emitted into the workplace air and then dilutes the concentration of the contaminant to an acceptable level. GEV is inefficient and costly as compared to local exhaust ventilation, and given the lack of established exposure limits for most nanomaterials, they are not recommended to be relied upon for controlling exposure.[9]: 11–12

However, GEV can provide [negative room pressure](/source/Negative_room_pressure) to prevent contaminants from exiting the room. The use of supply and exhaust air throughout the facility can provide pressurization schemes that reduce the number of workers exposed to potentially hazardous materials, for example keeping production areas at a negative pressure with respect to nearby areas.[9]: 11–12 For general exhaust ventilation in laboratories, a nonrecirculating system is used with 4–12 air changes per hour when used in tandem with local exhaust ventilation, and sources of contamination are placed close to the air exhaust and downwind of workers, and away from windows or doors that may cause air drafts.[11]: 13

#### Control verification

Several control verification techniques can be used to assess room airflow patterns and verify the proper operation of LEV systems. It is considered important to confirm that an LEV system is operating as designed by regularly measuring exhaust airflows. A standard measurement, hood static pressure, provides information on airflow changes that affect hood performance. For hoods designed to prevent exposure to hazardous airborne contaminants, the [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists](/source/American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists) recommends the installation of a fixed hood static [pressure gauge](/source/Pressure_gauge).[14]

Additionally, [Pitot tubes](/source/Pitot_tube), hot-wire [anemometers](/source/Anemometer), [smoke generators](/source/Smoke_testing_(mechanical)), and [dry ice](/source/Dry_ice) tests can be used to qualitatively measure hood slot/face and duct air velocity, while [tracer-gas leak testing](/source/Tracer-gas_leak_testing) is a quantitative method.[9]: 50–52, 59 Standardized [testing and certification procedures](/source/Verification_and_validation) such as [ANSI](/source/American_National_Standards_Institute) Z9.5 and [ASHRAE](/source/ASHRAE) 110 can be used, as can qualitative indicators of proper installation and functionality such as inspection of gaskets and hoses.[9]: 59–60[13]: 14–15

### Containment

[Gloveboxes](/source/Glovebox) are completely enclosed, but are more difficult to use than fume hoods, and may leak if used under [positive pressure](/source/Positive_pressure).

Containment refers to the physical isolation of a process or a piece of equipment to prevent the release of the hazardous material into the workplace.[11]: 13 It can be used in conjunction with ventilation measures to provide an enhanced level of protection for nanomaterial workers. Examples include placing equipment that may release toxic materials in a separate room.[13]: 9–11[15] Standard [dust control](/source/Dust_control) methods such as enclosures for [conveyor systems](/source/Conveyor_system) or using a sealed system for bag filling are effective at reducing respirable dust concentrations.[9]: 16–17

Non-ventilation engineering controls can also include devices developed for the pharmaceutical industry, including isolation containment systems. One of the most common flexible isolation systems is [glovebox](/source/Glovebox) containment, which can be used as an enclosure around small-scale powder processes, such as mixing and drying. Rigid glovebox isolation units also provide a method for isolating the worker from the process and are often used for medium-scale operations involving transfer of powders. Glovebags are similar to rigid gloveboxes, but they are flexible and disposable. They are used for small operations for containment or protection from contamination.[16] Gloveboxes are sealed systems that provide a high degree of operator protection, but are more difficult to use due to limited mobility and size of operation. Transferring materials into and out of the enclosure also is an exposure risk. In addition, some gloveboxes are configured to use [positive pressure](/source/Positive_pressure), which can increase the risk of leaks.[11]: 24–28

Another non-ventilation control used in this industry is the [continuous liner system](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Continuous_liner_system&action=edit&redlink=1), which allows the filling of product containers while enclosing the material in a polypropylene bag. This system is often used for off-loading materials when the powders are to be packed into drums.[16]

### Other

A [sticky mat](/source/Sticky_mat) in a [nanomaterials](/source/Nanomaterials) production facility. Ideally, other engineering controls should lessen the amount of dust collecting on the floor and being tracked onto the sticky mat, unlike this example.[13]

Other non-ventilation engineering controls in general cover a range of control measures, such as guards and barricades, material treatment, or additives. One example is placing walk-off [sticky mats](/source/Cleanroom_mat) at room exits.[13]: 9–11[15] [Antistatic devices](/source/Antistatic_device) can be used when handling particulates including nanomaterials to reduce their electrostatic charge, making them less likely to disperse or adhere to clothing.[11]: 28 Water [spray](/source/Spray_(liquid_drop)) application is also an effective method for reducing respirable dust concentrations.[9]: 16–17

## Physical hazards

Main article: [Physical hazard](/source/Physical_hazard)

### Ergonomic hazards

[Ergonomics](/source/Ergonomics) is the study of how employees relate to their work environments. Ergonomists and industrial hygienists aim to prevent musculoskeletal disorders and soft tissue injuries by fitting the workers to their work space. Tools, lighting, tasks, controls, displays, and equipment as well as the employee's capabilities and limitations must all be considered to create an ergonomically appropriate workplace.[17]

### Falls

[Fall protection](/source/Fall_protection) is the use of controls designed to protect personnel from [falling](/source/Falling_(accident)) or in the event they do fall, to stop them without causing severe injury. Typically, fall protection is implemented when [working at height](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Working_at_height&action=edit&redlink=1), but may be relevant when working near any edge, such as near a pit or hole, or performing work on a steep surface. According to the US Department of Labor, falls account for 8% of all work-related trauma injuries leading to death.[18]

Fall guarding is the use of [guard rails](/source/Guard_rail) or other barricades to prevent a person from falling. These barricades are placed near an edge where a fall hazard can occur, or to surround a weak surface (such as a skylight on a roof) that may break when stepped on.

[Fall arrest](/source/Fall_arrest) is the form of fall protection which involves the safe stopping of a person already falling. Fall arrest is of two major types: general fall arrest, such as nets; and personal fall arrest, such as lifelines.

### Noise

Occupational hearing loss is one of the most common work-related illnesses in the United States. Each year, about 22 million U.S. workers are exposed to hazardous noise levels at work.[19] Hearing loss costs businesses $242 million annually for workers compensation claims.[20] There are both regulatory and recommended exposure limits for noise exposure in the U.S. The NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) for occupational noise exposure is 85 decibels, A-weighted, as an 8-hour time-weighted average (85 dBA as an 8-hr TWA) using a 3-dB exchange rate.[21] The OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 90 dBA as an 8 hr-TWA, using a 5 dBA exchange rate.[22] The exchange rate means that when the noise level is increased by either 3 dBA (according to the NIOSH REL) or 5 dBA (according to the OSHA PEL), the amount of time a person can be exposed to a certain noise level to receive the same dose is cut in half. Exposures at or above these levels are considered hazardous.

The Hierarchy of Controls approach can also be applied to reducing exposures to noise sources. The use of engineering control approaches to reduce noise at the source is preferred and can be accomplished by several means, including: using quieter tools, using vibration isolation or dampers on machinery, and disrupting the noise path by using barriers or sound insulation around the equipment.[23][24]

### Other

- [Lockout-tagout](/source/Lockout-tagout)

- [Rupture disc](/source/Rupture_disc)

## Psychosocial hazards

Engineering controls for [psychosocial hazards](/source/Psychosocial_hazard) include workplace design to affect the amount, type, and level of personal control of work, as well as access controls and alarms. The risk of [workplace violence](/source/Workplace_violence) can be reduced through physical design of the workplace or by cameras.[25]

## See also

- [Engineering controls for nanomaterials](/source/Engineering_controls_for_nanomaterials)

## References

This article incorporates [public domain material](/source/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States) from websites or documents of the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/source/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["NIOSH Directory of Engineering Controls"](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/engcontrols/). U.S. [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/source/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health). Retrieved 2016-06-13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Roelofs2007_2-0)** Roelofs, Cora (1 January 2007). [*Preventing Hazards at the Source*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-4lTEuFWtdIC&pg=PA9). [American Industrial Hygiene Association](/source/American_Industrial_Hygiene_Association). pp. 9ff. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-931504-83-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931504-83-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["Hierarchy of Controls"](https://www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy10/sh-20839-10/hierarchy_of_controls.pdf) (PDF). *U.S. [Occupational Safety and Health Administration](/source/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration)*. Retrieved 2017-03-09.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-CDC_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-CDC_4-1) ["Hierarchy of Controls - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic"](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/default.html). *U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health*. Retrieved 2017-01-30. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [public domain](/source/Public_domain).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Hazard Identification, Elimination and Control"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170314062833/https://www.hsaa.ca/effective-representation/hazard-identification-elimination-and-control). *Health Sciences Association of Alberta*. Archived from [the original](https://www.hsaa.ca/effective-representation/hazard-identification-elimination-and-control) on 2017-03-14. Retrieved 2017-03-13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Nix, Doug (2011-02-28). ["Understanding the Hierarchy of Controls"](https://machinerysafety101.com/2011/02/28/understanding-the-hierarchy-of-controls/). *Machinery Safety 101*. Retrieved 2017-03-10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Engineering Controls Database"](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/engcontrols/ecd/). *U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health*. Retrieved 2019-08-19.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_9-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:0_9-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:0_9-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:0_9-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:0_9-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-:0_9-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-:0_9-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-:0_9-8) ["Current Strategies for Engineering Controls in Nanomaterial Production and Downstream Handling Processes"](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2014-102/default.html). *U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health*. November 2013. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.26616/NIOSHPUB2014102](https://doi.org/10.26616%2FNIOSHPUB2014102). Retrieved 2017-03-05.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_11-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_11-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:1_11-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:1_11-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:1_11-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-:1_11-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-:1_11-7) ["General Safe Practices for Working with Engineered Nanomaterials in Research Laboratories"](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-147/). *U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health*. May 2012. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.26616/NIOSHPUB2012147](https://doi.org/10.26616%2FNIOSHPUB2012147). Retrieved 2017-03-05.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:4_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:4_12-1) National Research Council (US) Committee on Prudent Practices in the Laboratory (2011-03-25). *Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Management of Chemical Hazards, Updated Version*. U.S. [National Research Council](/source/National_Research_Council_(United_States)). [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2011nap..book12654N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011nap..book12654N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17226/12654](https://doi.org/10.17226%2F12654). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780309138642](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780309138642). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21796825](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21796825).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_13-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_13-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:2_13-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:2_13-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:2_13-4) ["Building a Safety Program to Protect the Nanotechnology Workforce: A Guide for Small to Medium-Sized Enterprises"](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2016-102/). *U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health*. March 2016. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.26616/NIOSHPUB2016102](https://doi.org/10.26616%2FNIOSHPUB2016102). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10919/76615](https://hdl.handle.net/10919%2F76615). Retrieved 2017-03-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ACGIH (2006). *Industrial ventilation: a manual of recommended practice for design*. [American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists](/source/American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists) (29th ed.). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781607260875](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781607260875). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [939428191](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/939428191).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_15-1) Couch, James; Page, Elena; Dunn, Kevin L. (March 2016). ["Evaluation of Metal Exposure at a Nanoparticle Research and Development Company"](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2014-0207-3248.pdf) (PDF). *U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health*. p. 7. Retrieved 2017-03-18.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:5_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:5_16-1) Hirst, Nigel; Brocklebank, Mike; Ryder, Martyn (2002). *Containment systems: a design guide*. [Institution of Chemical Engineers](/source/Institution_of_Chemical_Engineers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0852954077](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852954077). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [663998513](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/663998513).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Bickrest, Ed (March 2009). ["Fall Protection: Failure is Not an Option"](https://www.ehstoday.com/ppe/fall-protection/article/21908942/fall-protection-failure-is-not-an-option). *EHS Today*. Vol. 2, no. 3. Penton Media, INC / Endeavor Business Media. pp. 34–37. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1945-9599](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1945-9599). [EBSCO*host*](/source/EBSCOhost_(identifier)) [37246550](http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AN=37246550). [Gale](/source/Gale_(publisher)) [A197803359](https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA197803359). [ProQuest](/source/ProQuest) [224595635](https://www.proquest.com/docview/224595635). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221219144622/https://www.ehstoday.com/ppe/fall-protection/article/21908942/fall-protection-failure-is-not-an-option) from the original on 2022-12-19. Retrieved 2024-09-09.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** ["Preventing Hearing Loss: Noise Infographics | CPWR"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190819200220/https://www.cpwr.com/research/preventing-hearing-loss-noise-infographics). *www.cpwr.com*. Archived from [the original](https://www.cpwr.com/research/preventing-hearing-loss-noise-infographics) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-08-19.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** [Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Noise Exposure: Revised Criteria 1998](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-126/) (Report). Cincinnati, Ohio: Public Health Service / National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. June 1998. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.26616/nioshpub98126](https://doi.org/10.26616%2Fnioshpub98126). DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 98–126. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240909212148/https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/6376/cdc_6376_DS1.pdf?download-document-submit=Download) (PDF) from the original on 2024-09-09. Retrieved 2024-09-09.

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## Further reading

- Harold E. Roland; Brian Moriarty (10 October 1990). [*System Safety Engineering and Management*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BVjmPyhOfDkC&pg=PA73). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 73–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-471-61816-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-61816-4).

- Jeanne Mager Stellman (1 January 1998). [*Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety: Chemical, industries and occupations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&pg=PT871). International Labour Organization. pp. 871–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-2-109816-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-2-109816-4).

- Jeanne Mager Stellman (1998). [*Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety: The body, health care, management and policy, tools and approaches*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vW6rXFvm4sQC&pg=PT1026). International Labour Organization. pp. 1026–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-2-109814-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-2-109814-0).

- [Effective workplace safety and health management systems](http://lohp.org/docs/pubs/smbiz/nat/safety-health-management-systems.pdf) from the U.S. [Occupational Safety and Health Administration](/source/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration)

Related media at Wikimedia Commons:

- [Building Air Quality - A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Building_Air_Quality_A_Guide_for_Building_Owners_and_Facility_Managers.pdf)

v t e Occupational safety and health Occupational diseases and injuries Acrodynia Asbestosis Asthma Barotrauma Berylliosis Brucellosis Burnout Byssinosis ("brown lung") Cardiovascular Chalicosis Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy Chronic stress Chimney sweeps' carcinoma Coalworker's pneumoconiosis ("black lung") Concussions in sport Decompression sickness De Quervain syndrome Erethism Exposure to human nail dust Farmer's lung Fiddler's neck Flock worker's lung Glassblower's cataract Golfer's elbow Hearing loss Hospital-acquired infection Indium lung Laboratory animal allergy Lead poisoning Low back pain Mesothelioma Metal fume fever Mule spinners' cancer Noise-induced hearing loss Phossy jaw Pneumoconiosis Radium jaw Repetitive strain injury Silicosis Silo-filler's disease Sports injury Surfer's ear Tennis elbow Tinnitus Writer's cramp Occupational hygiene Occupational hazard Biological hazard Chemical hazard Physical hazard Psychosocial hazard Occupational stress Hierarchy of hazard controls Prevention through design Exposure assessment Occupational exposure limit Occupational epidemiology Workplace health surveillance Professions Environmental health Industrial engineering Occupational health nursing Occupational health psychology Occupational medicine Occupational therapist Safety engineering Agencies and organizations International European Agency for Safety and Health at Work International Labour Organization World Health Organization National Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (Canada) Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (Germany) Istituto nazionale per l'assicurazione contro gli infortuni sul lavoro (Italy) National Institute for Safety and Health at Work (Spain) Health and Safety Executive (UK) Occupational Safety and Health Administration National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (US) Safe Work Australia (Australia) Standards Bangladesh Accord OHSAS 18001 ISO 45001 Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 Worker Protection Standard (US) Working Environment Convention, 1977 Safety Checklist Code of practice Contingency plan Diving safety Emergency procedure Emergency evacuation Hazard Hierarchy of hazard controls Hazard elimination Administrative controls Engineering controls Hazard substitution Personal protective equipment Job safety analysis Lockout-tagout Permit To Work Operations manual Redundancy (engineering) Risk assessment Safety culture Standard operating procedure Immediately dangerous to life or health Legislation Diving regulations Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States) Potty parity (United States) Right to sit (United States) Workers' right to access the toilet See also Aerosol Break Break room Drug policy Effects of overtime Environment, health and safety Environmental toxicology Ergonomics Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program Hawks Nest Tunnel disaster Health physics Hostile work environment Indoor air quality International Chemical Safety Card Job strain National Day of Mourning (Canada) NIOSH air filtration rating Overwork Process safety Public health Quality of working life Risk management Safety data sheet Source control Toxic tort Toxic workplace Workers' compensation Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19 Workplace health promotion Category Occupational diseases Journals Organizations Commons

v t e Underwater diving Diving activities Diving modes Atmospheric pressure diving Freediving Saturation diving Scuba diving Snorkeling Surface oriented diving Surface-supplied diving Unmanned diving Diving equipment Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment Human factors in diving equipment design List of diving equipment manufacturers Basic equipment Diving mask Snorkel Swimfin Breathing gas Bailout gas Bottom gas Breathing air Decompression gas Emergency gas supply Heliox Hydreliox Hydrox Nitrox Oxygen Travel gas Trimix Buoyancy and trim equipment Avelo diving system Buoyancy compensator Power inflator Dump valve Variable buoyancy pressure vessel Diving weighting system Ankle weights Integrated weights Trim weights Weight belt Decompression equipment Decompression buoy Decompression chamber Decompression cylinder Decompression tables Decompression trapeze Dive computer Diving bell Diving shot Diving stage Jersey upline Jonline Diving suit Atmospheric diving suit JIM suit Newtsuit Dry suit Sladen suit Standard diving suit Rash vest Wetsuit Dive skins Hot-water suit Helmets and masks Anti-fog Diving helmet Free-flow helmet Lightweight demand helmet Orinasal mask Reclaim helmet Shallow water helmet Standard diving helmet Diving mask Band mask Full-face diving mask Half mask Instrumentation Bottom timer Depth gauge Dive computer Dive timer Diving watch Helium release valve Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor Pneumofathometer Submersible pressure gauge Mobility equipment Diver propulsion vehicle Human torpedo Wet sub Diving bell Closed bell Wet bell Diving stage Swimfin Monofin PowerSwim Towboard Safety equipment Alternative air source Octopus regulator Pony bottle Bolt snap Buddy line Dive light Diver's cutting tool Diver's knife Diver's telephone Through-water communications Underwater acoustic communication Diving bell Diving safety harness Emergency gas supply Bailout block Bailout bottle Lifeline Screw gate carabiner Emergency locator beacon Rescue tether Safety helmet Shark-proof cage Snoopy loop Navigation equipment Distance line Diving compass Dive reel Line marker Surface marker buoy Silt screw Underwater breathing apparatus Atmospheric diving suit Diving cylinder Burst disc Scuba cylinder valve Diving helmet Reclaim helmet Diving regulator Mechanism of diving regulators Regulator malfunction Regulator freeze Single-hose regulator Twin-hose regulator Full-face diving mask Open-circuit scuba Scuba set Bailout bottle Decompression cylinder Independent doubles Manifolded twin set Scuba manifold Pony bottle Scuba configuration Sidemount Sling cylinder Diving rebreathers Carbon dioxide scrubber Carleton CDBA Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment Cryogenic rebreather CUMA DSEA Dolphin Halcyon PVR-BASC Halcyon RB80 IDA71 Interspiro DCSC LAR-5 LAR-6 LAR-V LARU Mark IV Amphibian Porpoise Ray Siebe Gorman CDBA Salvus Siva Surface-supplied diving equipment Air line Diver's umbilical Diving air compressor Gas panel Hookah Scuba replacement Snuba Standard diving dress Diving equipment manufacturers AP Diving Apeks Aqua Lung America Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique Beuchat René Cavalero Cis-Lunar Cressi-Sub Dacor DESCO Dive Xtras Divex Diving Unlimited International Drägerwerk Faber Fenzy Maurice Fernez Technisub Oscar Gugen Heinke HeinrichsWeikamp Johnson Outdoors Mares Morse Diving Nemrod Oceanic Worldwide Porpoise Shearwater Research Siebe Gorman Submarine Products Suunto Diving support equipment Access equipment Boarding stirrup Diver lift Diving bell Diving ladder Diving platform (scuba) Diving stage Downline Jackstay Launch and recovery system Messenger line Moon pool Breathing gas handling Air filtration Activated carbon Hopcalite Molecular sieve Silica gel Booster pump Carbon dioxide scrubber Cascade filling system Diver's pump Diving air compressor Diving air filter Water separator High pressure breathing air compressor Low pressure breathing air compressor Gas blending Gas blending for scuba diving Gas panel Gas reclaim system Gas storage bank Gas storage quad Gas storage tube Helium analyzer Nitrox production Membrane gas separation Pressure swing adsorption Oxygen analyser Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor Oxygen compatibility Decompression equipment Air-lock Built-in breathing system Decompression tables Diving bell Bell cursor Closed bell Clump weight Launch and recovery system Wet bell Diving chamber Diving stage Recreational Dive Planner Saturation diving system Platforms Dive boat Canoe and kayak diving Combat rubber raiding craft Liveaboard Subskimmer Diving support vessel HMS Challenger (K07) Underwater habitat Aquarius Reef Base Continental Shelf Station Two Helgoland Habitat Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station SEALAB Tektite habitat Remotely operated underwater vehicles 8A4-class ROUV ABISMO Atlantis ROV Team COTSBot CURV Deep Drone Épaulard Global Explorer ROV Goldfish-class ROUV Kaikō ROV Kaşif ROUV Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System Mini Rover ROV OpenROV ROV KIEL 6000 ROV PHOCA Scorpio ROV Sea Dragon-class ROV Seabed tractor Seafox drone SeaPerch SJT-class ROUV T1200 Trenching Unit VideoRay UROVs Safety equipment Diver down flag Diving shot ENOS Rescue-System Hyperbaric lifeboat Hyperbaric stretcher Jackstay Jonline Reserve gas supply General Diving spread Air spread Saturation spread Hot water system Sonar Underwater acoustic positioning system Underwater acoustic communication Freediving Activities Aquathlon Apnoea finswimming Freediving Haenyeo Pearl hunting Ama Snorkeling Spearfishing Underwater football Underwater hockey Underwater rugby Underwater target shooting Competitions Nordic Deep Vertical Blue Disciplines Constant weight (CWT) Constant weight bi-fins (CWTB) Constant weight without fins (CNF) Dynamic apnea (DYN) Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF) Free immersion (FIM) No-limits apnea (NLT) Static apnea (STA) Skandalopetra diving Variable weight apnea (VWT) Variable weight apnea without fins Equipment Diving mask Diving suit Hawaiian sling Polespear Snorkel (swimming) Speargun Swimfins Monofin Water polo cap Freedivers Deborah Andollo Simone Arrigoni Peppo Biscarini Michael Board Sara Campbell Derya Can Göçen Goran Čolak Carlos Coste Robert Croft Mandy-Rae Cruickshank Yasemin Dalkılıç Leonardo D'Imporzano Flavia Eberhard Şahika Ercümen Emma Farrell Francisco Ferreras Pierre Frolla Flavia Eberhard Mehgan Heaney-Grier Elisabeth Kristoffersen Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych Loïc Leferme Enzo Maiorca Jacques Mayol Audrey Mestre Karol Meyer Kate Middleton Stéphane Mifsud Alexey Molchanov Natalia Molchanova Dave Mullins Patrick Musimu Guillaume Néry Herbert Nitsch Umberto Pelizzari Liv Philip Annelie Pompe Stig Severinsen Tom Sietas Martin Štěpánek Walter Steyn Tanya Streeter William Trubridge Devrim Cenk Ulusoy Fatma Uruk Danai Varveri Alessia Zecchini Nataliia Zharkova Kateryna Sadurska Hazards Barotrauma Drowning Freediving blackout Deep-water blackout Shallow-water blackout Hypercapnia Hypothermia Historical Ama Octopus wrestling Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming Organisations AIDA International Scuba Schools International Australian Underwater Federation British Freediving Association Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins Performance Freediving International Professional diving Occupations Ama Commercial diver Commercial offshore diver Hazmat diver Divemaster Diving instructor Diving safety officer Diving superintendent Diving supervisor Haenyeo Media diver Police diver Public safety diver Scientific diver Underwater archaeologist Military diving Army engineer diver Canadian Armed Forces Divers Clearance diver Frogman Minentaucher Royal Navy ships diver United States military divers U.S. Navy diver U.S.Navy master diver Military diving units 7th Marine Brigade Clearance Diving Branch (RAN) Commando Hubert Combat Divers Service (Lithuania) Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei Decima Flottiglia MAS Frogman Corps (Denmark) Fuerzas Especiales Fukuryu GRUMEC Grup Gerak Khas Jagdkommando JW Formoza JW GROM JW Komandosów Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine KOPASKA MARCOS Marine Commandos Marinejegerkommandoen Marine Raider Regiment Minedykkerkommandoen Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit Naval Diving Unit (Singapore) Naval Service Diving Section Naval Special Operations Command Operational Diving Division (SA Navy) Royal Engineers Russian commando frogmen Sappers Divers Group Shayetet 13 Special Air Service Special Air Service Regiment Special Actions Detachment Special Boat Service Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka) Special Forces Command (Turkey) Special Forces Group (Belgium) Special Operations Battalion (Croatia) Special Service Group (Navy) Special Warfare Diving and Salvage Tactical Divers Group US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions US Navy SEALs Underwater Construction Teams Underwater Demolition Command Underwater Demolition Team Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces) UNGERIN Underwater work Commercial offshore diving Dive leader Diver training Recreational diver training Hazmat diving Hyperbaric welding Marine construction Offshore construction Underwater construction Media diving Pearl hunting Police diving Potable water diving Public safety diving Scientific diving Ships husbandry Sponge diving Submarine pipeline Underwater archaeology Archaeology of shipwrecks Underwater cutting and welding Underwater demolition Underwater inspection Nondestructive testing Underwater logging Underwater photography Underwater search and recovery Underwater searches Underwater videography Underwater survey Salvage diving SS Egypt Kronan La Belle SS Laurentic RMS Lusitania Mars Mary Rose USS Monitor HMS Royal George Vasa Diving contractors COMEX Helix Energy Solutions Group International Marine Contractors Association Tools and equipment Abrasive waterjet Airlift Baited remote underwater video In-water surface cleaning Brush cart Cavitation cleaning Pressure washing Pigging Hot stab Lifting bag Remotely operated underwater vehicle Thermal lance Tremie Underwater weapons Limpet mine Speargun Hawaiian sling Polespear Underwater firearm Gyrojet Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun Powerhead Underwater pistols Heckler & Koch P11 SPP-1 underwater pistol Underwater revolvers AAI underwater revolver Underwater rifles ADS amphibious rifle APS underwater rifle ASM-DT amphibious rifle QBS-06 Recreational diving Recreational dive sites Index of recreational dive sites List of wreck diving sites Outline of recreational dive sites Children in scuba diving Specialties Altitude diving Cave diving Deep diving Ice diving Muck diving Open-water diving Rebreather diving Sidemount diving Solo diving Technical diving Underwater photography Wreck diving Diver organisations British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA) Cave Diving Group (CDG) Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM) International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD) Quintana Roo Speleological Survey (QRSS) Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP) Diving tourism industry Dive center Diving in Timor-Leste Diving in the Maldives Environmental impact of recreational diving Scuba diving tourism Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands Shark tourism Sinking ships for wreck diving sites Underwater diving in Guam Diving events and festivals Diversnight Underwater Bike Race Diving safety Human factors in diving equipment design Human factors in diving safety Life-support system Safety-critical system Scuba diving fatalities Underwater diving emergency Water safety Water surface searches Diving hazards List of diving hazards and precautions Environmental Current Delta-P Entanglement hazard Overhead Silt out Wave action Equipment Freeflow Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus Single point of failure Physiological Cold shock response Decompression Nitrogen narcosis Oxygen toxicity Seasickness Uncontrolled decompression Diver behaviour and competence Incompetence Overconfidence effect Panic Task loading Trait anxiety Willful violation Consequences Barotrauma Decompression sickness Drowning Hypothermia Hypoxia Hypercapnia Hyperthermia Non-freezing cold injury Diving procedures Ascending and descending Emergency ascent Boat diving Canoe and kayak diving Buddy diving buddy check Decompression Decompression practice Pyle stop Ratio decompression Dive briefing Dive log Dive planning Rule of thirds Scuba gas planning Diver communications Diver rescue Diver training Doing It Right Drift diving Gas blending for scuba diving Night diving Rebreather diving Scuba gas management Solo diving Wall diving Risk management Checklist Hazard identification and risk assessment Hazard analysis Job safety analysis Risk assessment Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue Risk control Hierarchy of hazard controls Incident pit Lockout–tagout Permit To Work Redundancy Safety data sheet Situation awareness Diving team Bellman Chamber operator Diver medical technician Diver's attendant Diving supervisor Diving systems technician Gas man Life support technician Stand-by diver Equipment safety Breathing gas quality Testing and inspection of diving cylinders Hydrostatic test Sustained load cracking Diving regulator Breathing performance of regulators Occupational safety and health Association of Diving Contractors International International Marine Contractors Association Code of practice Contingency plan Diving regulations Emergency response plan Diving safety officer Diving superintendent Diving supervisor Operations manual Standard operating procedure Diving medicine Diving disorders List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders Cramp Motion sickness Surfer's ear Pressure related Alternobaric vertigo Barostriction Barotrauma Air embolism Aerosinusitis Barodontalgia Dental barotrauma Middle ear barotrauma Pulmonary barotrauma Compression arthralgia Decompression illness Dysbarism Oxygen Freediving blackout Hyperoxia Hypoxia Oxygen toxicity Inert gases Avascular necrosis Decompression sickness Dysbaric osteonecrosis Inner ear decompression sickness Isobaric counterdiffusion Taravana High-pressure nervous syndrome Hydrogen narcosis Nitrogen narcosis Carbon dioxide Hypercapnia Hypocapnia Breathing gas contaminants Carbon monoxide poisoning Immersion related Asphyxia Drowning Hypothermia Immersion diuresis Instinctive drowning response Laryngospasm Salt water aspiration syndrome Swimming-induced pulmonary edema Treatment Demand valve oxygen therapy First aid Hyperbaric medicine Hyperbaric treatment schedules In-water recompression Oxygen therapy Therapeutic recompression Personnel Diving Medical Examiner Diving Medical Practitioner Diving Medical Technician Hyperbaric nursing Screening Atrial septal defect Effects of drugs on fitness to dive Fitness to dive Psychological fitness to dive Research Researchers in diving physiology and medicine Arthur J. Bachrach Albert R. Behnke Peter B. Bennett Paul Bert George F. Bond Robert Boyle Alf O. Brubakk Albert A. Bühlmann John R. Clarke Guybon Chesney Castell Damant Kenneth William Donald William Paul Fife John Scott Haldane Robert William Hamilton Jr. Henry Valence Hempleman Leonard Erskine Hill Brian Andrew Hills Felix Hoppe-Seyler Christian J. Lambertsen Simon Mitchell Charles Momsen Neal W. Pollock John Rawlins Charles Wesley Shilling Edward D. Thalmann Jacques Triger Diving medical research organisations Aerospace Medical Association Divers Alert Network (DAN) Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC) Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC) European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC) European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS) National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine Rubicon Foundation South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS) Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS) United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU) Law Civil liability in recreational diving Diving regulations Duty of care List of legislation regulating underwater diving Investigation of diving accidents Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage History of underwater diving History of decompression research and development History of dive computers History of Diving Museum History of scuba diving List of researchers in underwater diving Lyons Maritime Museum Man in the Sea Museum Timeline of atmospheric diving suits Timeline of diving technology Pearling in Western Australia US Navy decompression models and tables Archeological sites SS Commodore USS Monitor Queen Anne's Revenge Whydah Gally Underwater art and artists The Diver Jason deCaires Taylor Engineers and inventors Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont William Beebe Georges Beuchat Giovanni Alfonso Borelli Joseph-Martin Cabirol John R. Clarke Jacques Cousteau Charles Anthony Deane John Deane Louis de Corlieu Auguste Denayrouze Ted Eldred Henry Fleuss Émile Gagnan Karl Heinrich Klingert Peter Kreeft Christian J. Lambertsen Yves Le Prieur John Lethbridge Ernest William Moir Joseph Salim Peress Auguste Piccard Joe Savoie Willard Franklyn Searle Gordon Smith Augustus Siebe Pierre-Marie Touboulic Jacques Triger Historical equipment Aqua-Lung RV Calypso SP-350 Denise Magnesium torch Nikonos Porpoise regulator Standard diving dress Sub Marine Explorer Vintage scuba Diver propulsion vehicles Advanced SEAL Delivery System Cosmos CE2F series Dry Combat Submersible Human torpedo Motorised Submersible Canoe Necker Nymph R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle SEAL Delivery Vehicle Shallow Water Combat Submersible Siluro San Bartolomeo Welfreighter Wet Nellie Military and covert operations Raid on Alexandria (1941) Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior Scientific projects 1992 cageless shark-diving expedition Mission 31 Awards and events Hans Hass Award International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures NOGI Awards Women Divers Hall of Fame Incidents Dive boat incidents Sinking of MV Conception Diver rescues Alpazat cave rescue Tham Luang cave rescue Early diving John Day (carpenter) Charles Spalding Ebenezer Watson Freediving fatalities Stephen Keenan Loïc Leferme Audrey Mestre Nicholas Mevoli Natalia Molchanova Offshore diving incidents Byford Dolphin diving bell accident Drill Master diving accident Star Canopus diving accident Stena Seaspread diving accident Venture One diving accident Waage Drill II diving accident Wildrake diving accident Professional diving fatalities Roger Baldwin John Bennett Victor F. Guiel Jr. Francis P. Hammerberg Craig M. Hoffman Peter Henry Michael Holmes Johnson Sea Link accident Edwin Clayton Link Gerard Anthony Prangley Per Skipnes Robert John Smyth Albert D. Stover Richard A. Walker Lothar Michael Ward Joachim Wendler Bradley Westell Arne Zetterström Scuba diving fatalities 1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident Ricardo Armbruster Allan Bridge David Bright Berry L. Cannon Cotton Coulson Cláudio Coutinho E. Yale Dawson Deon Dreyer Milan Dufek Sheck Exley Maurice Fargues Fernando Garfella Palmer Guy Garman Steve Irwin death Jim Jones Henry Way Kendall Artur Kozłowski Yuri Lipski Kirsty MacColl Agnes Milowka François de Roubaix Chris and Chrissy Rouse Dave Shaw Wesley C. Skiles Dewey Smith Rob Stewart Esbjörn Svensson Josef Velek Publications Manuals NOAA Diving Manual U.S. Navy Diving Manual Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival Underwater Handbook Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving The new science of skin and scuba diving Professional Diver's Handbook Basic Scuba Standards and Codes of Practice Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO) DIN 7876 IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers General non-fiction The Darkness Beckons Goldfinder The Last Dive Shadow Divers The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure Research List of Divers Alert Network publications Dive guides Training and registration Diver training Competence and assessment Competency-based learning Refresher training Skill assessment Diver training standard Diving instructor Diving school Occupational diver training Commercial diver training Military diver training Public safety diver training Scientific diver training Recreational diver training Introductory diving ISO training standards Teaching method Muscle memory Overlearning Stress exposure training Skills Combat sidestroke Diver navigation Diver trim Ear clearing Frenzel maneuver Valsalva maneuver Finning techniques Scuba skills Buddy breathing Low impact diving Diamond Reef System Surface-supplied diving skills Underwater searches Recreational scuba certification levels Core diving skills Advanced Open Water Diver Autonomous diver CMAS* scuba diver CMAS** scuba diver Introductory diving Low Impact Diver Master Scuba Diver Open Water Diver Supervised diver Leadership skills Dive leader Divemaster Diving instructor Master Instructor Specialist skills Rescue Diver Solo diver Diver training certification and registration organisations European Underwater Federation (EUF) International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF) International Diving Schools Association (IDSA) International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA) List of diver certification organizations National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Nautical Archaeology Society Recreational diver course referral World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC) Commercial diver certification authorities Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS) Commercial diver registration in South Africa Divers Institute of Technology Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Department of Employment and Labour Commercial diving schools Divers Academy International Norwegian diver school Free-diving certification agencies AIDA International (AIDA) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Performance Freediving International (PI) Scuba Schools International (SSI) Recreational scuba certification agencies American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC) American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI) Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP) British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM) Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS) Global Underwater Explorers (GUE) International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD) International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD) International Life Saving Federation (ILS) Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF) National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE) National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB) Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec) Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID) Sub-Aqua Association (SAA) Scuba Diving International (SDI) Scuba Educators International (SEI) Scuba Schools International (SSI) Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF) United Diving Instructors (UDI) YMCA SCUBA Program Scientific diver certification authorities American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS) CMAS Scientific Committee Technical diver certification agencies American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI) British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Diving Science and Technology (DSAT) Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS) International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD) Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec) Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID) Trimix Scuba Association (TSA) Cave diving Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA) Cave Diving Group (CDG) Global Underwater Explorers (GUE) National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG) National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) Technical Diving International (TDI) Military diver training centres Defence Diving School Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center Underwater Escape Training Unit Military diver training courses United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course Underwater sports Surface snorkeling Finswimming Snorkeling/breath-hold Spearfishing Underwater football Underwater hockey Australia Turkey Underwater rugby Colombia United States Underwater target shooting Breath-hold Aquathlon Apnoea finswimming Freediving Open Circuit Scuba Immersion finswimming Sport diving Underwater cycling Underwater orienteering Underwater photography Rebreather Underwater photography Sports governing organisations and federations International AIDA International Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques) National AIDA Hellas Australian Underwater Federation British Freediving Association British Octopush Association British Underwater Sports Association Comhairle Fo-Thuinn Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins South African Underwater Sports Federation Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu Underwater Society of America) Competitions 14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship Underwater Hockey World Championships Underwater Orienteering World Championships Underwater Rugby World Championships Underwater divers Pioneers of diving Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro Aquanaut John Bevan Mary Bonnin Amelia Behrens-Furniss James F. Cahill Jacques Cousteau Billy Deans Dottie Frazier Trevor Hampton Hans Hass Hannes Keller Dick Rutkowski Teseo Tesei Arne Zetterström Underwater scientists archaeologists and environmentalists Michael Arbuthnot Robert Ballard George Bass Mensun Bound Louis Boutan Jeffrey Bozanic Hugh Bradner Cathy Church Eugenie Clark James P. Delgado Sylvia Earle John Christopher Fine George R. Fischer Anders Franzén Honor Frost Fernando Garfella Palmer David Gibbins Graham Jessop Swietenia Puspa Lestari Pilar Luna Robert F. Marx Anna Marguerite McCann Innes McCartney Charles T. Meide Mark M. Newell Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova John Peter Oleson Mendel L. Peterson Richard Pyle Andreas Rechnitzer William R. Royal Margaret Rule Gunter Schöbel Stephanie Schwabe Myriam Seco E. Lee Spence Robert Sténuit Peter Throckmorton Cristina Zenato Scuba record holders Pascal Bernabé Jim Bowden Mark Ellyatt Sheck Exley Nuno Gomes Claudia Serpieri Krzysztof Starnawski Underwater filmmakers and presenters Samir Alhafith David Attenborough Ramón Bravo Jean-Michel Cousteau Richie Kohler Paul Rose Andy Torbet Ivan Tors Andrew Wight James Cameron Underwater photographers Doug Allan Tamara Benitez Georges Beuchat Adrian Biddle Jonathan Bird Eric Cheng Neville Coleman Jacques Cousteau John D. Craig Ben Cropp Bernard Delemotte David Doubilet Candice Farmer John Christopher Fine Rodney Fox Ric Frazier Stephen Frink Peter Gimbel Monty Halls Hans Hass Henry Way Kendall Rudie Kuiter Joseph B. MacInnis Luis Marden Agnes Milowka Noel Monkman Pete Oxford Steve Parish Zale Parry Pierre Petit Leni Riefenstahl Fred Roberts Peter Scoones Brian Skerry Wesley C. Skiles E. Lee Spence Philippe Tailliez Ron Taylor Valerie Taylor Albert Tillman John Veltri Stan Waterman Michele Westmorland John Ernest Williamson J. Lamar Worzel Underwater explorers Caves Graham Balcombe Sheck Exley Martyn Farr Jochen Hasenmayer Jill Heinerth Jarrod Jablonski Brian Kakuk William Hogarth Main Tom Mount Jack Sheppard Bill Stone Reefs Arthur C. Clarke Wrecks Leigh Bishop John Chatterton Clive Cussler Bill Nagle Valerie van Heest Aristotelis Zervoudis Aquanauts Andrew Abercromby Joseph M. Acaba Clayton Anderson Richard R. Arnold Serena Auñón-Chancellor Michael Barratt (astronaut) Robert A. Barth Robert L. Behnken Randolph Bresnik Timothy J. Broderick Justin Brown Berry L. Cannon Scott Carpenter Gregory Chamitoff Steve Chappell Catherine Coleman Robin Cook Craig B. Cooper Fabien Cousteau Philippe Cousteau Timothy Creamer Jonathan Dory Pedro Duque Sylvia Earle Jeanette Epps Sheck Exley Albert Falco Andrew J. Feustel Michael Fincke Satoshi Furukawa Ronald J. Garan Jr. Michael L. Gernhardt Christopher E. Gerty David Gruber Chris Hadfield Jeremy Hansen José M. Hernández John Herrington Paul Hill Akihiko Hoshide Mark Hulsbeck Emma Hwang Norishige Kanai Les Kaufman Scott Kelly Karen Kohanowich Timothy Kopra Dominic Landucci Jon Lindbergh Kjell N. Lindgren Michael López-Alegría Joseph B. MacInnis Sandra Magnus Thomas Marshburn Matthias Maurer K. Megan McArthur Craig McKinley Jessica Meir Simone Melchior Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger Andreas Mogensen Karen Nyberg John D. Olivas Takuya Onishi Luca Parmitano Nicholas Patrick Tim Peake Thomas Pesquet Marc Reagan Garrett Reisman Kathleen Rubins Dick Rutkowski Tara Ruttley David Saint-Jacques Josef Schmid Robert Sheats Dewey Smith Steve Squyres Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper Robert Sténuit Hervé Stevenin Nicole Stott James Talacek Daniel M. Tani Robert Thirsk Bill Todd Mark T. Vande Hei Koichi Wakata Rex J. Walheim Shannon Walker John Morgan Wells Joachim Wendler Douglas H. Wheelock Peggy Whitson Dafydd Williams Jeffrey Williams Sunita Williams Reid Wiseman Kimiya Yui Writers and journalists Michael C. 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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Engineering control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_control) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_control?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.