# Engineering > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Engineering > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Engineering.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering > Source revision: 1356176695 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) Applied science and research For other uses, see [Engineering (disambiguation)](/source/Engineering_(disambiguation)). This article is part of a series on Engineering Engineering branches Aerospace Agricultural Architectural Biomedical Chemical Civil Computer Data Design Electrical Electronics Energy Environmental Industrial Manufacturing Marine Materials Mechanical Mechatronics Mining Nuclear Petroleum Process Robotics Software Structural Systems Engineering software lists Additive manufacturing Aerospace engineering Automotive engineering Bioinformatics Building information modeling Chemical engineering Chemical process simulators Civil engineering Computer-aided engineering Computer-aided manufacturing Computational chemistry Computational fluid dynamics Computational physics Data science Discrete event simulation Electronic design automation Electromagnetic simulation Finite element analysis Free electronics circuit Gene prediction Genetic engineering Hardware description language simulators Hydrology Mathematical Mechanical engineering Molecular design Molecular mechanics modeling Nanostructure modeling Nuclear engineering Nucleic acid simulation Numerical analysis Numerical libraries Open-source AI Open-source libraries Optimization Plasma physics Power engineering Programming tools Protein structure prediction RNA structure prediction Robotics simulation Scientific simulation Sequence alignment Structural alignment Structural engineering System dynamics Wind energy Engineering glossaries Aerospace Civil Electrical, electronics Mechanical Structural See also Engineering education Engineering ethics Engineering management History of engineering List of engineering awards List of engineering branches List of engineering journals and magazines List of engineering schools List of engineering societies Lists of engineers Outline of engineering Engineering portal Engineering books on Wikibooks v t e The [steam engine](/source/Steam_engine), the major driver in the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution), underscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This [beam engine](/source/Beam_engine) is on display in the [Technical University of Madrid](/source/Technical_University_of_Madrid). **Engineering** is the practice of systematically applying [natural science](/source/Natural_science) and [mathematics](/source/Mathematics) to design and improve [systems](/source/System), devices, or processes that [solve problems](/source/Problem_solving#Engineering) under constraints. The traditional disciplines of engineering are [civil](/source/Civil_engineering), [mechanical](/source/Mechanical_engineering), [electrical](/source/Electrical_engineering), and [chemical](/source/Chemical_engineering). The [academic discipline](/source/Academic_discipline) of engineering encompasses a broad range of more [specialized](/source/Academic_specialization) subfields, and each can have a more specific emphasis for applications of [mathematics](/source/Applied_mathematics) and [science](/source/Applied_science). Modern engineering practice follows the [engineering design process](/source/Engineering_design_process)[1] and spans multiple [fields](/source/Fields_of_engineering), which include [designing](/source/Design) and improving [infrastructure](/source/Infrastructure), [machinery](/source/Machinery), [vehicles](/source/Vehicles), [electronics](/source/Electronics), [materials](/source/Materials_engineering), and [energy systems](/source/Energy_system).[2] For related terms, see [glossary of engineering](/source/Glossary_of_engineering). As a human endeavor, engineering has existed since ancient times, starting with the six classic [simple machines](/source/Simple_machine). Examples of large-scale engineering projects from antiquity include impressive structures like the [pyramids](/source/Pyramid), elegant temples such as the [Parthenon](/source/Parthenon), and water conveyances like [hulled watercraft](/source/Hull_(watercraft)), [canals](/source/Canal), and the [Roman aqueduct](/source/Roman_aqueduct). Early machines were powered by humans and animals, then later by wind. Machines of war were invented for [siegecraft](/source/Siegecraft). In Europe, the [scientific](/source/Scientific_Revolution) and [industrial revolutions](/source/Industrial_revolution) advanced engineering into a scientific profession and resulted in continuing technological improvements. The [steam engine](/source/Steam_engine) provided much greater power than animals, leading to mechanical propulsion for ships and railways. Further scientific advances resulted in the application of engineering to electrical, chemical, and [aerospace](/source/Aerospace_engineering) requirements, plus the use of new materials for greater efficiencies. The word *[engineering](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/engineering)* is derived from the [Latin](/source/Latin) *[ingenium](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ingenium)*.[3] Engineers typically follow a code of ethics that favors honesty and integrity, while being dedicated to public [safety](/source/Safety) and [welfare](/source/Well-being). Engineering tasks involve finding [optimal solutions](/source/Optimization_problem) based on constraints, with testing and [simulations](/source/Computer_simulation) being used prior to production. When a deployed product fails, [forensic engineering](/source/Forensic_engineering) is used to determine what went wrong in order to find a fix. Much of this [product lifecycle management](/source/Product_lifecycle_management) is now assisted with computer [software](/source/Software), from [design](/source/Computer-aided_design) to [testing](/source/Product_testing) and [manufacturing](/source/Computer-aided_manufacturing). At larger scales, this process is normally funded by a company, multiple investors, or the government, so a knowledge of economics and business practices is needed. ## Definition The [American Engineers' Council for Professional Development](/source/American_Engineers'_Council_for_Professional_Development) (the predecessor of the [Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology](/source/Accreditation_Board_for_Engineering_and_Technology) aka ABET)[4] has defined "engineering" as: The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or [manufacturing](/source/Manufacturing) processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended [function](/source/Function_(engineering)), economics of operation and [safety](/source/Safety#Types) to life and property.[5][6] ## History Main article: [History of engineering](/source/History_of_engineering) [Relief map](/source/Raised-relief_map) of the [Citadel of Lille](/source/Citadel_of_Lille), designed in 1668 by [Vauban](/source/Vauban), the foremost military engineer of his age Engineering has existed since ancient times, when [humans](/source/Humans) devised inventions such as the [wedge](/source/Wedge), [lever](/source/Lever), [wheel](/source/Wheel) and [pulley](/source/Pulley), etc.[7] The term *engineering* is derived from the word *engineer*, which itself dates back to the 14th century when an *engine'er* (literally, one who builds or operates a *[siege engine](/source/Siege_engine)*) referred to "a constructor of military engines".[8] In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, *i.e.*, a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a [catapult](/source/Catapult)).[9] Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, *e.g.*, the [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers](/source/U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers). The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin *ingenium* (c. 1250), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."[10] Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term [civil engineering](/source/Civil_engineering)[6] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of [military engineering](/source/Military_engineering). ### Ancient era The Ancient Romans built [aqueducts](/source/Aqueduct_(watercourse)) to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.[11] The [pyramids](/source/Egyptian_pyramids) in [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt), [ziggurats](/source/Ziggurats) of [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia), the [Acropolis](/source/Acropolis_of_Athens) and [Parthenon](/source/Parthenon) in [Greece](/source/Ancient_Greece), the [Roman aqueducts](/source/Roman_aqueduct),[11] [Via Appia](/source/Via_Appia) and [Colosseum](/source/Colosseum), [Teotihuacán](/source/Teotihuac%C3%A1n), and the [Brihadeeswarar Temple](/source/Brihadeeswarar_Temple) of [Thanjavur](/source/Thanjavur), among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the [Hanging Gardens of Babylon](/source/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon) and the [Pharos of Alexandria](/source/Pharos_of_Alexandria), were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the [Seven Wonders of the Ancient World](/source/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World).[12] The six classic [simple machines](/source/Simple_machines) were known in the [ancient Near East](/source/Ancient_Near_East). The [wedge](/source/Wedge) and the [inclined plane](/source/Inclined_plane) (ramp) were known since [prehistoric](/source/Prehistoric) times.[13] The [wheel](/source/Wheel), along with the [wheel and axle](/source/Wheel_and_axle) mechanism, was invented in [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia) (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.[14] The [lever](/source/Lever) mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the [Near East](/source/Near_East), where it was used in a simple [balance scale](/source/Balance_scale),[15] and to move large objects in [Egyptian technology](/source/Egyptian_technology).[16] The lever was also used in the [shadoof](/source/Shadoof) water-lifting device, the first [crane](/source/Crane_(machine)) machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia c. 3000 BC,[15] and then in [Egyptian technology](/source/Egyptian_technology) c. 2000 BC.[17] The earliest evidence of [pulleys](/source/Pulley) date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC,[18] and [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) during the [Twelfth Dynasty](/source/Twelfth_Dynasty) (1991–1802 BC).[19] The [screw](/source/Screw_(simple_machine)), the last of the simple machines to be invented,[20] first appeared in Mesopotamia during the [Neo-Assyrian](/source/Neo-Assyrian) period (911–609) BC.[18] The [Egyptian pyramids](/source/Egyptian_pyramids) were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the [Great Pyramid of Giza](/source/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza).[21] The earliest civil engineer known by name is [Imhotep](/source/Imhotep).[6] As one of the officials of the [Pharaoh](/source/Pharaoh), [Djosèr](/source/Djoser), he probably designed and supervised the construction of the [Pyramid of Djoser](/source/Pyramid_of_Djoser) (the [Step Pyramid](/source/Step_Pyramid)) at [Saqqara](/source/Saqqara) in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.[22] The earliest practical [water-powered](/source/Water-power) machines, the [water wheel](/source/Water_wheel) and [watermill](/source/Watermill), first appeared in the [Persian Empire](/source/Persian_Empire), in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.[23] [Kush](/source/Kingdom_of_Kush) developed the [Sakia](/source/Sakia) during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy.[24] [Hafirs](/source/Hafirs) were developed as a type of [reservoir](/source/Reservoir) in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation.[25] Kushite ancestors built [speos](/source/Speos) during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.[26] [Bloomeries](/source/Bloomeries) and [blast furnaces](/source/Blast_furnace) were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.[27][28][29][30] Wooden plank-built seafaring ships were being engineered and built during the Bronze Age, as evidenced by the [Uluburun shipwreck](/source/Uluburun_shipwreck), dated from around 1300 BCE.[31] [Ancient Greece](/source/Ancient_Greece) developed machines in both civilian and military domains, as evidenced by the writings of [Philo of Byzantium](/source/Philo_of_Byzantium) and others.[32] The [Antikythera mechanism](/source/Antikythera_mechanism), an early known mechanical [analog computer](/source/Analog_computer),[33][34] and the mechanical [inventions](/source/Archimedes#Discoveries_and_inventions) of [Archimedes](/source/Archimedes), are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of [differential gearing](/source/Differential_(mechanical_device)) or [epicyclic gearing](/source/Epicyclic_gearing), two key principles in machine theory that helped design the [gear trains](/source/Gear_train) of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as [robotics](/source/Robotics) and [automotive engineering](/source/Automotive_engineering).[35] Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and [Hunnic](/source/Huns) armies employed military machines and inventions such as [artillery](/source/Artillery) which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC,[36] the [trireme](/source/Trireme), the [ballista](/source/Ballista) and the [catapult](/source/Catapult), the [trebuchet](/source/Trebuchet) by Chinese circa 6th-5th century BCE.[37] ### Middle Ages The earliest practical [wind-powered](/source/Wind-power) machines, the [windmill](/source/Windmill) and [wind pump](/source/Wind_pump), first appeared in the [Muslim world](/source/Muslim_world) during the [Islamic Golden Age](/source/Islamic_Golden_Age), in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.[38][39][40][41] The earliest practical [steam-powered](/source/Steam-power) machine was a [steam jack](/source/Steam_jack) driven by a [steam turbine](/source/Steam_turbine), described in 1551 by [Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf](/source/Taqi_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma'ruf) in [Ottoman Egypt](/source/Ottoman_Egypt).[42][43] The [cotton gin](/source/Cotton_gin) was invented in India by the 6th century AD,[44] and the [spinning wheel](/source/Spinning_wheel) was invented in the [Islamic world](/source/Islamic_world) by the early 11th century,[45] both of which were fundamental to the growth of the [cotton industry](/source/Cotton_industry). The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the [spinning jenny](/source/Spinning_jenny), which was a key development during the early [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution) in the 18th century.[46] The earliest [programmable machines](/source/Program_(machine)) were developed in the Muslim world. A [music sequencer](/source/Music_sequencer), a programmable [musical instrument](/source/Musical_instrument), was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated [flute](/source/Flute) player invented by the [Banu Musa](/source/Banu_Musa) brothers, described in their *[Book of Ingenious Devices](/source/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices)*, in the 9th century.[47][48] In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable [automata](/source/Automata)/[robots](/source/Robot). He described four [automaton](/source/Automaton) musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable [drum machine](/source/Drum_machine), where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.[49] A water-powered [mine hoist](/source/Mine_hoist) used for raising ore, Germany, c. 1556 Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as [millwrights](/source/Millwright), [clockmakers](/source/Clockmaker), instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.[50]: 32 A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise *[De re metallica](/source/De_re_metallica)* (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. *De re metallica* was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years.[50] ### Industrial revolution The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in [iron](/source/Iron) making, lowering the cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges. This bridge was made of [cast iron](/source/Cast_iron), which was soon displaced by less brittle [wrought iron](/source/Wrought_iron) as a structural material. The science of [classical mechanics](/source/Classical_mechanics), sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering.[50] With the rise of engineering as a [profession](/source/Profession) in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the [mechanic arts](/source/Mechanic_arts) became incorporated into engineering. [Canal](/source/Canal) building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution).[51] [John Smeaton](/source/John_Smeaton) was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of [bridges](/source/Bridge), canals, [harbors](/source/Harbor), and [lighthouses](/source/Lighthouse). He was also a capable [mechanical engineer](/source/Mechanical_engineer) and an eminent [physicist](/source/Physicist). Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.[52]: 127 Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.[50]: 69 Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the [Newcomen steam engine](/source/Newcomen_steam_engine). Smeaton designed the third [Eddystone Lighthouse](/source/Eddystone_Lighthouse) (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of '[hydraulic lime](/source/Hydraulic_lime)' (a form of [mortar](/source/Mortar_(masonry)) which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern [cement](/source/Cement), because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of [Portland cement](/source/Portland_cement). Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the [barometer](/source/Barometer) and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by [Evangelista Torricelli](/source/Evangelista_Torricelli) in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by [Otto von Guericke](/source/Otto_von_Guericke) using the [Magdeburg hemispheres](/source/Magdeburg_hemispheres) in 1656, laboratory experiments by [Denis Papin](/source/Denis_Papin), who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a [piston](/source/Piston), which he published in 1707. [Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester](/source/Edward_Somerset%2C_2nd_Marquess_of_Worcester) published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a [coffee percolator](/source/Coffee_percolator). [Samuel Morland](/source/Samuel_Morland), a mathematician and inventor who worked on [pumps](/source/Pump), left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that [Thomas Savery](/source/Thomas_Savery) read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure.[53] Iron merchant [Thomas Newcomen](/source/Thomas_Newcomen), who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.[52]: 32 [Jumbo Jet](/source/Jumbo_Jet) The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for [blast furnaces](/source/Blast_furnace) lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in [blast furnaces](/source/Blast_furnace), which enabled the transition from charcoal to [coke](/source/Coke_(fuel)).[54] These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making [horse railways](/source/Wagonway) and iron bridges practical. The [puddling process](/source/Puddling_process), patented by [Henry Cort](/source/Henry_Cort) in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. [Hot blast](/source/Hot_blast), patented by [James Beaumont Neilson](/source/James_Beaumont_Neilson) in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.[55] New steel making processes, such as the [Bessemer process](/source/Bessemer_process) and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century. One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was [Isambard Kingdom Brunel](/source/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel), who built railroads, dockyards and steamships.[56] Other engineering luminaries of this period include [Nikola Tesla](/source/Nikola_Tesla), prolific inventor of electrical applications;[57] [Alexander Graham Bell](/source/Alexander_Graham_Bell), inventor of the first practical [telephone](/source/Telephone);[58] [George Stephenson](/source/George_Stephenson), pioneer of railway transportation;[59] and [Nicolaus Otto](/source/Nicolaus_Otto), the designer of the first modern [internal combustion engine](/source/Internal_combustion_engine).[60] Offshore platform, [Gulf of Mexico](/source/Gulf_of_Mexico) The [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution) created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several [machine tools](/source/Machine_tools). Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until [John Wilkinson](/source/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)) invented his [boring machine](/source/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)#Boring_machine_for_steam_engines), which is considered the first [machine tool](/source/Machine_tool).[61] Other machine tools included the [screw cutting lathe](/source/Screw_cutting_lathe), [milling machine](/source/Milling_machine), [turret lathe](/source/Turret_lathe) and the [metal planer](/source/Planer_(metalworking)). Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing [interchangeable parts](/source/Interchangeable_parts) lead to [large scale factory production](/source/Mass_production) by the late 19th century.[62] ### Development of new fields The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000.[63] There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. The first [PhD](/source/PhD) in engineering (technically, *applied science and engineering*) awarded in the United States went to [Josiah Willard Gibbs](/source/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs) at [Yale University](/source/Yale_University) in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[64] In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, [mining](/source/Mining), mechanical and electrical.[55] There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[65] The foundations of [electrical engineering](/source/Electrical_engineering) in the 1800s included the experiments of [Alessandro Volta](/source/Alessandro_Volta), [Michael Faraday](/source/Michael_Faraday), [Georg Ohm](/source/Georg_Ohm) and others and the invention of the [electric telegraph](/source/Electric_telegraph) in 1816 and the [electric motor](/source/Electric_motor) in 1872. The theoretical work of [James Maxwell](/source/James_Clerk_Maxwell) (see: [Maxwell's equations](/source/Maxwell's_equations)) and [Heinrich Hertz](/source/Heinrich_Hertz) in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of [electronics](/source/Electronics). The later inventions of the [vacuum tube](/source/Vacuum_tube) and the [transistor](/source/Transistor) further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.[6] [Chemical engineering](/source/Chemical_engineering) developed in the late nineteenth century.[6] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[6] The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.[6] Originally deriving from the manufacture of [ceramics](/source/Ceramic) and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering.[66] Modern materials science evolved directly from [metallurgy](/source/Metallurgy), which itself evolved from the use of fire. Important elements of modern materials science were products of the [Space Race](/source/Space_Race); the understanding and engineering of the metallic [alloys](/source/Alloy), and [silica](/source/Silica) and [carbon](/source/Carbon) materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as [rubbers](/source/Rubber), [plastics](/source/Plastic), [semiconductors](/source/Semiconductor), and [biomaterials](/source/Biomaterial). The [solar furnace at Odeillo](/source/Odeillo_solar_furnace) in the [Pyrénées-Orientales](/source/Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Orientales) in [France](/source/France) can reach temperatures up to 3,500 °C (6,330 °F). Aeronautical engineering deals with [aircraft design process](/source/Aircraft_design_process) design while [aerospace engineering](/source/Aerospace_engineering) is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including [spacecraft](/source/Spacecraft) design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of [Sir George Cayley](/source/Sir_George_Cayley) has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[67] Only a [decade](/source/Decade) after the successful flights by the [Wright brothers](/source/Wright_brothers), there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in [World War I](/source/World_War_I). Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining [theoretical physics](/source/Theoretical_physics) with experiments. ## Branches of engineering For a topical guide, see [Outline of engineering](/source/Outline_of_engineering). [Hoover Dam](/source/Hoover_Dam) is regarded as a major accomplishment in civil engineering[68] Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although most engineers will usually be trained in a specific discipline, some engineers become multi-disciplined through experience. The traditional disciplines of engineering are civil, mechanical, electrical, and chemical.[69][70][71][72][73][74][75] (Sometimes structural,[69] industrial,[70] or mining and materials[70] is added.) Below is a list of recognized branches of engineering.[76][75] Note that there are additional sub-disciplines. Type of engineering Information Aerospace engineering Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft, satellites and rockets. Agricultural engineering Agricultural engineering utilizes farm power and machinery, biological material processes, bioenergy, farm structures, and agricultural natural resources. Biological engineering Biological engineering studies the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products. Biomedical engineering Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes). Chemical engineering Chemical engineering is the application of chemical, physical, and biological sciences to developing technological solutions from raw materials or chemicals. Civil engineering Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Computer engineering Computer engineering integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software. Electrical engineering Electrical engineering focuses on the design, development, and application of systems and equipment that utilize electricity and electromagnetism. Environmental engineering Environmental engineering is a specialized field that uses scientific and engineering principles to protect and improve the environment for human health and well-being. Geological engineering Geological engineering is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth by applying geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines. Industrial engineering Industrial engineering focuses on optimizing complex processes, systems, and organizations by improving efficiency, productivity, and quality. Marine engineering Marine engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports. Materials engineering Materials engineering is the application of material science and engineering principles to understand the properties of materials. Mechanical engineering Mechanical engineering comprises the design and analysis of heat and mechanical power for the operation of machines and mechanical systems. Nuclear engineering Nuclear engineering is a multidisciplinary field that deals with the design, construction, operation, and safety of systems that utilize nuclear energy and radiation. Software engineering Software engineering is a branch of both computer science and engineering focused on designing, developing, testing, and maintaining software applications. It is distinct from computer engineering. ## Interdisciplinary engineering Main article: [List of engineering branches](/source/List_of_engineering_branches) Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, [naval engineering](/source/Naval_engineering) and [mining engineering](/source/Mining_engineering) were major branches. Other engineering fields are [manufacturing engineering](/source/Manufacturing_engineering), [acoustical engineering](/source/Acoustical_engineering), [corrosion engineering](/source/Corrosion_engineering), [instrumentation and control](/source/Instrumentation_and_control), [automotive](/source/Automotive_engineering), [information engineering](/source/Information_engineering), [petroleum](/source/Petroleum_engineering), [systems](/source/Systems_engineering), [audio](/source/Audio_engineering), [software](/source/Software_engineering), [architectural](/source/Architectural_engineering), [biosystems](/source/Biosystems_engineering), and [textile](/source/Textile_manufacturing) [engineering](/source/Nuclear_engineering).[77] These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 40 licensed member institutions of the UK [Engineering Council](/source/Engineering_Council), as of 2025[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engineering&action=edit).[78] New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, [Earth systems engineering and management](/source/Earth_systems_engineering_and_management) involves a wide range of subject areas including [engineering studies](/source/Engineering_studies), [environmental science](/source/Environmental_science), [engineering ethics](/source/Engineering_ethics) and [philosophy of engineering](/source/Philosophy_of_engineering).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] ## Practice Main article: [Regulation and licensure in engineering](/source/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering) One who practices engineering is called an [engineer](/source/Engineer), and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, [Incorporated Engineer](/source/Incorporated_Engineer), [Ingenieur](/source/Ingenieur), [European Engineer](/source/European_Engineer). There can also be what is called by the [FAA](/source/FAA) a [Designated Engineering Representative](/source/Federal_Aviation_Administration#Designated_Engineering_Representative).[79] ## Methodology Design of a [turbine](/source/Turbine) requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The [blades](/source/Turbine_blade), [rotor and stator](/source/Stator_(electric_machines)) as well as the [steam cycle](/source/Steam_cycle) all need to be carefully designed and optimized. In the [engineering design](/source/Engineering_design) process, engineers apply mathematics and the physical sciences to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.[80] If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.[80] Constraints may include the fundamental laws of [physics](/source/Physics) and [chemistry](/source/Chemistry), available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, [safety](/source/Safety_engineering), marketability, productivity, and [serviceability](/source/Serviceability_(computer)). By understanding the constraints, engineers derive [specifications](/source/Specifications) for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.[81] ### Problem solving A drawing for a [steam locomotive](/source/Steam_locomotive). Engineering is applied to [design](/source/Design), with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science. Engineers use their knowledge of [science](/source/Science), [mathematics](/source/Mathematics), [logic](/source/Logic), [economics](/source/Economics), and [appropriate experience](/source/Empirical_knowledge) or [tacit knowledge](/source/Tacit_knowledge) to find suitable solutions to a particular problem. Creating an appropriate [mathematical model](/source/Mathematical_model) of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.[82] More than one solution to a design problem usually exists so the different [design choices](/source/Design_choice) have to be evaluated on their merits before the one judged most suitable is chosen.[83] [Genrich Altshuller](/source/Genrich_Altshuller), after gathering statistics on a large number of [patents](/source/Patent), suggested that [compromises](/source/Compromise) are at the heart of "[low-level](/source/Level_of_invention)" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.[84] Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: [prototypes](/source/Prototype), [scale models](/source/Scale_model), [simulations](/source/Simulation), [destructive tests](/source/Destructive_testing), [nondestructive tests](/source/Nondestructive_testing), and [stress tests](/source/Stress_testing). Testing ensures that products will perform as expected but only in so far as the testing has been representative of use in service. For products, such as aircraft, that are used differently by different users failures and unexpected shortcomings (and necessary design changes) can be expected throughout the operational life of the product.[85] Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and, except those employed in specific areas of the [arms industry](/source/Arms_industry), will not harm people. Engineers typically include a [factor of safety](/source/Factor_of_safety) in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. This philosophy is embodied by [Cicero](/source/Cicero)'s Creed, now considered the original engineer's code of ethics. His slogan, *[salus populi suprema lex esto](/source/Salus_populi_suprema_lex_esto)*, translates as "the health (or safety, or welfare) of the people shall be the supreme law."[86] The study of failed products is known as [forensic engineering](/source/Forensic_engineering). It attempts to identify the cause of failure to allow a redesign of the product and so prevent a re-occurrence. Careful analysis is needed to establish the cause of failure of a product. The consequences of a failure may vary in severity from the minor cost of a machine breakdown to large loss of life in the case of accidents involving aircraft and large stationary structures like buildings and dams.[87] These larger scale [engineering disasters](/source/Engineering_disaster) can arise from shortcuts or errors in the design process, such as miscalculations and miscommunication.[88] They can also happen as a result of [fatigue](/source/Fatigue_(material)) failure due to [stress](/source/Stress_(mechanics)), temperature, or [corrosion](/source/Corrosion).[89] Faulty computer software can also play a role.[90] ### Computer use See also: [Computational engineering](/source/Computational_engineering) A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a [Space Shuttle orbiter](/source/Space_Shuttle_orbiter) during re-entry. Solutions to the flow require [modelling](/source/Finite_element_method) of the combined effects of [fluid flow](/source/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations) and the [heat equations](/source/Heat_equation). As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business [application software](/source/Application_software) there are a number of computer aided applications ([computer-aided technologies](/source/Computer-aided_technologies)) specifically for engineering.[91] Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using [numerical methods](/source/Numerical_method).[92] One of the most widely used [design tools](/source/Design_tool) in the profession is [computer-aided design](/source/Computer-aided_design) (CAD) software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with [digital mockup](/source/Digital_mockup) (DMU) and [CAE](/source/Computer-aided_engineering) software such as [finite element method analysis](/source/Finite_element_method) or [analytic element method](/source/Analytic_element_method) allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.[93] These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of [product data management](/source/Product_data_management) software.[94] There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as [computer-aided manufacturing](/source/Computer-aided_manufacturing) (CAM) software to generate [CNC](/source/CNC) machining instructions;[95] [manufacturing process management](/source/Manufacturing_process_management) software for [production engineering](/source/Production_engineering);[96] [EDA](/source/Electronic_design_automation) for [printed circuit board](/source/Printed_circuit_board) (PCB)[97] and circuit [schematics](/source/Schematic) for electronic engineers; [MRO](/source/Maintenance%2C_repair%2C_and_operations) applications for maintenance management; and architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering.[98] In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as [product lifecycle management](/source/Product_lifecycle_management) (PLM).[99] ## Social context [Robotic](/source/Robotic) [Kismet](/source/Kismet_(robot)) can produce a range of facial expressions. The engineering profession engages in a range of activities, from collaboration at the societal level, and smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated to a funding source: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The types of engineering that are less constrained by such a funding source, are *[pro bono](/source/Pro_bono)*, and [open-design](/source/Open-design) engineering. Engineering has interconnections with society, culture, and human behavior. Most products and constructions used by modern society, are influenced by engineering. Engineering activities have an impact on the environment,[100] society,[101] economies,[102] and public safety.[103] Engineering projects can be controversial. Examples from different engineering disciplines include: the development of [nuclear weapons](/source/Nuclear_weapon), the [Three Gorges Dam](/source/Three_Gorges_Dam),[104] the design and use of [sport utility vehicles](/source/Sport_utility_vehicle),[105] and the extraction of [oil](/source/Fuel_oil). In response, some engineering companies have enacted serious [corporate and social responsibility](/source/Corporate_social_responsibility) policies.[106] The attainment of many of the [Millennium Development Goals](/source/Millennium_Development_Goals) requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.[107] Radar, [GPS](/source/GPS), [lidar](/source/Lidar), etc. are all combined to provide proper navigation and [obstacle avoidance](/source/Obstacle_avoidance) (vehicle developed for 2007 [DARPA Urban Challenge](/source/DARPA_Urban_Challenge)). Overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers, to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. Some charitable organizations use engineering directly for development: - [Engineers Without Borders](/source/Engineers_Without_Borders) - [Engineers Against Poverty](/source/Engineers_Against_Poverty) - Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief - [Engineers for a Sustainable World](/source/Engineers_for_a_Sustainable_World) - [Engineering for Change](/source/Engineering_for_Change) - Engineering Ministries International[108] Engineering companies in more developed economies face challenges with regard to the number of engineers being trained, compared with those retiring. This problem is prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.[109] There are negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.[110] It is agreed the engineering profession faces an "image crisis".[111] The UK holds the [most engineering companies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Engineering_companies_by_country) compared to other European countries, together with the United States.[112] ### Code of ethics Main article: [Engineering ethics](/source/Engineering_ethics) Many [engineering societies](/source/Engineering_societies) have established codes of practice and [codes of ethics](/source/Engineering_ethics) to guide members and inform the public at large. The [National Society of Professional Engineers](/source/National_Society_of_Professional_Engineers) code of ethics states: Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.[113] In Canada, engineers wear the [Iron Ring](/source/Iron_Ring) as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession.[114] ## Relationships with other disciplines ### Science *Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.* — [Theodore von Kármán](/source/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n)[115][116][117] Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner inside [National Ignition Facility](/source/National_Ignition_Facility) (NIF) target chamber There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology, engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".[118] The [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) is used to conduct science experiments in space. In the book *[What Engineers Know and How They Know It](/source/What_Engineers_Know_and_How_They_Know_It)*,[119] [Walter Vincenti](/source/Walter_Vincenti) asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic [physics](/source/Physics) or [chemistry](/source/Chemistry) are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology.[120][121] Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles. The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.[122][123][124] For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is considered as applied physics.[125] Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job. A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.[126] Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work.[127] But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of [engineering physics](/source/Engineering_physics) and [applied physics](/source/Applied_physics) are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.[128] An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the [Navier–Stokes equations](/source/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations) to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the [finite element method](/source/Finite_element_method) to calculate the stresses in complex components. Second, engineering research employs many semi-[empirical methods](/source/Empirical_methods) that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.[129] As stated by Fung *et al.* in the revision to the classic engineering text *Foundations of Solid Mechanics*: Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they studied [mathematics](/source/Mathematics), [physics](/source/Physics), [chemistry](/source/Chemistry), [biology](/source/Biology) and [mechanics](/source/Mechanics). Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences were born.[130] Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.[131] ### Medicine and biology A 3 tesla clinical [MRI scanner](/source/MRI_scanner) The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. [Medicine](/source/Medicine) aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the [human body](/source/Human_body), if necessary, through the use of [technology](/source/Technology). Genetically engineered mice expressing [green fluorescent protein](/source/Green_fluorescent_protein), which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is [wild-type](/source/Wild-type). Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, [brain implants](/source/Brain_implant) and [pacemakers](/source/Pacemakers).[132][133] The fields of [bionics](/source/Bionics) and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing [biology](/source/Biology) with technology. This has led to fields such as [artificial intelligence](/source/Artificial_intelligence), [neural networks](/source/Artificial_neural_network), [fuzzy logic](/source/Fuzzy_logic), and [robotics](/source/Robot). There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.[134][135] Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both. Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.[136] The heart for example functions much like a pump,[137] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[138] the brain produces [electrical signals](/source/Signal_(electrical_engineering)) etc.[139] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of [biomedical engineering](/source/Biomedical_engineering) that uses concepts developed in both disciplines. Newly emerging branches of science, such as [systems biology](/source/Systems_biology), are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.[136] ### Art [Leonardo da Vinci](/source/Leonardo_da_Vinci), seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.[140] He is also known for his studies on [human anatomy](/source/Human_anatomy) and [physiology](/source/Physiology). There are connections between engineering and art, for example, [architecture](/source/Architecture), [landscape architecture](/source/Landscape_architecture) and [industrial design](/source/Industrial_design) (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a university's [Faculty](/source/Faculty_(division)) of Engineering).[141][142][143] The [Art Institute of Chicago](/source/Art_Institute_of_Chicago), for instance, held an exhibition about the art of [NASA](/source/NASA)'s aerospace design.[144] [Robert Maillart](/source/Robert_Maillart)'s bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.[145] At the [University of South Florida](/source/University_of_South_Florida), an engineering professor, through a grant with the [National Science Foundation](/source/National_Science_Foundation), has developed a course that connects art and engineering.[141][146] Among famous historical figures, [Leonardo da Vinci](/source/Leonardo_da_Vinci) is a well-known [Renaissance](/source/Renaissance) artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.[140][147] ### Business [Business engineering](/source/Business_engineering) deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and [change management](/source/Change_management).[148] [Engineering management](/source/Engineering_management) or "Management engineering" is a specialized field of [management](/source/Management) concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector.[149] The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an engineering management course, students will develop [industrial engineering](/source/Industrial_engineering) skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of [industrial and organizational psychology](/source/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology) principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as [certified management consultants](/source/Certified_management_consultant) in the very specialized field of [management consulting](/source/Management_consulting) applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex [business transformation](/source/Business_transformation) or [business process management](/source/Business_process_management) initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical and electronics, power distribution and generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives. ### Other fields In [political science](/source/Political_science), the term *engineering* has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of [social engineering](/source/Social_engineering_(political_science)) and [political engineering](/source/Political_engineering), which deal with forming [political](/source/Political_structure) and [social structures](/source/Social_structure) using engineering methodology coupled with [political science](/source/Political_science) principles.[150] [Marketing engineering](/source/Marketing_engineering) and [financial engineering](/source/Financial_engineering) have similarly borrowed the term.[151][152] ## See also - [Engineering portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering) Main article: [Outline of engineering](/source/Outline_of_engineering) **Lists** - [List of aerospace engineering topics](/source/List_of_aerospace_engineering_topics) - [List of basic chemical engineering topics](/source/List_of_basic_chemical_engineering_topics) - [List of electrical engineering topics](/source/List_of_electrical_engineering_topics) - [List of engineering societies](/source/List_of_engineering_societies) - [List of engineering topics](/source/List_of_engineering_topics) - [List of engineers](/source/List_of_engineers) - [List of genetic engineering topics](/source/List_of_genetic_engineering_topics) - [List of mechanical engineering topics](/source/List_of_mechanical_engineering_topics) - [List of nanoengineering topics](/source/List_of_nanoengineering_topics) - [List of software engineering topics](/source/List_of_software_engineering_topics) **Glossaries** - [Glossary of areas of mathematics](/source/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics) - [Glossary of biology](/source/Glossary_of_biology) - [Glossary of chemistry](/source/Glossary_of_chemistry) - [Glossary of engineering](/source/Glossary_of_engineering) - [Glossary of physics](/source/Glossary_of_physics) **Related subjects** - [Controversies over the term Engineer](/source/Controversies_over_the_term_Engineer) - [Design](/source/Design) - [Earthquake engineering](/source/Earthquake_engineering) - [Engineer](/source/Engineer) - [Engineering disasters](/source/Engineering_disasters) - [Engineering economics](/source/Engineering_economics) - [Engineering education](/source/Engineering_education) - [Engineering education research](/source/Engineering_education_research) - [Environmental engineering science](/source/Environmental_engineering_science) - [Global Engineering Education](/source/Global_Engineering_Education) - [Green engineering](/source/Green_engineering) - [Reverse engineering](/source/Reverse_engineering) - [Structural failure](/source/Structural_failure) - [Sustainable engineering](/source/Sustainable_engineering) - [Women in engineering](/source/Women_in_engineering) ### Wikibooks for engineering The following [Wikibooks](/source/Wikibooks) provide open educational resources related to engineering and software development: - [Artificial Intelligence](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence) - [Civil Engineering](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Civil_engineering) - [Chemical Engineering](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chemical_Engineering) - [Computer Aided Design](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Computer_aided_design) - [Control Systems](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Control_Systems) - [Embedded Systems](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Embedded_Systems) - [Engineering Acoustics](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acoustics) - [Engineering Tables](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Tables) - [Engineering Thermodynamics](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Thermodynamics) - [Electrical Engineering](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Electrical_engineering) - [Fluid Mechanics](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fluid_Mechanics) - [Mechanical Engineering](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Mechanical_engineering) - [Project Management](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Project_Management) - [Robotics](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Robotics) - [Software Engineering](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Software_Engineering) ## References 1. **[^](#cite_ref-EngineeringMethod_1-0)** Hammack, William; Anderson, John (February 16, 2022). ["Working in the Penumbra of Understanding"](https://issues.org/penumbra-engineering-perspective-hammack-anderson/). *[Issues in Science and Technology](/source/Issues_in_Science_and_Technology)*. [National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine](/source/National_Academies_of_Sciences%2C_Engineering%2C_and_Medicine) and [Arizona State University](/source/Arizona_State_University). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230803142849/https://issues.org/penumbra-engineering-perspective-hammack-anderson/) from the original on August 3, 2023. Retrieved August 3, 2023. The method used by engineers to create artifacts and systems—from cellular telephony, computers and smartphones, and GPS to remote controls, airplanes, and biomimetic materials and devices—isn't the same method scientists use in their work. The scientific method has a prescribed process: state a question, observe, state a hypothesis, test, analyze, and interpret. It doesn't know what will be discovered, what truth will be revealed. In contrast, the engineering method aims for a specific goal and cannot be reduced to a set of fixed steps that must be followed. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** definition of "engineering" from: ["English Dictionary"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210216234801/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/). *Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary*. Cambridge University. Archived from [the original](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/) on February 16, 2021. Retrieved February 16, 2021. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["About IAENG"](http://www.iaeng.org/about_IAENG.html). *iaeng.org*. [International Association of Engineers](/source/International_Association_of_Engineers). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210126145541/http://www.iaeng.org/about_IAENG.html) from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved December 17, 2016. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-ABET_History_4-0)** ["About ABET - History"](https://www.abet.org/about-abet/history/). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240326113804/https://www.abet.org/about-abet/history/) from the original on March 26, 2024. Retrieved April 27, 2024. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-ECPD_Canons_5-0)** ["Engineers' Council for Professional Development. (1947). Canons of ethics for engineers"](https://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26393909). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070929123703/http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26393909%26referer%3Dbrief_results) from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved August 10, 2021. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-6) Smith, Ralph J. (March 29, 2024). ["engineering"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240425073917/https://www.britannica.com/technology/engineering). *Encyclopedia Britannica*. Archived from [the original](https://www.britannica.com/technology/engineering) on April 25, 2024. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Chondros, Thomas G. (2017). ["Natural Philosophy and the Development of Mechanics and Engineering from the 5th century B.C. to Middle-Ages"](https://doi.org/10.5937%2Ffmet1704603C). *FME Transactions*. **45** (4): 603–619. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5937/fmet1704603C](https://doi.org/10.5937%2Ffmet1704603C). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["engineer"](https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=engineer). *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)* (online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or [participating institution membership](https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Harper, Douglas. ["engine"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/engine). *[Online Etymology Dictionary](/source/Etymonline)*. Retrieved October 12, 2025. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Origin: 1250–1300; ME engin < AF, OF < L ingenium nature, innate quality, esp. mental power, hence a clever invention, equiv. to in- + -genium, equiv. to gen- begetting; Source: Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2006. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-De_Feo_et_al_2013_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-De_Feo_et_al_2013_11-1) De Feo, Giovanni; et al. (2013). ["Historical and Technical Notes on Aqueducts from Prehistoric to Medieval Times"](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fw5041996). *Water*. **5** (4): 1996–2025. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2013Water...5.1996D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Water...5.1996D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3390/w5041996](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fw5041996). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/168168](https://hdl.handle.net/2013%2FULB-DIPOT%3Aoai%3Adipot.ulb.ac.be%3A2013%2F168168). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Mark, Joshua J. (November 29, 2023). ["Pyramids, Statues, and Temples: The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World"](https://brewminate.com/pyramids-statues-and-temples-the-seven-wonders-of-the-ancient-world/). *Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas*. Retrieved October 10, 2025. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). *Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence*. [Eisenbrauns](/source/Eisenbrauns). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57506-042-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-042-2). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Potts, D. T. (2012). *A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East*. p. 285. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Paipetis_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Paipetis_15-1) Paipetis, S. A.; Ceccarelli, Marco (2010). *The Genius of Archimedes – 23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering: Proceedings of an International Conference held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8–10, 2010*. [Springer Science & Business Media](/source/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media). p. 416. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-481-9091-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9091-1). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Clarke, Somers; Engelbach, Reginald (1990). *Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture*. [Courier Corporation](/source/Courier_Corporation). pp. 86–90. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-486-26485-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26485-1). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Faiella, Graham (2006). [*The Technology of Mesopotamia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27). [The Rosen Publishing Group](/source/The_Rosen_Publishing_Group). p. 27. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4042-0560-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4042-0560-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200103045623/https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27) from the original on January 3, 2020. Retrieved October 13, 2019. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_18-1) Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). *Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence*. [Eisenbrauns](/source/Eisenbrauns). p. 4. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57506-042-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-042-2). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Arnold, Dieter (1991). *Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry*. Oxford University Press. p. 71. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-511374-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511374-7). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Woods_20-0)** Woods, Michael; Woods, Mary B. (2000). [*Ancient Machines: From Wedges to Waterwheels*](https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58). USA: Twenty-First Century Books. p. 58. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8225-2994-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8225-2994-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200104003216/https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58) from the original on January 4, 2020. Retrieved October 13, 2019. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Wood, Michael (2000). [*Ancient Machines: From Grunts to Graffiti*](https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35). Minneapolis, MN: Runestone Press. pp. [35, 36](https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8225-2996-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8225-2996-3). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Barry_22-0)** [Kemp, Barry J.](/source/Barry_J._Kemp) (2007). [*Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=IT6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159). [Routledge](/source/Routledge). p. 159. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-56388-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-56388-3). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801100712/https://books.google.com/books?id=IT6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159) from the original on August 1, 2020. Retrieved August 20, 2019. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** [Selin, Helaine](/source/Helaine_Selin) (2013). *[Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures](/source/Encyclopaedia_of_the_History_of_Science%2C_Technology%2C_and_Medicine_in_Non-Western_Cultures)*. [Springer Science & Business Media](/source/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media). p. 282. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-017-1416-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-1416-7). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Mokhtar, G. (1981). [*Ancient civilizations of Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=ancient+irrigation+saqiya&pg=PA309). Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa. p. 309. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-435-94805-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-94805-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220502161727/https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=ancient+irrigation+saqiya&pg=PA309) from the original on May 2, 2022. Retrieved June 19, 2012 – via Books.google.com. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Török, László (2015). [*The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Guh5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA470). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 The Near and Middle East. Vol. 31. BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-29401-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29401-1). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). *Daily Life of the Nubians*. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 227. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-32501-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32501-4). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Humphris, Jane; Charlton, Michael F.; Keen, Jake; Sauder, Lee; Alshishani, Fareed (2018). ["Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085). *Journal of Field Archaeology*. **43** (5): 399. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0093-4690](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0093-4690). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). [*A History of Sub-Saharan Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-86746-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86746-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183058/https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61) from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via Google Books. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Edwards, David N. (2004). [*The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-203-48276-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-48276-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181948/https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173) from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via Google Books. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Humphris_30-0)** Humphris, J.; Charlton, M.F.; Keen, J.; Sauder, L.; Alshishani, F. (June 2018). ["Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085). *Journal of Field Archaeology*. **43** (5): 399–416. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** van de Noort, Robert (2013). ["Seafaring and Riverine Navigation in the Bronze Age of Europe"](https://books.google.com/books?id=XoxoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA382). In Harding, Anthony; Fokkens, Harry (eds.). *The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age*. Oxford Handbooks. OUP Oxford. pp. 382–386. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-100732-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100732-3). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Rance, Philip (June 27, 2016). ["Philo of Byzantium"](https://books.google.com/books?id=hOTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PT708). In Phang, Sara Elise; et al. (eds.). *Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia*. Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2016. 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Quote: "The 7th century, by contrast, had witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction of the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic instruments of war in the 5th.' and "But it was the development of artillery that opened an epoch, and this invention did not predate the 4th century. It was first heard of in the context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in the time of Dionysius I of Syracuse." 1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Chevedden, Paul E. (1988). ["The hybrid trebuchet: the halfway step to the counterweight trebuchet"](https://books.google.com/books?id=OVX8j0zR6QYC&dq=trebuchet&pg=PA179). In Kagay, Donald J.; O'Callaghan, Joseph F.; Vann, Theresa M. (eds.). [*On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions Essays in Honor of Joseph F. O'Callaghan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OVX8j0zR6QYC). The medieval Mediterranean peoples, economies, and cultures, 400-1453. Vol. 19. [Leiden](/source/Leiden), [Boston](/source/Boston), [Köln](/source/K%C3%B6ln): [Brill](/source/Brill_Publishers). p. 179. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-11096-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11096-0). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0928-5520](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0928-5520). Retrieved February 16, 2025 – via [Google Books](/source/Google_Books). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** [Hassan, Ahmad Y.](/source/Ahmad_Y_Hassan); [Hill, Donald Routledge](/source/Donald_Routledge_Hill) (1986). *Islamic Technology: An illustrated history*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). p. 54. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-521-42239-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42239-6).. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Lucas, Adam (2006). *Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology*. Brill Publishers. p. 65. 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[ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8018-7394-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7394-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210420214459/https://books.google.com/books?id=uOMaGVnPfBcC) from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved October 13, 2019. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pacey_45-0)** Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990]. *Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History* (First MIT Press paperback ed.). Cambridge MA: The MIT Press. pp. 23–24. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Žmolek, Michael Andrew (2013). [*Rethinking the Industrial Revolution: Five Centuries of Transition from Agrarian to Industrial Capitalism in England*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA328). Brill. p. 328. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-25179-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25179-3). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191229031336/https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA328) from the original on December 29, 2019. Retrieved October 13, 2019. The spinning jenny was basically an adaptation of its precursor the spinning wheel 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Koetsier_47-0)** Koetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". *Mechanism and Machine Theory*. **36** (5). Elsevier: 589–603. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Kapur, Ajay; Carnegie, Dale; Murphy, Jim; Long, Jason (2017). ["Loudspeakers Optional: A history of non-loudspeaker-based electroacoustic music"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103). *[Organised Sound](/source/Organised_Sound)*. **22** (2). [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press): 195–205. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1355771817000103](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1355-7718](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1355-7718). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [143427257](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143427257). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sharkey_49-0)** Professor Noel Sharkey, [A 13th Century Programmable Robot (Archive)](https://web.archive.org/web/20070629182810/http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html), [University of Sheffield](/source/University_of_Sheffield). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_50-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_50-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_50-3) Musson, A.E.; Robinson, Eric H. (1969). [*Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution*](https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog00aemu). University of Toronto Press. 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American Book Company, 1946, [p. 06](https://books.google.com/books?id=gPRLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA06) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801101650/https://books.google.com/books?id=gPRLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA06) August 1, 2020, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [3247002](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3247002) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** Ateneo de Manila University Press. Philippine Studies, vol. 11, no. 4, 1963. [p. 600](https://books.google.com/books?id=WKgSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA600) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** "Relationship between physics and electrical engineering". *Journal of the A.I.E.E*. **46** (2): 107–108. 1927. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1927JAIEE..46..107.](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927JAIEE..46..107.). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1109/JAIEE.1927.6534988](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJAIEE.1927.6534988). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [51673339](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51673339). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Puttaswamaiah. [*Future Of Economic Science*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lkitoDyVWG0C&pg=PA208) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181026144027/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkitoDyVWG0C&pg=PA208) October 26, 2018, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). Oxford and IBH Publishing, 2008, p. 208. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** Yoseph Bar-Cohen, Cynthia L. Breazeal. *Biologically Inspired Intelligent Robots*. SPIE Press, 2003. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8194-4872-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8194-4872-9). [p. 190](https://books.google.com/books?id=5SZiAKpFwgC&pg=PA190) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** C. Morón, E. Tremps, A. García, J.A. Somolinos (2011) The Physics and its Relation with the Engineering, INTED2011 Proceedings [pp. 5929–34](https://library.iated.org/view/MORON2011THE) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161220101632/https://library.iated.org/view/MORON2011THE) December 20, 2016, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-84-614-7423-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-614-7423-3) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** R Gazzinelli, R L Moreira, W N Rodrigues. [*Physics and Industrial Development: Bridging the Gap*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sJLsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801102853/https://books.google.com/books?id=sJLsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110) August 1, 2020, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). World Scientific, 1997, p. 110. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-127)** Steve Fuller. Knowledge Management Foundations. Routledge, 2012. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-136-38982-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-38982-5). [p. 92](https://books.google.com/books?id=ScgJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801095210/https://books.google.com/books?id=ScgJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92) August 1, 2020, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** ["Industrial Physicists: Primarily specialising in Engineering"](https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/statistics/phd-plus-10/physprivsect-chap7.pdf) (PDF). American Institute for Physics. October 2016. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150906191436/https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/statistics/phd-plus-10/physprivsect-chap7.pdf) (PDF) from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved December 23, 2016. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** Baofu, Peter (March 26, 2009). [*The Future of Post-Human Engineering: A Preface to a New Theory of Technology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Pu8YBwAAQBAJ&dq=engineering+research+employs+many+semi-empirical+methods+that+are+foreign+to+pure+scientific+research,+one+example+being+the+method+of+parameter+variation&pg=PA141). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 141. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4438-0813-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-0813-2). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Fung_130-0)** *Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, YC Fung and P. Tong*. World Scientific. 2001. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** ["Code of Ethics | National Society of Professional Engineers"](https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics). *www.nspe.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200218064318/https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics) from the original on February 18, 2020. Retrieved September 10, 2019. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Boston_U_132-0)** ["Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M. McGee and G.Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University"](http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160407064911/http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm) from the original on April 7, 2016. Retrieved March 30, 2007. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-IEEE_foreign_parts_133-0)** Evans-Pughe, C. (May 2003). ["Foreign parts (electronic body implants)"](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1204814). *IEE Review*. **49** (5): 30–33. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1049/ir:20030503](https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fir%3A20030503) (inactive July 12, 2025). Retrieved March 3, 2020. Feeling threatened by cyborgs?{{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_July_2025)) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-IME_134-0)** ["Informational Outline"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070317145554/http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/ime/mission.html). Institute of Medicine and Engineering. Archived from [the original](http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/ime/mission.html) on March 17, 2007. Retrieved March 17, 2007. The mission of the Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME) is to stimulate fundamental research at the interface between biomedicine and engineering/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative applications in biomedical research and clinical practice. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-IEEE_135-0)** ["Go to issue"](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=51). *IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine*. **26** (1). IEEE. 2007. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070213074931/http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=51) from the original on February 13, 2007. Retrieved March 30, 2007. Both general and technical articles on current technologies and methods used in biomedical and clinical engineering ... 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Royal_Academy_136-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Royal_Academy_136-1) ["Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and medicine"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070410011033/http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/pressRelease/1170256174.pdf) (PDF). Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical Sciences. Archived from [the original](http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/pressRelease/1170256174.pdf) (PDF) on April 10, 2007. Retrieved April 10, 2007. quote1: Systems Biology is an emerging methodology that has yet to be defined quote2: It applies the concepts of systems engineering to the study of complex biological systems through iteration between computational or mathematical modelling and experimentation. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Science_Museum_of_Minnesota_137-0)** ["Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The heart as a pump"](http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/lesson5a.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20060927073422/http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/lesson5a.htm) from the original on September 27, 2006. Retrieved September 27, 2006. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Minnesota_State_University_emuseum_138-0)** ["Bones act as levers"](https://web.archive.org/web/20081220001131/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.html). *Minnesota State University emuseum*. Archived from [the original](http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.html) on December 20, 2008. Retrieved December 20, 2008. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-UC_Berkeley_News_139-0)** ["UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of brain's electrical storm during a seizure"](http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/02/23_brainwaves.shtml). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070202183307/http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/02/23_brainwaves.shtml) from the original on February 2, 2007. Retrieved March 30, 2007. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bjerklie,_David_140-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bjerklie,_David_140-1) Bjerklie, David (January–February 1998). "The Art of Renaissance Engineering". *MIT Technology Review*: 54–59. Article explores the concept of the "artist-engineer", an individual who used his artistic talent in engineering. Quote from article: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of "artist-engineer"-dom, Quote2: "It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer, progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoretician." (Bjerklie 58) 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering_141-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering_141-1) ["National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering: Professor uses the fine arts to broaden students' engineering perspectives"](https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180919211145/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF) from the original on September 19, 2018. Retrieved April 6, 2018. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-MIT_World:The_Art_of_Engineering_142-0)** ["Inventor James Dyson on the Art of Engineering"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060705232213/http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/). *The Art of Engineering*. MIT World. Archived from [the original](http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/) on July 5, 2006. Retrieved July 5, 2006. A member of the British Design Council, James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of Art in 1970. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-University_of_Texas_at_Dallas_143-0)** ["University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive Arts and Engineering"](http://iiae.utdallas.edu/). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070403182106/http://iiae.utdallas.edu/) from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved March 30, 2007. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-NASA_144-0)** ["The Art of Engineering from NASA's Aeronautical Research"](https://web.archive.org/web/20030815085429/http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html). *Aerospace Design*. The Art Institute of Chicago. Archived from [the original](http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html) on August 15, 2003. Retrieved March 31, 2007. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Princeton_U_145-0)** Billington, David P. (1989). [*Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering*](http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-02421-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02421-9). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070420145552/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html) from the original on April 20, 2007. Retrieved March 31, 2007. no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious of the aesthetic implications ... 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Chief_engineer_146-0)** ["The Art of Engineering"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927180822/http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm). *The Chief Engineers Association of Chicago*. Archived from [the original](http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm) on September 27, 2007. Retrieved September 27, 2007. ...the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers... 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Drew_U_147-0)** ["Leonardo da Vinci as an Artist and a Scientist"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070419194433/http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm) on April 19, 2007. Retrieved April 19, 2007. Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper 1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** Jaun, Marlon A. (2021). [*Lean Six Sigma Techniques: Reference Book for Practical Work*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gb81EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18). BoD – Books on Demand. p. 18. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-7543-0812-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7543-0812-7). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-149)** Elia, G.; et al. (June 2021). "Management Engineering: A New Perspective on the Integration of Engineering and Management Knowledge". *IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management*. **68** (3): 881–893. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2021ITEM...68..881E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ITEM...68..881E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1109/TEM.2020.2992911](https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTEM.2020.2992911). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-150)** Ranney, Austin (August 2014). "'The Divine Science': Political Engineering in American Culture". *American Political Science Review*. **70** (1). Cambridge University Press. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** Lilien, Gary L.; et al. (Spring 1998). ["The Age of Marketing Engineering"](https://www.proquest.com/openview/a3d3f3fd3ab7e2487c9ce40db371aa16/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=30990). *Marketing Management*. **7** (1). Chicago: 48–50. Retrieved October 11, 2025. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** Finnerty, John D. (Winter 1988). "Financial Engineering in Corporate Finance: An Overview". *Financial Management*. **17** (4). Wiley: 14–33. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3665764](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3665764). ## Further reading - Billington, David P. (1996). *The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern* (New ed.). Wiley. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-471-14026-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-14026-9). - Blockley, David (2012). *Engineering: a very short introduction*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-957869-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957869-6). - [Dorf, Richard](/source/Richard_C._Dorf), ed. (2005). *The Engineering Handbook* (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8493-1586-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1586-2). - Lord, Charles R. (2000). [*Guide to Information Sources in Engineering*](https://archive.org/details/guidetoinformati00lord). Libraries Unlimited. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-56308-699-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56308-699-1). - Madhavan, Guru (2015). *Applied Minds: How Engineers Think*. W.W. Norton. - [Petroski, Henry](/source/Henry_Petroski) (1992). [*To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design*](https://archive.org/details/toengineerishuma00petr). Vintage. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-679-73416-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-73416-1). - Vincenti, Walter G. (1993). [*What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History*](/source/What_Engineers_Know_and_How_They_Know_It). The Johns Hopkins University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8018-4588-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4588-8). ## External links - The dictionary definition of [*engineering*](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/engineering) at Wiktionary - Learning materials related to [Engineering](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Engineering) at Wikiversity - Quotations related to [Engineering](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Engineering) at Wikiquote - Works related to [Engineering](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Engineering) at Wikisource v t e Engineering History Outline List of engineering branches Specialties and interdisciplinarity Civil Architectural Coastal Construction Earthquake Ecological Environmental Sanitary Geological Geotechnical Hydraulic Mining Municipal/urban Offshore River Structural Transportation Traffic Railway Mechanical Acoustic Aerospace Automotive Biomechanical Energy Manufacturing Marine Naval architecture Railway Sports Thermal Tribology Electrical Broadcast outline Control Electromechanics Electronics Microwaves Optical Power Radio-frequency Signal processing Telecommunications Chemical Biochemical/bioprocess Biological Bioresource Genetic Tissue Chemical reaction Electrochemical Food Molecular Paper Petroleum Process Reaction Materials Biomaterial Ceramics Corrosion Metallurgy Molecular Nanotechnology Polymers Semiconductors Surfaces Computer AI Computer Cybersecurity Data Networks Robotics Software Engineering education Bachelor of Engineering Bachelor of Science Master's degree Doctorate Graduate certificate Engineer's degree Licensed engineer Related topics Engineer Reverse Engineering Glossaries Engineering A–L M–Z Aerospace engineering Civil engineering Electrical and electronics engineering Mechanical engineering Structural engineering Other Agricultural Audio Automation Biomedical Bioinformatics Clinical Health technology Pharmaceutical Rehabilitation Building services MEP Design Explosives Facilities Fire Forensic Climate Geomatics Graphics Industrial Information Instrumentation Instrumentation and control Logistics Management Mathematics Mechatronics Military Nuclear Ontology Packaging Physics Privacy Safety Security Survey Sustainability Systems Textile Category Commons Wikiproject Portal v t e Philosophy of science Concepts Analysis Analytic–synthetic distinction A priori and a posteriori Causality Mill's methods Commensurability Consilience Construct Correlation Function Creative synthesis Demarcation problem Empirical evidence Experiment Design Thought Explanatory power Fact Falsifiability Feminist method Functional contextualism Hypothesis Alternative Null Ignoramus et ignorabimus Inductive reasoning Intertheoretic reduction Inquiry Measurement Nature Objectivity Observation Paradigm Problem of induction Research Scientific evidence Evidence-based practice Scientific law Scientific method Scientific pluralism Scientific Revolution Testability Theory Choice Ladenness Scientific Underdetermination Unity of science Variable Control Dependent and independent Theories Coherentism Confirmation holism Constructive empiricism Constructive realism Constructivist epistemology Contextualism Conventionalism Deductive-nomological model Epistemological anarchism Evolutionism Fallibilism Foundationalism Hypothetico-deductive model Inductionism Instrumentalism Model-dependent realism Naturalism Physicalism Positivism—reductionism—determinism Pragmatism Rationalism vs. empiricism The received view vs. the semantic view of theories Scientific essentialism Scientific formalism Scientific realism vs. anti-realism Scientific skepticism Scientism Structuralism Uniformitarianism Verificationism Vitalism Philosophy of... 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Secondary Tertiary Vocational school University Testing Tutoring Other Administrative Customer service Leasing Renting Staffing Private investigation & security Maintenance Janitors Landscaping Repairs Personal services Beauty Dry cleaning Funeral Maid service Pet care Sex Poverty Related Classification standards Production-based ANZSIC ISIC NACE NAICS SIC UKSIC Market-based GICS ICB TRBC Other Aftermarket Generic OEM Inputs & outputs Externalities Community Crime Culture Pollution Well-being Funding Goods Commodities Final Intermediate Raw material Innovation Primary inputs Labor Natural resources Physical capital Services Technology Organization Centralization Cartel Conglomerate Horizontal integration Mergers and acquisitions Monopoly Monopsony Vertical integration Decentralization Enforced breakup Freelancing Homesteading Outsourcing Putting-out system Spinning-off Temporary work Ownership Cooperative Joint-stock company Nationalization Nonprofit organization Partnership Privatization Sole proprietorship State-owned enterprise Category Outline Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Japan Latvia Korea Israel Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA --- Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Engineering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering?action=history)). 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