# Energy materials

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'''Energy materials''' are functional materials designed and processed for [energy harvesting](/source/energy_harvesting), [storage](/source/Energy_storage), and [conversion](/source/Energy_transformation) in modern technologies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Overview|work=Advanced Energy Materials|publisher=Wiley-VCH|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/page/journal/16146840/homepage/productinformation.html|accessdate=2023-07-13|doi=10.1002/(ISSN)1614-6840}}</ref> This field merges [materials science](/source/materials_science), [electrochemistry](/source/electrochemistry), and [condensed matter physics](/source/condensed_matter_physics) to design materials with tailored electronic/ionic transport, catalytic activity, and microstructural control for applications including [batteries](/source/Electric_battery), [fuel cells](/source/fuel_cells), [solar cells](/source/solar_cells), and [thermoelectrics](/source/thermoelectrics).<ref>{{cite web|title=About the Journal|work=ACS Applied Energy Materials|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://pubs.acs.org/page/aaemcq/about.html|accessdate=2023-07-13|issn=2574-0962}}</ref>

== Definition and scope ==
Energy materials are characterized by their ability to:

Control [charge carrier](/source/charge_carrier) flow ([electrons](/source/electrons)/[ions](/source/ions))

Facilitate [redox reactions](/source/redox_reactions) at interfaces

Optimize [energy density](/source/energy_density) and [power density](/source/power_density)

Withstand electrochemical degradation
Their study spans atomic-scale [crystal structure](/source/crystal_structure) design to macroscopic [granular architectures](/source/Granular_material), enabling technologies critical to [renewable energy](/source/renewable_energy) transitions and [electrified infrastructure](/source/Electrification).

== Fundamental properties and phenomena ==
Key scientific aspects justifying specialized study:

=== Mixed ionic-electronic conductivity (MIEC) ===
Materials like [perovskites](/source/perovskite_(structure)) (e.g., [LSGM](/source/LSGM)) exhibit dual [ionic](/source/Ionic_conductivity_(solid_state))/[electronic conduction](/source/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity),<ref>{{cite book|title=Materials for Sustainable Energy|publisher=World Scientific|year=2010|isbn= 9789814317641 }}</ref> essential for [solid oxide fuel cell](/source/solid_oxide_fuel_cell) electrodes and [solid-state batteries](/source/solid-state_batteries). Charge transport mechanisms involve [hopping conduction](/source/hopping_conduction), [defect chemistry](/source/defect_chemistry), and [grain boundary](/source/grain_boundary) effects.

=== Electrochemical performance metrics ===
Critical parameters include:

[Faradaic efficiency](/source/Faradaic_efficiency) in [electrolysis](/source/electrolysis)

[Cycle life](/source/Cycle_life) in batteries

[Fill factor](/source/Fill_factor_(solar_cell)) in photovoltaics
These depend on [electrode kinetics](/source/electrode_kinetics), [electrolyte](/source/electrolyte) stability, and [interfacial phenomena](/source/Interface_(matter)) like the [solid-electrolyte interphase](/source/solid-electrolyte_interphase).

=== Microstructure-property relationships ===
[Granular](/source/Granular_material) or [nanostructured](/source/Nanophase_material) morphologies (e.g., [porous electrode](/source/porous_electrode)s) enhance surface area and [diffusion](/source/diffusion) pathways.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Simon |first1=Patrice |last2=Gogotsi |first2=Yury |title=Materials for electrochemical capacitors|journal=Nature Materials|year=2008|volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=845–854 |doi=10.1038/nmat2297 |pmid=18956000 |bibcode=2008NatMa...7..845S }}</ref> Controlled [porosity](/source/porosity) and [grain boundary](/source/grain_boundary) engineering optimize [mass transport](/source/mass_transport) while mitigating [mechanical stress](/source/mechanical_stress).

== Material classes by function ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Classification of Energy Materials by Primary Function
! Function !! Material Classes !! Key Properties !! Representative Applications
|-
| '''[Energy harvesting](/source/Energy_harvesting)'''
| • [Semiconductors](/source/Semiconductor) (Si, GaAs)<br>• [Hybrid perovskites](/source/Perovskite_solar_cell)<br>• [Thermoelectric materials](/source/Thermoelectric_materials) (Bi₂Te₃, PbTe)<br>• [Piezoelectrics](/source/Piezoelectricity) (PZT, ZnO)
| • [Optimal bandgap](/source/Band_gap)<br>• High [carrier mobility](/source/carrier_mobility)<br>• [Seebeck coefficient](/source/Seebeck_coefficient)<br>• [Piezoelectric coefficient](/source/Piezoelectric_coefficient)
| • [Photovoltaics](/source/Solar_cell)<br>• [Thermoelectric generator](/source/Thermoelectric_generator)s<br>• [Piezoelectric sensor](/source/Piezoelectric_sensor)s
|-
| '''[Energy storage](/source/Energy_storage)'''
| • [Battery materials](/source/Lithium-ion_battery) (LiCoO₂, graphite)<br>• [Electrode materials](/source/Supercapacitor) (activated carbon)<br>• [Hydrogen storage](/source/Hydrogen_storage) materials (MOFs, metal hydrides)
| • High [energy density](/source/energy_density)<br>• [Cycle life](/source/Cycle_life) stability<br>• Fast [ion diffusion](/source/ion_diffusion)<br>• [Electrical double-layer](/source/Electrical_double-layer) capacitance
| • [Lithium-ion battery](/source/Lithium-ion_battery)<br>• [Supercapacitor](/source/Supercapacitor)<br>• [H₂ storage systems](/source/Hydrogen_tank)
|-
| '''[Energy conversion](/source/Energy_conversion)'''
| • [Electrocatalysts](/source/Fuel_cell) (Pt/C, perovskites)<br>• [Electrolyte](/source/Electrolyte)s (YSZ, Nafion)<br>• [Thermionic materials](/source/Thermionic_emission)
| • High [catalytic activity](/source/catalytic_activity)<br>• [Ionic conductivity](/source/Ionic_conductivity_(solid_state))<br>• [Thermal stability](/source/Thermal_stability)<br>• [Exchange current density](/source/Exchange_current_density)
| • [Fuel cell](/source/Fuel_cell)<br>• [Water electrolyzer](/source/Electrolysis)<br>• [Thermionic converter](/source/Thermionic_converter)
|}

== Interdisciplinary foundations ==
The field integrates:

'''Chemistry''': [Electrocatalyst](/source/Electrocatalysis) design, [polymer chemistry](/source/polymer_chemistry) for [ionomer](/source/ionomer) membranes

'''Physics''': [Band theory](/source/Band_theory) for [semiconductors](/source/Semiconductor), [quantum dot](/source/quantum_dot) phenomena

'''Engineering''': [Mass transport](/source/Mass_transport) optimization, [thermal management](/source/Thermal_management_(electronics))

'''Biology''': [Bio-inspired catalysts](/source/Bioelectrochemistry), [enzymatic fuel cells](/source/enzymatic_fuel_cells)

== Research challenges ==

The field of energy materials faces several critical research frontiers that must be addressed to enable widespread deployment of sustainable energy technologies. These challenges span fundamental materials science, engineering scalability, and environmental sustainability considerations.
=== Materials substitution and resource security ===
A primary challenge involves developing alternatives to scarce or geopolitically sensitive materials. The development of [cobalt-free batteries](/source/Cobalt-free_battery) addresses both supply chain vulnerabilities and ethical concerns related to cobalt mining, particularly in the [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/source/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo). Similarly, creating [PGM-free catalysts](/source/Platinum_group) for fuel cells and electrolyzers is essential for reducing costs and dependence on rare [platinum group metals](/source/platinum_group_metals). Research focuses on [transition metal](/source/transition_metal) complexes, [metal-organic frameworks](/source/metal-organic_frameworks) (MOFs), and [single-atom catalysts](/source/single-atom_catalysts) as potential alternatives.
=== Solid-state energy storage ===
[Solid-state battery](/source/Solid-state_battery) technology represents a major advancement opportunity, offering improved safety and energy density compared to conventional [liquid electrolyte](/source/liquid_electrolyte) systems. However, enhancing [ionic conductivity](/source/onic_conductivity_(solid_state)) in solid electrolytes remains a significant challenge. Key research areas include developing [superionic conductors](/source/superionic_conductors), understanding [grain boundary](/source/grain_boundary) effects, and engineering [interfacial](/source/interface_(matter)) properties between electrodes and solid electrolytes. Materials such as [sulfide electrolytes](/source/sulfide_electrolytes), [oxide electrolytes](/source/oxide_electrolytes), and [polymer electrolytes](/source/polymer_electrolytes) are being investigated to achieve the conductivity levels required for practical applications.
=== Durability and degradation mechanisms ===
Understanding and mitigating [electrode degradation](/source/electrode_degradation) mechanisms is crucial for extending the operational lifetime of energy storage and conversion devices. Research focuses on identifying failure modes including [capacity fade](/source/capacity_fade), [impedance growth](/source/impedance_growth), and [structural degradation](/source/structural_degradation) in battery materials. For [fuel cell](/source/fuel_cell)s, catalyst degradation through [dissolution](/source/dissolution_(chemistry)), [sintering](/source/sintering), and [carbon corrosion](/source/carbon_corrosion) represents major challenges. Advanced characterization techniques such as [operando spectroscopy](/source/operando_spectroscopy) and [transmission electron microscopy](/source/transmission_electron_microscopy) are employed to study these mechanisms in real-time.
=== Emerging photovoltaic technologies ===
Scaling [perovskite photovoltaics](/source/Perovskite_solar_cell) from laboratory to commercial deployment faces significant stability challenges. [Perovskite](/source/Perovskite) materials are susceptible to degradation from moisture, oxygen, heat, and [ultraviolet radiation](/source/ultraviolet_radiation). Research efforts focus on developing [encapsulation](/source/molecular_encapsulation) strategies, compositional engineering through [mixed cation](/source/mixed_cation) and [mixed halide](/source/mixed_halide) perovskites, and interface engineering to improve long-term stability while maintaining high [power conversion efficiency](/source/power_conversion_efficiency).
=== Circular economy integration ===
Designing [circular economy](/source/circular_economy)-compatible [recycling](/source/recycling) processes for energy materials is essential for sustainable deployment at scale. This involves developing [hydrometallurgical](/source/hydrometallurgical) and [pyrometallurgical](/source/pyrometallurgical) processes for recovering valuable materials from end-of-life batteries, as well as designing materials for [disassembly](/source/disassembly) and [reuse](/source/reuse). Research also focuses on [life cycle assessment](/source/life_cycle_assessment) methodologies to evaluate the environmental impact of different recycling approaches and material choices.
=== Cross-cutting challenges ===
Several challenges span multiple material classes and applications:

'''Multiscale modeling''': Developing [computational materials science](/source/computational_materials_science) approaches that link atomic-scale properties to device-level performance
'''High-throughput screening''': Implementing [materials informatics](/source/materials_informatics) and [machine learning](/source/machine_learning) to accelerate materials discovery
'''Manufacturing scalability''': Translating laboratory synthesis methods to industrial-scale production while maintaining material properties
'''Standardization''': Establishing consistent testing protocols and performance metrics across different energy material applications

== See also ==

[Energy density](/source/Energy_density) • [Power density](/source/Power_density) • [Electrochemical cell](/source/Electrochemical_cell)

[Nanomaterials](/source/Nanomaterials) • [Ceramic engineering](/source/Ceramic_engineering) • [Thin film](/source/Thin_film)

[Sustainable energy](/source/Sustainable_energy) • [Energy transition](/source/Energy_transition)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

[https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=yema20 Energy Materials] (journal by Taylor & Francis)

[https://www.mrs.org/meetings-events/fall-meetings Materials Research Society Energy Meetings]

Category:Energy
Category:Materials science
Category:Electrochemistry

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Energy materials](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_materials) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_materials?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.