# Emi Koussi

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High pyroclastic shield volcano in the Sahara

Emi Koussi Emi Koussi seen from space Highest point Elevation 3,447 m (11,309 ft) Prominence 2,934 m (9,626 ft) Ranked 104th Listing Country high point Ultra Ribu Coordinates 19°47′33″N 18°32′47″E / 19.79250°N 18.54639°E / 19.79250; 18.54639[1] Geography Emi Koussi Location in Chad Location Chad Parent range Tibesti Mountains Geology Rock age Holocene Mountain type Pyroclastic shield Last eruption unknown Climbing Easiest route Hike

**Emi Koussi** (also known as Emi Koussou[2]) is a high [pyroclastic shield](/source/Pyroclastic_shield)[3] [volcano](/source/Volcano) that lies at the southeast end of the [Tibesti Mountains](/source/Tibesti_Mountains) in the central [Sahara](/source/Sahara), in the northern [Borkou Region](/source/Borkou_Region) of northern [Chad](/source/Chad). The highest mountain of the Sahara, the volcano is one of several in the Tibesti range, and reaches an elevation of 3,447 metres (11,309 ft), rising 3 km (1.9 mi) above the surrounding [sandstone](/source/Sandstone) plains. The volcano is 60–70 kilometres (37–43 mi) wide and has a volume of 2,500 cubic kilometres (600 cu mi).

Two nested [calderas](/source/Caldera) cap the volcano, the outer one being about 15 by 11 kilometres (9.3 mi × 6.8 mi) in size. Within it on the southeast side is a smaller caldera known as Era Kohor, about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) wide and 350 metres (1,150 ft) deep. Numerous [lava domes](/source/Lava_dome), [cinder cones](/source/Cinder_cone), [maars](/source/Maar), and [lava flows](/source/Lava) are found within the calderas and along the outer flanks of the shield. Era Kohor contains [trona](/source/Trona) deposits, and Emi Koussi has been studied as an analogue of the [Martian](/source/Mars) volcano [Elysium Mons](/source/Elysium_Mons). Emi Koussi was active more than one million years ago, but some eruptions may be more recent, and there is ongoing [fumarolic](/source/Fumarole) and [hot spring](/source/Hot_spring) activity.

## Geography and geomorphology

Emi Koussi lies in [Chad](/source/Chad), [Africa](/source/Africa), and is part of the [Tibesti Mountains](/source/Tibesti_Mountains)[4] as well as its highest peak[5] and thus of the Sahara;[6] many peaks of the Tibesti exceed 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in height.[5] These mountains are formed by a group of volcanoes that grew on top of a large [dome](/source/Dome) of Earth's surface.[7] Volcanism in this area is poorly studied; as the region is remote and access difficult for political reasons.[8] [Dirt roads](/source/Dirt_road) cross the western and eastern margins of the summit caldera,[9] and according to historical reports the [Tibu](/source/Toubou) people lived in its summit caldera[10] and in artificial caves.[11] In the [Tedaga](/source/Tedaga) language, *Emi* means "mountains", "[massif](/source/Massif)".[6] The mountain has played an important role in the research and discovery history of the Tibesti.[12]

Emi Koussi rises to a height of 3,415 metres (11,204 ft) on the southern side of the volcano,[13][14] rising between <1 kilometre (0.62 mi)[15] and 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) above the surrounding terrain[16] and forming the highest summit of the Sahara.[17] It is considered by some astronauts to be the most recognizable landmark on Earth, as seen from [orbit](/source/Orbit).[16] Supposedly the entire Tibesti can be seen from the northern summits.[18]

Topographic map of the Emi Koussi

It is a [shield volcano](/source/Shield_volcano) with a diameter of 60–70 kilometres (37–43 mi)[16] or 60–80 kilometres (37–50 mi)[12] and an estimated volume of 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi)[15]-2,500 cubic kilometres (600 cu mi).[19] The summit of Emi Koussi is formed by two overlapping [calderas](/source/Caldera), which together form a[20] 15-by-11-kilometre (9.3 mi × 6.8 mi) wide[16] elliptical caldera that extends from northwest to southeast.[20] The northern caldera formed first, then the southern caldera which is about 50 metres (160 ft) deeper below the northern one. 400–300-metre (1,310–980 ft) high [scarps](/source/Escarpment) form the inner margin of the southern caldera,[21] with the floor at an elevation of 2,970 metres (9,740 ft).[22] Before the formation of the calderas, the volcano may have reached a height of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). Emi Koussi has been compared to a [Martian](/source/Martian) volcano, [Elysium Mons](/source/Elysium_Mons).[5][23] The caldera rim is cut by one [outlet](/source/River), the Porte de [Modiounga](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modiounga&action=edit&redlink=1),[24] from which [gorges](/source/Gorge) emanate into the caldera.[25] The highest point of Emi Koussi lies on the southern rim of the caldera.[9]

Nested within this combined caldera is the Era Kohor caldera,[20] which is 300 metres (980 ft) deep and 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) wide, having the appearance of a giant hole.[21] This caldera is also known as [Natron](/source/Natron) Hole[18] or Trou au Natron.[13] [Trachytic](/source/Trachyte) lava flows are exposed in its walls,[21] and [sodium carbonate](/source/Sodium_carbonate) has been deposited on its floor,[26] which lies at an elevation of 2,670 metres (8,760 ft)[22] and contains a salt lake.[11] The floor of Era Kohor is thus deep white.[24] Three [maars](/source/Maar) and several [scoria cones](/source/Scoria_cone) are also nested within the combined caldera,[21] along with [lava domes](/source/Lava_dome) and [lava flows](/source/Lava_flows).[3] Debris from [explosive eruptions](/source/Explosive_eruption) fills the calderas.[27]

The Kohor [pumices](/source/Pumice) and two sets of [ignimbrites](/source/Ignimbrite) cover the flanks of Emi Koussi,[20] which steepen as they approach the summit.[23] Scoria cones on the slopes are accompanied by [lava flows](/source/Lava_flow).[20] On the upper sectors of the volcano, lavas are crisscrossed by cracks, which are known as "lappiaz".[28] [Sandstone](/source/Sandstone) crops out on the terrain surrounding the volcano.[20] North of Emi Koussi lie other volcanoes, such as [Tarso Ahon](/source/Tarso_Ahon) and [Tarso Emi Chi](/source/Tarso_Emi_Chi),[29] the former of which is connected to Emi Koussi by a narrow ridge.[13]

## Geology

Tectonic activity appears to have occurred in the Tibesti already between the [Carboniferous](/source/Carboniferous) and the [Cretaceous](/source/Cretaceous),[5] that is between 358.9 ± 0.4 and 66 million years ago.[30] During the earliest stage of volcanism on Tibesti, [alkali basalts](/source/Alkali_basalt) formed large plateaus. Later, the central volcanoes developed on top of these plateaus.[16] Volcanism in Tibesti has been explained with a [mantle plume](/source/Mantle_plume), as has been proposed for other African volcanoes,[31] although recently tectonic effects of the collision between Africa and Europe and their effects at a distance have also been advanced as an explanation.[32]

The oldest rocks below the Tibesti are [Precambrian](/source/Precambrian) [diorites](/source/Diorite), [granites](/source/Granite) and [schists](/source/Schist),[29] which are probably of [Neoproterozoic](/source/Neoproterozoic) age and are differentiated into two units.[32] The volcanic rocks rest on an uplifted basement formed by Cretaceous[5] and [Paleozoic](/source/Paleozoic) sandstone.[16] The latter crop out at the southwestern foot of Emi Koussi, while volcanic rocks dominate north of the volcano, and the Tibesti massif is prevalent east and southeast of Emi Koussi.[29] Older volcanic rocks are exposed in valleys.[33]

Emi Koussi has erupted [phonolite](/source/Phonolite), [trachyandesite](/source/Trachyandesite) and trachyte,[16] as well as [mafic](/source/Mafic) rocks like [basanite](/source/Basanite) and [tephrite](/source/Tephrite). The erupted rocks define two alkaline suites. [Phenocryst](/source/Phenocryst) chemistry and content varies between the various rocks; among the minerals are alkali [feldspar](/source/Feldspar), [amphibole](/source/Amphibole), [biotite](/source/Biotite), [clinopyroxene](/source/Clinopyroxene), [olivine](/source/Olivine), oxides and [plagioclase](/source/Plagioclase). Alkali feldspar, [apatite](/source/Apatite), clinopyroxene, olivine, [magnetite](/source/Magnetite), [mica](/source/Mica), [nepheline](/source/Nepheline), oxides, plagioclase, [quartz](/source/Quartz), [sodalite](/source/Sodalite), [titanite](/source/Titanite) and [zircon](/source/Zircon) also form the [groundmass](/source/Groundmass) of [microliths](/source/Microlith) in erupted rocks.[34] [Magma](/source/Magma) genesis mainly involved [fractional crystallization](/source/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)) processes.[31] Rocks from Emi Koussi were used as [raw material](/source/Raw_material) by [Neolithic](/source/Neolithic) societies of the region.[35]

Until 5,400 years ago[36] during the [African humid period](/source/African_humid_period) ([Holocene](/source/Holocene)), Era Kohor was filled with a 4.1 square kilometres (1.6 sq mi) lake whose water reached a depth of 130 metres (430 ft)[17] and a volume of 0.45 cubic kilometres (0.11 cu mi).[36] It was fed in part by water accumulating in the outer caldera and percolating to Era Kohor.[37] [Diatom](/source/Diatom) beds have been found 125 metres (410 ft) above the floor of Era Kohor[38] and in depressions without outlet elsewhere in the caldera,[39] they reach thicknesses of 4–5 metres (13–16 ft).[40] Farther down on the mountain, gullies start appearing at 2,800 metres (9,200 ft) elevation and become deep [gorges](/source/Gorge) by 2,000–2,500 metres (6,600–8,200 ft) elevation.[19] Elleboe [wadi](/source/Wadi) originates on Emi Koussi,[41] and several streams on the western flank join into the Enneri Miski which drains southwards and disappears south of the mountains.[42] Small pools of water are found around Emi Koussi.[43]

## Eruptive history

Emi Koussi caldera, [ASTER](/source/Advanced_Spaceborne_Thermal_Emission_and_Reflection_Radiometer)

Emi Koussi erupted between 2.4 and 1.3 million years ago;[44] it is considered to be of [Pliocene](/source/Pliocene)-[Quaternary](/source/Quaternary) age.[45] The volcano was constructed mainly during the [Miocene](/source/Miocene)[19][46] within about one million years.[47] [Radiometric dating](/source/Radiometric_dating) has yielded ages of 2.42 ± 0.03 - 2.33 ± 0.09 million years ago for the oldest Emi Koussi stage. The third stage has yielded ages of 1.4 ± 0.3 - 1.32 ± 0.2 million years ago;[16][48] formerly Era Kohor was considered to be a Holocene centre.[26]

During the first stage, Emi Koussi erupted trachytes and trachyandesites in the form of ignimbrites and [basaltic](/source/Basaltic) [lapilli](/source/Lapilli). This was followed in the second stage by trachytic, green or grey ignimbrites, trachytic and phonolitic lava domes and additional basaltic lava flows.[16] The second stage ignimbrites can be found within the northern caldera and on the southern flank of the volcano.[21] The third stage was dominantly phonolitic, with [breccia](/source/Breccia), [tuffs](/source/Tuff) and ignimbrites including the Kohor ignimbrite.[16] The various ignimbrites contain [fiamme](/source/Fiamme) and often look like lava flows.[49] Each stage was accompanied by the formation of a caldera,[21] and basaltic volcanism continued through all three stages.[16] [Phreatic](/source/Phreatic) explosions associated with Era Kohor have deposited large blocks within the summit caldera,[21] including beautifully coloured [syenite](/source/Syenite) blocks.[50]

Quaternary volcanism gave rise to the cones on the slopes of Emi Koussi,[20] and the three maars are the most recent vents in the combined caldera,[21] while long lava flows have been interpreted to be the youngest volcanism at Emi Koussi.[51] The most recent volcanic vents show little erosion.[50] Early in the [Pleistocene](/source/Pleistocene), [erosion](/source/Erosion) took place on the flanks of Emi Koussi,[5] and [carbonates](/source/Carbonate) were deposited in Era Kohor until recent times.[52][53]

On the southern foot of the volcano, [fumaroles](/source/Fumarole) are active[5] such as at Yi Yerra at 850 metres (2,790 ft) elevation on the southern flanks.[27] At Yi Yerra, [hot springs](/source/Hot_spring) produce water with temperatures of 37 °C (99 °F).[54] Emi Koussi is considered to be a Holocene volcano.[52] Lava flows have buried Holocene diatoms beds in its caldera;[11] dates of 14,790 ± 400 - 12,400 ± 400 years [before present](/source/Before_present) have been obtained by [radiocarbon dating](/source/Radiocarbon_dating) on diatom beds which have been penetrated or buried by lava flows.[55]

## Climate and vegetation

The Tibesti mountains feature a desert mountain climate. There are no weather stations close to Emi Koussi and the stations at lower elevations likely underestimate precipitation at higher elevations,[42] but based on [cloud cover](/source/Cloud_cover) data, a yearly precipitation of 80–120 millimetres (3.1–4.7 in) has been estimated for Emi Koussi.[56] Precipitation was higher in the past,it [14] when the [African monsoon](/source/African_monsoon) expanded over the Sahara[17] and drew moisture from the [Mediterranean Sea](/source/Mediterranean_Sea) to the Tibesti,[57] The climate reflects both northerly and southerly influences and is distinct from that of the surrounding deserts.[55] There is no evidence of [nivation](/source/Nivation) forms on Emi Koussi[58] and the identification of [periglacial](/source/Periglacial) landforms is questionable,[55] although periglacial activity likely occurred in the Pleistocene and may continue to the present-day.[54] Even during the Pleistocene, no part of the mountain had sub-freezing temperatures through the entire year.[59]

A number of diatom species have been identified in sediments left by the Era Kohor lake, including *[Cocconeis placentula](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cocconeis_placentula&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Cyclotella cyclopuncta](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyclotella_cyclopuncta&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Cyclotella ocellata](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyclotella_ocellata&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Cymbella cistula](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cymbella_cistula&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Cymbella leptoceros](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cymbella_leptoceros&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Cymbella muelleri](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cymbella_muelleri&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Epithemia adnata](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epithemia_adnata&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Fragilaria construens](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fragilaria_construens&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Fragilaria pinnata](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fragilaria_pinnata&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Gomphonema affine](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gomphonema_affine&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Gomphonema parvulum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gomphonema_parvulum&action=edit&redlink=1)*, *[Navicula oblonga](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Navicula_oblonga&action=edit&redlink=1)* and *[Rhopalodia gibba](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhopalodia_gibba&action=edit&redlink=1)*.[60] The diatom fauna appears to be unusual in comparison to other Saharan paleolakes, probably owing to the high elevation of the Emi Koussi lake.[61] [Cattail](/source/Cattail) and [water milfoil](/source/Water_Milfoil) grew around the lake.[38]

Generally, in the Tibesti vegetation occurs in five different belts depending on elevation.[62] On Emi Koussi, *[Erica arborea](/source/Erica_arborea)* is found up to elevations of 2,900 metres (9,500 ft),[63] in the past it was probably more widespread.[64] The summit region features [montane](/source/Montane) vegetation,[65] including *[Artemisia](/source/Artemisia_(plant))*-*[Ephedra](/source/Ephedra_(plant))* [steppes](/source/Steppe)[66] which cover large parts of the caldera floor.[50] The lava flows high on the mountain have characteristic environmental traits which allow the development of a particular vegetation.[28][67] This vegetation encompasses *[Dichrocephala](/source/Dichrocephala)*, *[Eragrostis](/source/Eragrostis)*, *[Erodium](/source/Erodium)*, *[Helichrysum](/source/Helichrysum)* as well as [ferns](/source/Fern), [liverworts](/source/Liverwort) and [mosses](/source/Mosses).[66] *[Oldenlandia](/source/Oldenlandia)* and *[Selaginella](/source/Selaginella)* species grow at fumaroles.[68] The caldera floor was used as a pasture for [camels](/source/Camel) and [goats](/source/Goat).[25]

The [wood rush](/source/Wood_rush) *[Luzula tibestica](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luzula_tibestica&action=edit&redlink=1)* is [endemic](/source/Endemic) on Emi Koussi.[65] The fern *[Asplenium quezelii](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asplenium_quezelii&action=edit&redlink=1)* was discovered on Emi Koussi and at first thought to be endemic there[69] before it was found to be identical to *[Asplenium daghestanicum](/source/Asplenium_daghestanicum)*, a species also previously considered to be endemic to [Dagestan](/source/Dagestan), more than 3,800 kilometres (2,400 mi) away from Emi Koussi.[70]

## Gallery

		- Another view of it from space

		- Calderas of Emi Koussi

		- Emi Koussi inner crater

		- Natron in the inner caldera of Emi Koussi

		- Emi Koussi seen from [Apollo 7](/source/Apollo_7) in October 1968

## See also

- [Geography of Chad](/source/Geography_of_Chad)

- [List of volcanoes in Chad](/source/List_of_volcanoes_in_Chad)

- [List of Ultras of Africa](/source/List_of_Ultras_of_Africa)

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004263_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004263_20-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004263_20-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004263_20-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004263_20-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004263_20-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004263_20-6) [Gourgaud & Vincent 2004](#CITEREFGourgaudVincent2004), p. 263.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004267_21-7) [Gourgaud & Vincent 2004](#CITEREFGourgaudVincent2004), p. 267.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Zimmermann1919_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Zimmermann1919_22-1) Zimmermann, M. (1919). "Chronique Géographique". *Annales de Géographie*. **28** (155): 387–400. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [23439749](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23439749).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPermenterOppenheimer2007621_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPermenterOppenheimer2007621_23-1) [Permenter & Oppenheimer 2007](#CITEREFPermenterOppenheimer2007), p. 621.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellmich1972172_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellmich1972172_24-1) [Hellmich 1972](#CITEREFHellmich1972), p. 172.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJäkelHövermannJenschValentin1972119_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJäkelHövermannJenschValentin1972119_25-1) [Jäkel et al. 1972](#CITEREFJäkelHövermannJenschValentin1972), p. 119.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalin1977909_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalin1977909_26-1) [Malin 1977](#CITEREFMalin1977), p. 909.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGèzeHudeleyVincentWacrenier1959139_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGèzeHudeleyVincentWacrenier1959139_27-1) [Gèze et al. 1959](#CITEREFGèzeHudeleyVincentWacrenier1959), p. 139.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoli1974225_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoli1974225_28-1) [Poli 1974](#CITEREFPoli1974), p. 225.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPermenterOppenheimer2007616_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPermenterOppenheimer2007616_29-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPermenterOppenheimer2007616_29-2) [Permenter & Oppenheimer 2007](#CITEREFPermenterOppenheimer2007), p. 616.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ICC2018_30-0)** ["International Chronostratigraphic Chart"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180731123434/http://www.stratigraphy.org/icschart/ChronostratChart2018-08.pdf) (PDF). International Commission on Stratigraphy. August 2018. Archived from [the original](http://www.stratigraphy.org/icschart/ChronostratChart2018-08.pdf) (PDF) on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2018.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004288_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004288_31-1) [Gourgaud & Vincent 2004](#CITEREFGourgaudVincent2004), p. 288.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud20153_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud20153_32-1) [Deniel et al. 2015](#CITEREFDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud2015), p. 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGèzeHudeleyVincentWacrenier1959138_33-0)** [Gèze et al. 1959](#CITEREFGèzeHudeleyVincentWacrenier1959), p. 138.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004268–269_34-0)** [Gourgaud & Vincent 2004](#CITEREFGourgaudVincent2004), pp. 268–269.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Smith2001_35-0)** Smith, Andrew (2001). "Saharo-Sudanese Neolithic". *Encyclopedia of Prehistory Volume 1: Africa*. Springer, Boston, MA. p. 245. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-4615-1193-9_19](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-1193-9_19). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781468471281](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781468471281).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoelzmannClaussenDallmeyerDarius20254_36-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoelzmannClaussenDallmeyerDarius20254_36-1) [Hoelzmann et al. 2025](#CITEREFHoelzmannClaussenDallmeyerDarius2025), p. 4.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoelzmannClaussenDallmeyerDarius20256_37-0)** [Hoelzmann et al. 2025](#CITEREFHoelzmannClaussenDallmeyerDarius2025), p. 6.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hoelzmann2016_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hoelzmann2016_38-1) Hoelzmann, Philipp (2016-01-01). ["Crater palaeolakes in the Tibesti mountains (Central Sahara, North Chad) – New insights into past Saharan climates"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301625444). *[ResearchGate](/source/ResearchGate)*. EGU2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellmich197256_39-0)** [Hellmich 1972](#CITEREFHellmich1972), p. 56.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachurAltmann2006119_40-0)** [Pachur & Altmann 2006](#CITEREFPachurAltmann2006), p. 119.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETilho1920171_41-0)** [Tilho 1920](#CITEREFTilho1920), p. 171.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumont1987135_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumont1987135_42-1) [Dumont 1987](#CITEREFDumont1987), p. 135.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumont1987141_43-0)** [Dumont 1987](#CITEREFDumont1987), p. 141.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004266_44-0)** [Gourgaud & Vincent 2004](#CITEREFGourgaudVincent2004), p. 266.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGourgaudVincent2004268_45-0)** [Gourgaud & Vincent 2004](#CITEREFGourgaudVincent2004), p. 268.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruneau_de_MiréQuézel1959135_46-0)** [Bruneau de Miré & Quézel 1959](#CITEREFBruneau_de_MiréQuézel1959), p. 135.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud201517_47-0)** [Deniel et al. 2015](#CITEREFDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud2015), p. 17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud201518_48-0)** [Deniel et al. 2015](#CITEREFDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud2015), p. 18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud20158_49-0)** [Deniel et al. 2015](#CITEREFDenielVincentBeauvilainGourgaud2015), p. 8.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellmich197222_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellmich197222_50-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHellmich197222_50-2) [Hellmich 1972](#CITEREFHellmich1972), p. 22.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Oppenheimer1997_51-0)** Oppenheimer, C. (1997). "Surveillance and Mapping of Volcanoes and their Emissions by Satellite Remote Sensing". *Geography*. **82** (4): 317–333. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40572950](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40572950).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPermenterOppenheimer2007619_52-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPermenterOppenheimer2007619_52-1) [Permenter & Oppenheimer 2007](#CITEREFPermenterOppenheimer2007), p. 619.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGèzeHudeleyVincentWacrenier1959165_53-0)** [Gèze et al. 1959](#CITEREFGèzeHudeleyVincentWacrenier1959), p. 165.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumont1987134_54-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDumont1987134_54-1) [Dumont 1987](#CITEREFDumont1987), p. 134.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hellmich1972_55-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hellmich1972_55-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Hellmich1972_55-2) ["Hochgebirgsforschung: Tibesti - Zentrale Sahara, Arbeiten aus der Hochgebirgsregion"](https://books.google.com/books?id=4lEmAQAAIAAJ&q=%22emi+koussi%22+OR+%22era+kohor%22+OR+%22yi+yerra%22). *Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie*. **8**. 1972.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMesserli1973146_56-0)** [Messerli 1973](#CITEREFMesserli1973), p. 146.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoelzmannClaussenDallmeyerDarius20255_57-0)** [Hoelzmann et al. 2025](#CITEREFHoelzmannClaussenDallmeyerDarius2025), p. 5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMesserli1973141_58-0)** [Messerli 1973](#CITEREFMesserli1973), p. 141.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMesserliWiniger1992317_59-0)** [Messerli & Winiger 1992](#CITEREFMesserliWiniger1992), p. 317.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachurAltmann2006137_60-0)** [Pachur & Altmann 2006](#CITEREFPachurAltmann2006), p. 137.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachurAltmann2006120_61-0)** [Pachur & Altmann 2006](#CITEREFPachurAltmann2006), p. 120.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELézineZhengBraconnotKrinner20111353_62-0)** [Lézine et al. 2011](#CITEREFLézineZhengBraconnotKrinner2011), p. 1353.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMesserli1973142_63-0)** [Messerli 1973](#CITEREFMesserli1973), p. 142.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELézineZhengBraconnotKrinner20111354_64-0)** [Lézine et al. 2011](#CITEREFLézineZhengBraconnotKrinner2011), p. 1354.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Romo2011_65-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Romo2011_65-1) Romo, A.; Boratyński, A. (30 December 2011). ["La sección Atlanticae del género Luzula (Juncaceae)"](https://doi.org/10.3989%2Fcollectbot.2011.v30.005). *Collectanea Botanica*. **30**: 55. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3989/collectbot.2011.v30.005](https://doi.org/10.3989%2Fcollectbot.2011.v30.005). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10261/50024](https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F50024). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1989-1067](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1989-1067).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoli1974226_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoli1974226_66-1) [Poli 1974](#CITEREFPoli1974), p. 226.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruneau_de_MiréQuézel1959136_67-0)** [Bruneau de Miré & Quézel 1959](#CITEREFBruneau_de_MiréQuézel1959), p. 136.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Schnell2014_68-0)** Schnell, R. (10 July 2014). ["Réflexion sur les flores africaines"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01811789.1989.10826963). *Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Actualités Botaniques* (in French). **136** (3–4): 116. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/01811789.1989.10826963](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01811789.1989.10826963).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEViane1987143_69-0)** [Viane 1987](#CITEREFViane1987), p. 143.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEViane1987147_70-0)** [Viane 1987](#CITEREFViane1987), p. 147.

### Sources

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- Deniel, C.; Vincent, P. M.; Beauvilain, A.; Gourgaud, A. (1 September 2015). "The Cenozoic volcanic province of Tibesti (Sahara of Chad): major units, chronology, and structural features". *Bulletin of Volcanology*. **77** (9): 74. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015BVol...77...74D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015BVol...77...74D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00445-015-0955-6](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-015-0955-6). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0258-8900](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0258-8900). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [129043535](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129043535).

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- Gourgaud, A; Vincent, P.M (January 2004). "Petrology of two continental alkaline intraplate series at Emi Koussi volcano, Tibesti, Chad". *Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research*. **129** (4): 261–290. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2004JVGR..129..261G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004JVGR..129..261G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0377-0273(03)00277-4](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0377-0273%2803%2900277-4). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0377-0273](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0377-0273).

- Hellmich, Walter (1972). *Hochgebirgsforschung: Tibesti-Zentrale Sahara Arbeiten aus der Hochgebirgsregion* (in German). Universitäts-Verlag Wagner.

- Hoelzmann, Philipp; Claussen, Martin; Dallmeyer, Anne; Darius, Frank; Dinies, Michèle; Reinhardt-Imjela, Christian; Jungandreas, Leonore; Schröder, Birgit; Kröpelin, Stefan (11 August 2025). "Mid-Holocene extreme precipitation in the Tibesti, Central Sahara". *Nature Communications*. **16** (1). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s41467-025-62769-9](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-025-62769-9).

- Jäkel, Dieter; Hövermann, Jürgen; Jensch, Georg; Valentin, Hartmut; Wöhlke, Wilhelm (1972). "Arbeitsberichte aus der Forschungsstation Bardai/Tibesti III". *Berliner geographische Abhandlungen* (in German). **16**. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.23689/fidgeo-2849](https://doi.org/10.23689%2Ffidgeo-2849).

- Lézine, A.-M.; Zheng, W.; [Braconnot, P.](/source/Pascale_Braconnot); Krinner, G. (9 December 2011). ["Late Holocene plant and climate evolution at Lake Yoa, northern Chad: pollen data and climate simulations"](https://hal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-00843478/document). *Clim. Past*. **7** (4): 1351–1362. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2011CliPa...7.1351L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011CliPa...7.1351L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5194/cp-7-1351-2011](https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fcp-7-1351-2011). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1814-9332](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1814-9332). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [887606](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:887606).

- Malin, M. C. (1 July 1977). ["Comparison of volcanic features of Elysium (Mars) and Tibesti (Earth)"](https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article/88/7/908/185782/comparison-of-volcanic-features-of-elysium-mars). *GSA Bulletin*. **88** (7): 908. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<908:COVFOE>2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0016-7606%281977%2988%3C908%3ACOVFOE%3E2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0016-7606](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7606).

- Messerli, B. (1973). "Problems of Vertical and Horizontal Arrangement in the High Mountains of the Extreme Arid Zone (Central Sahara)". *Arctic and Alpine Research*. **5** (3): A139–A147. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1550163](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1550163).

- Messerli, B.; Winiger, M. (1992). "Climate, Environmental Change, and Resources of the African Mountains from the Mediterranean to the Equator". *Mountain Research and Development*. **12** (4): 315–336. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3673683](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3673683). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3673683](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3673683).

- Pachur, H-J.; Altmann, N- (2006). *Die Ostsahara im Spätquartär* (in German). SpringerLink. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-540-47625-2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-47625-2). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-540-47625-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-47625-2).

- Permenter, J.L.; Oppenheimer, C. (1 April 2007). "Volcanoes of the Tibesti massif (Chad, northern Africa)". *Bulletin of Volcanology*. **69** (6): 609–626. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007BVol...69..609P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007BVol...69..609P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00445-006-0098-x](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-006-0098-x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0258-8900](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0258-8900). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [53463999](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53463999).

- Poli, E. (1974). "Vegetationsgrenzen in Vulkangebieten". *Tatsachen und Probleme der Grenzen in der Vegetation*. Bericht über das Internationale Symposion der Internationalen Vereinigung für Vegetationskunde in Rinteln 8.–11. April 1968 (in German). Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 223–251. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-94-011-7595-1_21](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-7595-1_21). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789401175968](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401175968).

- Tilho, J. (1920). ["The Exploration of Tibesti, Erdi, Borkou, and Ennedi in 1912-1917: A Mission Entrusted to the Author by the French Institute (Continued)"](https://zenodo.org/record/1540915). *The Geographical Journal*. **56** (3): 161–183. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1781532](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1781532). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1781532](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1781532).

- Viane, R.L.L (1987). ["Notes about Asplenium I. Asplenium quezeli, a pseudo-endemic species identical with A. daghestanicum (Aspleniaceae: Pteridophyta)"](https://ebps.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Gazette-vol-13-part-3.pdf#page=17) (PDF). *The Fern Gazette*. **13** (3). Retrieved 13 April 2018.

## External links

- [Recognition of Tibesti by the battalion commander Tilho Head of the Borkou-Ennedi district September 4 - November 12, 1915.](https://sites.google.com/view/racines-tchadiennes/reconnaissance-du-tibesti-1915-jean-tilho?authuser=0)

- ["Emi Koussi Volcano, Chad, North Africa"](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/3023/emi-koussi-volcano-chad-north-africa). NASA Earth Observatory. 8 December 2002.

- ["Emi Koussi"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122101/http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=147). *Peakware.com*. Archived from [the original](http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=147) on 2016-03-04.

- ["Emi Koussi, Chad"](http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11071). *Peakbagger.com*.

Media related to [Emi Koussi](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Emi_Koussi) at Wikimedia Commons

Authority control databases International VIAF Geographic Global Volcanism Program

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Emi Koussi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emi_Koussi) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emi_Koussi?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.