# Egypt

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Country in Northeast Africa and Southwest Asia

This article is about the country. For other uses, see [Egypt (disambiguation)](/source/Egypt_(disambiguation)).

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Arab Republic of Egypt جمهورية مصر العربية (Arabic) Jumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʻArabiyyah Flag Coat of arms Anthem: Bilady, Bilady, Bilady "بلادي، بلادي، بلادي" (English: My country, my country, my country) Capital and largest city Cairo 30°2′N 31°13′E / 30.033°N 31.217°E / 30.033; 31.217 Official languages Arabic[1] National language Egyptian Arabic[a] Religion See Religion in Egypt[b] Demonym Egyptian Government Unitary semi-presidential republic under an authoritarian government[11] • President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi • Prime Minister Mostafa Madbouly Legislature Parliament • Upper house Senate • Lower house House of Representatives History • Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt[12][13] c. 3150 BC • Fatimid Caliphate c. 973 • Ayyubid dynasty inaugurated c. 1171 • Mamluk Egypt c. 1261 • Alawiyya dynasty inaugurated 9 July 1805[14] • Declaration of Independence 28 February 1922 • Revolution Day 23 July 1952 • Republic declared 18 June 1953 • Current constitution 18 January 2014 Area • Total 1,010,408[15][16] km2 (390,121 sq mi) (29th) • Water (%) 0.632 Population • July 2025 estimate 107,868,296[17] (15th) • 2017 census 94,798,827[18] • Density 106.8/km2 (276.6/sq mi) (103rd) GDP (PPP) 2026 estimate • Total $2.567 trillion[19] (18th) • Per capita $23,321[19] (87th) GDP (nominal) 2026 estimate • Total $429.645 billion[19] (41st) • Per capita $3,904[19] (135th) Gini (2021) 28.5[20] low inequality HDI (2023) 0.754[21] high (100th) Currency Egyptian pound (LE/E£/£E) (EGP) Time zone UTC+2 (EET[c]) • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST[d]) Calling code +20 ISO 3166 code EG Internet TLD .eg مصر.

**Egypt**,[e] officially the **Arab Republic of Egypt**, is a country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via the [Sinai Peninsula](/source/Sinai_Peninsula). It is bordered by the [Mediterranean Sea](/source/Mediterranean_Sea) to [the north](/source/Northern_coast_of_Egypt), [Palestine](/source/Palestine) and [Israel](/source/Israel) to [the northeast](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier), the [Red Sea](/source/Red_Sea) to the east, [Sudan](/source/Sudan) and the [Sahara](/source/Sahara) to [the south](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Sudan_border), and [Libya](/source/Libya) to [the west](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Libya_border). The [Gulf of Aqaba](/source/Gulf_of_Aqaba) in the northeast separates Egypt from [Jordan](/source/Jordan) and [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia). [Cairo](/source/Cairo) is the capital, [largest city](/source/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Egypt), and leading cultural centre, while [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria) is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism.[22] With over 107 million inhabitants, Egypt is [the most populous](/source/List_of_Arab_League_countries_by_population) country in the [Arab world](/source/Arab_world), [third-most populous](/source/List_of_African_countries_by_population) country in Africa, and [15th-most populated in the world](/source/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population).

Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the [Nile Delta](/source/Nile_Delta) back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a [cradle of civilisation](/source/Cradle_of_civilisation), [Ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.[23] Egypt was an early and important [centre of Christianity](/source/Christianity_in_Egypt), later [adopting Islam](/source/Islamization_of_Egypt) from the seventh century onwards. [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria), Egypt's former capital and currently second largest city, was a hub of global knowledge through its [Library](/source/Library_of_Alexandria). Cairo became the capital of the [Fatimid Caliphate](/source/Fatimid_Caliphate) in the tenth century and of the subsequent [Mamluk Sultanate](/source/Mamluk_Sultanate) in the 13th century. Egypt then became part of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) in 1517, until its local ruler [Muhammad Ali](/source/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt) established modern Egypt as an autonomous [Khedivate](/source/Khedivate_of_Egypt) in 1867. The country was then [occupied](/source/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British) by the [British Empire](/source/British_Empire) along with [Sudan](/source/British_Sudan) and gained independence in 1922 as [a monarchy](/source/Muhammad_Ali_dynasty).

Following the [1952 revolution](/source/1952_Egyptian_revolution), Egypt declared itself a [republic](/source/Republic_of_Egypt_(1953%E2%80%9358)). Between 1958 and 1961, Egypt [merged with Syria](/source/Second_Syrian_Republic) to form the [United Arab Republic](/source/United_Arab_Republic). Egypt fought [several armed conflicts](/source/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict) with Israel in [1948](/source/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War), [1956](/source/Suez_Crisis), [1967](/source/Six-Day_War) and [1973](/source/Yom_Kippur_War), and [occupied](/source/Occupation_of_the_Gaza_Strip_by_the_United_Arab_Republic) the [Gaza Strip](/source/Gaza_Strip) intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the [Camp David Accords](/source/Camp_David_Accords), which [recognised Israel](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_peace_treaty) in exchange for the latter's withdrawal from the occupied Sinai. After the [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring), which led to the [2011 Egyptian revolution](/source/2011_Egyptian_revolution) and overthrow of [Hosni Mubarak](/source/Hosni_Mubarak), the country faced a [protracted period of political unrest](/source/Egyptian_Crisis_(2011%E2%80%932014)); its first [democratic election in 2012](/source/2012_Egyptian_presidential_election) resulted in the short-lived, [Muslim Brotherhood](/source/Muslim_Brotherhood)-aligned government of [Mohamed Morsi](/source/Mohamed_Morsi), which was [overthrown](/source/2013_Egyptian_coup_d'etat) by the military after [mass protests in 2013](/source/June_2013_Egyptian_protests). The current government is a [semi-presidential republic](/source/Semi-presidential_republic) led by [Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi), who was [elected in 2014](/source/2014_Egyptian_presidential_election) but is widely regarded as [authoritarian](/source/Authoritarian).[24]

Egypt is a [developing country](/source/Developing_country) with the [second-largest economy in Africa](/source/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)). It is considered to be a [regional power](/source/Regional_power) in the Middle East, North Africa and the [Muslim world](/source/Muslim_world), and a [middle power](/source/Middle_power) worldwide. [Islam](/source/Islam) is the [official religion](/source/State_religion) and [Arabic](/source/Arabic) its official language. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the [Non-Aligned Movement](/source/Non-Aligned_Movement), the [Arab League](/source/Arab_League), the [African Union](/source/African_Union), [Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](/source/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation), [World Youth Forum](/source/World_Youth_Forum), and a member of [BRICS](/source/BRICS).[1][25][26]

## Names

[Ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) had several names; one of them was ([𓆎](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/%F0%93%86%8E) [𓅓](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/%F0%93%85%93) [𓏏](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/%F0%93%8F%8F)𓊖) *km.t*, which is formed from [𓆎 𓅓](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/km#Egyptian), meaning black.[27] This likely refers to the [fertile](/source/Soil_fertility) black soils of the [Nile floodplains](/source/Nile_flood), distinct from the *deshret* ⟨*dšṛt*⟩, or "red land" of the [desert](/source/Desert).[28][29] This name is commonly vocalised as *Kemet* [kɛmɛt], but was pronounced differently in Ancient Egyptian.[30] Scholars reconstruct its [Old Egyptian](/source/Old_Egyptian) pronunciation as [ˈkuːmat],[31] its [Middle Egyptian](/source/Middle_Egyptian) pronunciation as [ˈkuːmaʔ], and its [Late Egyptian](/source/Late_Egyptian) pronunication as [ˈkeːmə].[32] The name is realised as **K(h)ēmə** ([Bohairic](/source/Coptic_language#Dialects): ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, [Sahidic](/source/Coptic_language#Dialects): ⲕⲏⲙⲉ) in [Egyptian Coptic](/source/Coptic_language), and appeared in [Early Greek](/source/Greek_language) as Χημία (**Khēmía**).[33][34] Another name was ⟨*tꜣ-mry*⟩ "land of the riverbank".[35]

The names of [Upper and Lower Egypt](/source/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt) were *Ta-Sheme'aw* (⟨*tꜣ-šmꜥw*⟩) "[sedgeland](/source/Sedge)" and *Ta-Mehew* (⟨*tꜣ mḥw*⟩) "northland", respectively. They were also collectively called "tꜣwy" (tāwy), meaning [The Two Lands](/source/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt#Structure), referring to both Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt after unification.[36]

The English name "Egypt" is derived from the [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) "*Aígyptos*" ("Αἴγυπτος"), via [Middle French](/source/Middle_French) "Egypte" and [Latin](/source/Latin) "*Aegyptus*". It is reflected in early Greek [Linear B](/source/Linear_B) tablets as "a-ku-pi-ti-yo".[37] The [ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greece) [geographer](/source/Geographer) [Strabo](/source/Strabo) provided a [folk etymology](/source/Folk_etymology) stating that "*Αἴγυπτος*" (Aigýptios) had originally evolved as a [compound](/source/Compound_(linguistics)) from "*Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως*" (*Aegaeou huptiōs*), meaning "[Below the Aegean](/source/Aegean_Sea)".[38] Another tradition claims that it was named after the legendary king [Aegyptus](/source/Aegyptus).[39] The actual derivation is thought to be from *[ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A5wt-k%EA%9C%A3-pt%E1%B8%A5)* (*Hutkaptah*, [Late Egyptian](/source/Late_Egyptian) pronunciation [\[ħəjˌkojpəˈtaħ\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA)), "[Temple](/source/Egyptian_temple) of the [*Ka*](/source/Ancient_Egyptian_conception_of_the_soul#Ka_(vital_essence)) of [Ptah](/source/Ptah)," a term for the city of [Memphis](/source/Memphis%2C_Egypt).[40][41]

Greco-Roman writers report that Egypt was sometimes called Aeria (Ἀερία).[42][39][43][44] [Stephanus of Byzantium](/source/Stephanus_of_Byzantium) derives the name from aer (ἀήρ, "air"), explaining that Egypt was a "misty land". From this name, the ethnic form Aerioi (Ἀέριοι) is also recorded for its inhabitants.[43] [Thomas George Tucker](/source/Thomas_George_Tucker) suggested that Aeria could derive not only from "misty" or "hazy air", but also be understood in the sense of "far-off" or "dimly seen".[44]

"*Miṣr*" (Arabic pronunciation: [\[misˤɾ\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic); "مِصر") is the [Classical Quranic Arabic](/source/Classical_Arabic) and modern official name of Egypt, while "*Maṣr*" (Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [\[mɑsˤɾ\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Egyptian_Arabic); مَصر) is the local pronunciation in [Egyptian Arabic](/source/Egyptian_Arabic).[45] The current name of Egypt, Misr/Misir/Misru, stems from the [Ancient](/source/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples) [Semitic](/source/Semitic_languages) name for it. The term originally connoted "[Civilisation](/source/Civilization)" or "[Metropolis](/source/Metropolis)".[46] [Classical Arabic](/source/Classical_Arabic) **Miṣr** (Egyptian Arabic **Maṣr**) is directly cognate with the [Biblical Hebrew](/source/Biblical_Hebrew_language) *Miṣráyīm* (מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation of [Upper and Lower Egypt](/source/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt). Also mentioned in several Semitic languages as *Mesru*, *Misir* and *Masar*.[46] The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the [Akkadian](/source/Akkadian_language) "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")[47][48] related to *miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru*, meaning "border" or "frontier".[49] The [Neo-Assyrian Empire](/source/Neo-Assyrian_Empire) used the derived term , *Mu-ṣur*.[50] In Egyptian colloquial speech since the 21st century, the English name "Egypt" has been used to refer to wealthy Egyptians, while the Arabic name "Misr/Masr" has been used to refer to poor Egyptians.[51]

## History

Main article: [History of Egypt](/source/History_of_Egypt)

### Prehistoric Egypt

Main article: [Prehistoric Egypt](/source/Prehistoric_Egypt)

**Clockwise**: a [Badarian](/source/Badarian_culture) mortuary figurine,  a [Naqada](/source/Naqada_culture) jar, a [Naqada](/source/Naqada_culture) statuette of the goddess [Bat](/source/Bat_(goddess)), the [Four dogs palette](/source/Cosmetic_palette),  the [Gebel el-Arak Knife](/source/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife), and a [Naqada](/source/Naqada_culture) diorite vase.

Evidence of [rock carvings](/source/Rock_carvings) along the [Nile](/source/Nile) and in surrounding oases indicates early habitation. In the [10th millennium BCE](/source/10th_millennium_BCE), a culture of [hunter-gatherers](/source/Hunter-gatherer) and [fishers](/source/Fishing) was replaced by a [grain](/source/Cereal)-grinding culture. Climate changes or [overgrazing](/source/Overgrazing) around 8000 [BCE](/source/Before_common_era) began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the [Sahara](/source/Sahara). Early [tribal peoples](/source/Tribal_people) migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural [economy](/source/Economic_system) and more centralised society.[52]

By about 6000 BCE, a [Neolithic](/source/Neolithic) culture took root in the Nile Valley.[53] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in [Upper and Lower Egypt](/source/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt). The [Badarian](/source/Badarian) culture and the successor [Naqada](/source/Naqada) series are generally regarded as precursors to [dynastic Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt). The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of [Egyptian hieroglyphic](/source/Egyptian_hieroglyphs) inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.[54]

### Ancient Egypt (3150 BCE–305 BCE)

Main article: [Ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt)

The [Giza Necropolis](/source/Giza_Necropolis) is the oldest of the [ancient Wonders](/source/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World) and the only one still in existence.

Around c. 3150 BCE, King [Menes](/source/Menes) unified Egypt, establishing a succession of [dynasties](/source/List_of_Egyptian_dynasties) that ruled for three millennia. [Egyptian civilisation](/source/Culture_of_Egypt) thrived with distinctive achievements in [religion](/source/Ancient_Egyptian_religion), [art](/source/Art_of_Ancient_Egypt), and [writing](/source/Egyptian_language). The [Old Kingdom](/source/Old_Kingdom) (c. 2700–2200 BCE) saw the construction of the [pyramids](/source/Egyptian_pyramids), including those at [Giza](/source/Giza_Necropolis). A brief [interregnum](/source/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt) followed, succeeded by the [Middle Kingdom](/source/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt) (c. 2040 BCE), a phase of renewed stability and prosperity under rulers such as [Amenemhat III](/source/Amenemhat_III).[55]

After the [Second Intermediate Period](/source/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt) and the [Hyksos](/source/Hyksos) occupation, Egypt was reunified by [Ahmose I](/source/Ahmose_I), founder of the [Eighteenth Dynasty](/source/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt) and the [New Kingdom](/source/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt) (c. 1550–1070 BCE). This era marked Egypt's height as a major power in the region, extending influence into [Nubia](/source/Nubia) and the [Levant](/source/Levant). It produced many of Egypt's most renowned [Pharaohs](/source/Pharaoh), [Hatshepsut](/source/Hatshepsut), [Thutmose III](/source/Thutmose_III), [Akhenaten](/source/Akhenaten), [Tutankhamun](/source/Tutankhamun), and [Ramesses II](/source/Ramesses_II), and witnessed the rise of [Atenism](/source/Atenism), one of the earliest forms of [monotheism](/source/Monotheism). Despite later invasions by [Libyans](/source/Ancient_Libya), [Nubians](/source/Kingdom_of_Kush), and [Assyrians](/source/Assyria), native dynasties eventually reasserted control.[56]

The Weighing of the Heart from the *[Book of the Dead of Ani](/source/Papyrus_of_Ani)*

In 525 BCE, [Cambyses II of Persia](/source/Cambyses_II_of_Persia) conquered Egypt, beginning the [Achaemenid](/source/Achaemenid_Empire) [satrapy](/source/Satrapy) period (the [Twenty-seventh Dynasty](/source/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt)). Although several revolts occurred, Egypt remained under Persian control until briefly regaining independence before falling again in 343 BCE.[57] The [Thirtieth Dynasty](/source/Thirtieth_dynasty_of_Egypt) was the last native royal house. Following renewed Persian domination, [Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great) conquered Egypt in 332 BCE, after which his general [Ptolemy I Soter](/source/Ptolemy_I_Soter) established the [Ptolemaic dynasty](/source/Ptolemaic_dynasty).[58]

### Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt (305 BCE–641 CE)

Main articles: [Ptolemaic Kingdom](/source/Ptolemaic_Kingdom) and [Roman Egypt](/source/Roman_Egypt)

The Ptolemaic Queen [Cleopatra VII](/source/Cleopatra_VII) and her son by Julius Caesar, [Caesarion](/source/Caesarion), at the [Temple of Dendera](/source/Dendera_Temple_complex)

The [Ptolemaic Kingdom](/source/Ptolemaic_Kingdom) was a [Hellenistic](/source/Hellenistic_civilization) state from southern Syria to [Cyrene](/source/Cyrene%2C_Libya) and south to Nubia, with [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria) as its capital and a centre of [Greek](/source/Greeks) culture and trade. The Ptolemies adopted pharaonic traditions to legitimise their rule, appearing on monuments in Egyptian style and participating in local religious life.[59][60] The [Lighthouse of Alexandria](/source/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria), built c. 280 BCE, was one of the [Seven Wonders of the Ancient World](/source/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World), later destroyed by earthquakes. The last ruler, [Cleopatra VII](/source/Cleopatra_VII), committed suicide after [Octavian](/source/Octavian) captured Alexandria, ending the dynasty and paving the way for Roman annexation. Native rebellions and dynastic disputes weakened the kingdom, facilitating its annexation by Rome.

Egypt was a wealthy imperial province of the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire), supplying grain and hosting the major city of Alexandria.[61] Governed with Roman administration and Hellenistic culture, its population primarily spoke [Greek](/source/Koine_Greek) in major cities and [Coptic Egyptian](/source/Coptic_language) in rural areas.[62][63] Christianity reached Egypt in the 1st century, brought by [Saint Mark the Evangelist](/source/Saint_Mark_the_Evangelist).[64] During [Diocletian](/source/Diocletian)'s reign (284–305 CE), the [New Testament](/source/New_Testament) had been translated into Egyptian and many Egyptian Christians were persecuted. By CE 451, a distinct [Coptic Church](/source/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria) was firmly established.[65]

### Medieval Egypt (641–1517)

Main article: [Egypt in the Middle Ages](/source/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages)

The [Amr ibn al-As](/source/Amr_ibn_al-As) mosque in Cairo, recognised as the oldest in Africa

The [Ibn Tulun Mosque](/source/Ibn_Tulun_Mosque) in Cairo, of [Ahmad Ibn Tulun](/source/Ahmad_Ibn_Tulun)

The [Al-Hakim Mosque](/source/Al-Hakim_Mosque) in Cairo, of [Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah](/source/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah), the sixth [Fatimid](/source/Fatimid) caliph

The Byzantines regained control of Egypt after a brief [Sasanid Persian](/source/Sasanian_Empire) invasion early in the 7th century, until 639–42, when the country was conquered by Arab Muslim forces under [Amr ibn al-As](/source/Amr_ibn_al-As) during the [Early Muslim conquests](/source/Early_Muslim_conquests). The Arabs defeated the Byzantine armies, bringing [Islam](/source/Islam) to Egypt. Alexandria briefly returned to Byzantine control in 645 but fell again to the Arabs in 646. In 654, an invasion fleet sent by [Constans II](/source/Constans_II) was repulsed.[64] The Arabs founded [Fustat](/source/Fustat), later replaced by Cairo in 969.

Under the [Abbasid](/source/Abbasid) caliphate, Egypt was governed through deputies residing in Baghdad. Revolts occurred frequently, including the Egyptian revolt of 828 and the uprising of 831 when Copts joined Muslims against the government. Semi-independent dynasties arose, including the [Tulunid dynasty](/source/Tulunid_dynasty) (868–905) and [Ikhshidid dynasty](/source/Ikhshidid_dynasty) (935–969), which maintained Abbasid allegiance while exercising local authority.

The [Fatimid Caliphate](/source/Fatimid_Caliphate) ruled Egypt from the 10th century, with [Cairo](/source/Cairo) as their capital. After the Fatimids, the [Ayyubid dynasty](/source/Ayyubid_dynasty) governed until 1250, when the [Mamluks](/source/Mamluk), a military caste of [Turco](/source/Turkic_people)-[Circassian](/source/Circassians) origin, took control. The Mamluks ruled Egypt for the next three centuries and maintained control over parts of the Levant. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked trade routes connecting the Red Sea with India, Malaya, and the East Indies.[66] The mid-14th century [Black Death](/source/Black_Death) killed about 40% of Egypt's population.[67]

### Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867)

Main articles: [Egypt Eyalet](/source/Egypt_Eyalet) and [History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty](/source/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty)

[Muhammad Ali](/source/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt), founder of the [Muhammad Ali dynasty](/source/Muhammad_Ali_dynasty), and the extent of their realm.

Egypt was conquered by the [Ottoman Turks](/source/Ottoman_Turks) in 1517, following the defeat of the [Mamluk Sultanate](/source/Mamluk_Sultanate), and became a province of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire). The Mamluks, who had dominated Egypt's military and political life for centuries, retained influence under Ottoman rule, creating a semi-autonomous power structure. The Ottomans faced repeated challenges in maintaining control, while plagues and famines weakened the economy and civil society. Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six major famines, including the 1784 famine that killed roughly one-sixth of the population.[66][68]

In 1798, [Napoleon Bonaparte](/source/Napoleon_Bonaparte) invaded Egypt, defeating the Mamluks at the [Battle of the Pyramids](/source/Battle_of_the_Pyramids). The French occupation was short-lived, but it destabilised the region and set the stage for Muhammad Ali Pasha's rise. After the French were expelled, power struggles ensued between the Ottomans, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries in Ottoman service, leaving Egypt politically fragmented.

In 1805, [Muhammad Ali Pasha](/source/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt) seized power, massacring the remaining Mamluks and establishing a dynasty that would rule Egypt until 1952. He reorganised the army along European lines, introduced conscription, and developed a centralised administration. At the same time, he promoted cash-crop agriculture, especially long-staple cotton, to integrate Egypt into global markets.[69] His successors, including [Ibrahim Pasha](/source/Ibrahim_Pasha_of_Egypt), [Abbas I](/source/Abbas_I_of_Egypt), [Sa'id](/source/Sa'id_of_Egypt), and [Isma'il Pasha](/source/Isma'il_Pasha_of_Egypt), continued reforms in agriculture, science, and industry, and abolished slavery.

Muhammad Ali expanded Egypt's control over [Northern Sudan](/source/Northern_Sudan) (1820–1824), [Syria](/source/Syria) (1833), and parts of [Arabia](/source/Arabia) and [Anatolia](/source/Anatolia), but European powers intervened in 1841, forcing him to relinquish most of his conquests. He modernised Egypt's infrastructure, built factories and irrigation networks, and strengthened the military, while broader education remained largely limited to military and technical training.[70] The centralisation of power and focus on military and economic modernisation laid the foundation for Egypt's transformation into a regional power.

### Monarchical Egypt (1867–1952)

Main articles: [Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914)](/source/Khedivate_of_Egypt), [Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)](/source/Sultanate_of_Egypt), and [Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953)](/source/Kingdom_of_Egypt_(1922%E2%80%931953))

In 1867, Egypt was formally granted autonomous status as a [vassal state](/source/Khedivate_of_Egypt) of the Ottoman Empire. The [Suez Canal](/source/Suez_Canal), completed in 1869 with French assistance, became a key strategic and commercial asset. Financial mismanagement and mounting debts led Isma'il Pasha to sell Egypt's shares in the canal to Britain in 1875, increasing European influence. Rising discontent culminated in the [Urabi revolt](/source/Urabi_revolt), after which Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, establishing a de facto protectorate while maintaining nominal Ottoman sovereignty.[71][72][73] The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899 placed Sudan under joint Egyptian and British administration, though Britain retained real control. Incidents such as the [Denshawai incident](/source/Denshawai_incident) in 1906 intensified nationalist sentiment, laying the groundwork for political movements that challenged both Ottoman and European dominance.

Female nationalists demonstrating in [Cairo](/source/Cairo) during the [1919 revolution](/source/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1919), 1919

In 1914, as the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) joined World War I alongside the Central Powers, Khedive [Abbas II](/source/Abbas_II_of_Egypt) declared support for the Ottoman side. In response, the British deposed him and installed his brother [Hussein Kamel](/source/Hussein_Kamel_of_Egypt), who assumed the title of [Sultan of Egypt](/source/Sultanate_of_Egypt). Egypt was formally declared independent from the Ottoman Empire but remained under British protection.[74][75]

After [World War I](/source/World_War_I), nationalist sentiments surged. [Saad Zaghloul](/source/Saad_Zaghloul) and the [Wafd Party](/source/Wafd_Party) secured popular support, but the British exiled Zaghloul and his colleagues to Malta on 8 March 1919, prompting the [first modern revolution](/source/Egyptian_revolution_of_1919). This uprising pressured the UK to issue a [declaration of independence](/source/Unilateral_Declaration_of_Egyptian_Independence) on 22 February 1922.[76] Sultan [Fuad I](/source/Fuad_I_of_Egypt) then assumed the title of King of Egypt. Despite nominal independence, Britain retained military presence and political influence.[76]

In 1923, a new constitution established a [parliamentary](/source/Parliamentary_system) government. The Wafd Party won a decisive victory in the 1923–24 elections, with Saad Zaghloul becoming prime minister. The [1936 treaty](/source/Anglo-Egyptian_Treaty_of_1936) led to British troop withdrawal from most of Egypt, except the Suez Canal. The treaty left the status of [Sudan](/source/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan) unresolved, as real control remained with Britain.[77]

[Fuad I of Egypt](/source/Fuad_I_of_Egypt) with [Edward, Prince of Wales](/source/Edward_VIII), 1932

During [World War II](/source/World_War_II), Egypt served as a strategic base for [Allied](/source/Allies_of_World_War_II) operations, particularly in [North Africa](/source/North_Africa). Although Egypt declared martial law and severed diplomatic relations with [Axis powers](/source/Axis_powers), the Egyptian army did not engage directly. Political tensions persisted, highlighted by the 1942 [Abdeen Palace Incident](/source/Abdeen_Palace_Incident_of_1942), in which British forces pressured King Farouk to install a Wafd-coalition government.[78]

After the war, nationalist and anti-British sentiments intensified. British troops largely withdrew in 1947, leaving a residual presence around the Suez Canal. Egypt's defeat in the [First Arab-Israeli War](/source/First_Arab-Israeli_War) fuelled anti-monarchy feeling. The Wafd Party's 1950 election victory forced King Farouk to appoint [Mostafa El-Nahas](/source/Mostafa_El-Nahas) as prime minister. In 1951, Egypt unilaterally renounced the [1936 treaty](/source/Anglo-Egyptian_treaty_of_1936) and demanded British troop withdrawal. The situation around the Suez Canal escalated, culminating in violent confrontations that led to the killing of 43 Egyptian policemen in 1952 by British troops. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt and led to the subsequent [Black Saturday](/source/Cairo_fire) anti-British riots, which saw widespread destruction in Cairo.[79]

These events precipitated the [Free Officers Movement coup](/source/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952) on 22–23 July 1952, led by [Muhammad Naguib](/source/Muhammad_Naguib) and [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/source/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser). King Farouk abdicated in favour of his infant son, [Fuad II](/source/Fuad_II_of_Egypt), but real power rested with the [Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council](/source/Egyptian_Revolutionary_Command_Council). By 18 June 1953, the monarchy was formally abolished, the 1923 constitution suspended, and Egypt was declared a republic, with Naguib as president and Nasser as prime minister.[79]

### Republican Egypt under Nasser (1952–1970)

Main articles: [History of republican Egypt](/source/History_of_republican_Egypt) and [History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser](/source/History_of_Egypt_under_Gamal_Abdel_Nasser)

[Gamal Abdel Nasser](/source/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser) (right) and [Mohamed Naguib](/source/Mohamed_Naguib) (left) during celebrations marking the second anniversary of the [1952 Egyptian revolution](/source/Egyptian_revolution_of_1952), July 1954

Following the [1952 Revolution](/source/Egyptian_revolution_of_1952) led by the [Free Officers Movement](/source/Free_Officers_Movement_(Egypt)), Egypt came under military control, and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the [Republic of Egypt](/source/Republic_of_Egypt_(1953%E2%80%931958)) was officially declared, with [Muhammad Naguib](/source/Muhammad_Naguib) serving as the first President. His presidency lasted less than a year and a half, as [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/source/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser), a [Pan-Arabist](/source/Pan-Arabist) and the principal architect of the 1952 movement, gradually consolidated power. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 and placed under [house arrest](/source/House_arrest). The presidency remained vacant until Nasser was formally elected in 1956.[80]

In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to end the [Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement](/source/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan) of 1899, granting Sudan full independence, which came into effect on 1 January 1956. In June 1956, Nasser assumed the presidency and immediately became the central figure in Egypt's domestic and foreign policy. British forces completed their withdrawal from the Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. Later that year, on 26 July, Nasser [nationalised](/source/Nationalised) the Suez Canal, provoking the [Suez Crisis](/source/Suez_Crisis) when Israel, with support from France and the United Kingdom, invaded the Sinai Peninsula and targeted the Canal. The conflict ended following diplomatic pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union, restoring the pre-war status quo.[81]

Egyptian President [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/source/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser) in [Mansoura](/source/Mansoura%2C_Egypt), 1960

In 1958, Egypt formed a political union with Syria, creating the [United Arab Republic](/source/United_Arab_Republic). The union, also loosely connected with [North Yemen](/source/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen) in the [United Arab States](/source/United_Arab_States), was short-lived; Syria seceded in 1961. During this period, Egypt became heavily involved in the [North Yemen Civil War](/source/North_Yemen_Civil_War), with military interventions and peace conferences ultimately leading to a prolonged stalemate.[82] In May 1967, tensions with Israel escalated after warnings from the Soviet Union, deployment of Egyptian forces to Sinai, expulsion of UN peacekeepers, and closure of the [Straits of Tiran](/source/Straits_of_Tiran). These measures precipitated the [Six-Day War](/source/Third_Arab-Israeli_War), during which Israel captured the [Sinai Peninsula](/source/Sinai_Peninsula) and the [Gaza Strip](/source/Gaza_Strip). In response to the conflict, an [Emergency Law](/source/Emergency_law_in_Egypt) was enacted, greatly expanding police powers, restricting constitutional rights, and legalising censorship; it remained in force until 2012, except for a brief break in 1980–81.[83]

Socially and economically, Nasser's policies transformed Egypt. At the time of the monarchy's fall, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class, four million were middle class, and seventeen million were lower class or poor.[84] Education was expanded, with school enrollment more than doubling from 1953 to 1966. Land reforms, industrial support, and growth in public-sector employment created a larger middle class, including doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, and journalists. However, by the late 1960s, the Egyptian economy faced stagnation, political freedoms had declined, and Nasser's personal popularity began to wane.[84][85]

### Egypt under Sadat and Mubarak (1970–2011)

Main articles: [History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat](/source/History_of_Egypt_under_Anwar_Sadat) and [History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak](/source/History_of_Egypt_under_Hosni_Mubarak)

Egyptian vehicles advancing in the [Sinai](/source/Sinai) during the [Yom Kippur War](/source/Yom_Kippur_War), 1973

Egyptian President [Anwar Sadat](/source/Anwar_Sadat) and [Minister of War](/source/Ministry_of_Defense_(Egypt)) [Ahmad Ismail Ali](/source/Ahmad_Ismail_Ali) attending the re-opening ceremony of Suez Canal after the Yom Kippur war, 1975

After the death of [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/source/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser) in 1970, [Anwar Sadat](/source/Anwar_Sadat) assumed the presidency of Egypt. Sadat consolidated his power by marginalising Nasserist and leftist factions, while controlling opposition both secular and religious. He shifted Egypt's Cold War alignment from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and renamed the country the Arab Republic of Egypt in 1971. Sadat launched the [Infitah](/source/Infitah) ("open door") economic reforms.[86] Some measures of this economic liberalisation caused social tensions, most notably the removal of food subsidies in 1977 which sparked widespread [bread riots](/source/1977_Egyptian_bread_riots).

In 1973, Sadat coordinated with Syria in the [Fourth Arab-Israeli War](/source/Fourth_Arab-Israeli_War) to reclaim the [Sinai Peninsula](/source/Sinai_Peninsula) from Israeli occupation. Though militarily mixed, the war restored Arab morale and strengthened Sadat's domestic legitimacy. His historic 1977 visit to Jerusalem led to the 1979 [Egypt-Israel peace treaty](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_peace_treaty), with Israel withdrawing from Sinai and Egypt recognising Israel as a sovereign state. This initiative provoked widespread controversy across the Arab world, resulting in Egypt's temporary expulsion from the [Arab League](/source/Arab_League), but remained popular domestically.[87] Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by an Islamic extremist opposed to his domestic policies and peace initiative.

[Hosni Mubarak](/source/Hosni_Mubarak) succeeded Sadat in a 1981 referendum in which he was the sole candidate.[88] He maintained Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and improved relations with Arab neighbours. Domestically, he faced widespread poverty, high unemployment, and urban overcrowding. The 1986 Security Police riots, sparked by reports of extended military service, led to violent protests, destruction of businesses, and 107 deaths.[89]

Terrorist attacks, particularly by Islamist groups like [Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya](/source/Al-Gama'a_al-Islamiyya), targeted government officials, foreigners, and Christian [Copts](/source/Copts), devastating tourism, Egypt's primary source of hard currency.[90][91] The political scene was dominated by the [NDP](/source/National_Democratic_Party_(Egypt)), which curtailed freedoms of association, expression, and political participation through laws such as the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 NGOs Law.[92]

Cairo grew into a [metropolitan area](/source/Metropolitan_area) with a population of over 22 million.[93]

In 1997, the [Luxor massacre](/source/Luxor_massacre) left 62 dead, mostly tourists, highlighting the continuing threat to security and the economy. In 2005, limited reforms allowed multi-candidate presidential elections, but restrictions on candidates and alleged government interference ensured Mubarak's easy reelection. Voter turnout was less than 25%, and opposition leader [Ayman Nour](/source/Ayman_Nour) was subsequently imprisoned.[94]

[Human Rights Watch](/source/Human_Rights_Watch) and [Amnesty International](/source/Amnesty_International) reported widespread human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary detention, and the use of Egypt as an international "torture hub" in the context of the [war on terror](/source/War_on_terror).[95][96] Constitutional changes in 2007 further expanded presidential powers, restricted religious parties, and broadened police authority. Egypt remained under strong military influence, described by officials as a "pharaonic" system, with democracy as a distant aspiration.[97]

### Contemporary (2011–present)

Main articles: [2011 Egyptian revolution](/source/2011_Egyptian_revolution), [Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)](/source/Egyptian_Crisis_(2011%E2%80%932014)), [2013 Egyptian protests](/source/2013_Egyptian_protests), and [2013 Egyptian coup d'état](/source/2013_Egyptian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat)

**Top:** Celebrations in [Tahrir Square](/source/Tahrir_Square) after the announcement of [Hosni Mubarak](/source/Hosni_Mubarak)'s resignation, 2011.
**Bottom:** Protests in Tahrir Square against [Morsi](/source/Mohamed_Morsi), 2012.

On 25 January 2011, [widespread protests](/source/2011_Egyptian_revolution) erupted against President Hosni Mubarak's government, triggered by demands for political freedom, social justice, and the end of long-standing corruption. Demonstrations rapidly spread across major cities, particularly in [Cairo](/source/Cairo)'s [Tahrir Square](/source/Tahrir_Square), capturing global attention.[98] After 18 days of escalating unrest, Mubarak resigned on 11 February 2011 and fled Cairo. The [Egyptian military](/source/Egyptian_military) assumed control, with [Mohamed Hussein Tantawi](/source/Mohamed_Hussein_Tantawi), chairman of the [Supreme Council of the Armed Forces](/source/Supreme_Council_of_the_Armed_Forces), acting as interim head of state.[99][100] On 13 February, the military dissolved parliament and suspended the constitution.[101] A constitutional referendum followed on 19 March 2011.[102] Later that year, Egypt held its first parliamentary elections since the previous regime, with high voter turnout and no major reported irregularities.[103]

[Mohamed Morsi](/source/Mohamed_Morsi), affiliated with the [Muslim Brotherhood](/source/Muslim_Brotherhood), won the [presidency](/source/2012_Egyptian_presidential_election) on 24 June 2012 and was sworn in on 30 June.[104][105] His cabinet, announced in August 2012, included significant representation from the Muslim Brotherhood, prompting liberal and secular groups to withdraw from the [Constituent Assembly of Egypt](/source/Constituent_Assembly_of_Egypt) over concerns of imposing strict Islamic law.[106] In November 2012, Morsi issued a decree granting immunity to his decisions and protecting the constituent assembly's work, sparking [mass protests and violent clashes](/source/2012%E2%80%932013_Egyptian_protests) across the country.[107] Tensions escalated, with the largest confrontations between Islamist supporters and opponents since the 2011 revolution occurring on 5 December 2012.[108] Morsi refused to cancel the December 2012 [constitutional referendum](/source/2012_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum).[109]

Following growing public discontent, the [military removed Morsi](/source/2013_Egyptian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat) on 3 July 2013, dissolved the [Shura Council](/source/Senate_(Egypt)), and installed [Adly Mansour](/source/Adly_Mansour), chief justice of the [Supreme Constitutional Court](/source/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_(Egypt)), as interim president.[110] Authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood, jailing thousands and conducting mass trials. Violence during [dispersals of pro-Morsi camps](/source/Rabaa_massacre) left hundreds dead.[111][112] A new [constitution](/source/Constitution_of_Egypt) was approved by referendum on 18 January 2014 with 98.1% voting in favour.[113][114]

[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi) won the [presidential elections](/source/2014_Egyptian_presidential_election) in June 2014 with 96.1% of the vote and was sworn in on 8 June. Under his rule, Egypt intensified security on the Gaza border, dismantled tunnels between Sinai and Gaza, and consolidated political power. Presidential terms were extended to six years in 2019, allowing El-Sisi to run for a third term in 2024. Parliamentary elections in 2020 confirmed a pro-El-Sisi majority for the [Mostaqbal Watan Party](/source/Nation's_Future_Party). The constitutional reforms and strengthened military authority under El-Sisi have been described as a return to authoritarianism.[115][116] In December 2023, El-Sisi won the elections that gave him a third six-year term.[117]

## Geography

Main article: [Geography of Egypt](/source/Geography_of_Egypt)

Egypt's topography

Egypt lies primarily between latitudes [22°](/source/22nd_parallel_north) and [32°N](/source/32nd_parallel_north), and longitudes [25°](/source/25th_meridian_east) and [35°E](/source/35th_meridian_east). At 1,001,450 square kilometres (386,660 sq mi), it is the world's 29th largest country.[118] Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.[119] 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.[120]

The [Qattara Depression](/source/Qattara_Depression) in Egypt's north west

Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. A [transcontinental nation](/source/Transcontinental_nation), it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the [Suez Canal](/source/Suez_Canal)) that [connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean](/source/Indo-Mediterranean) by way of the Red Sea.

Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few [oases](/source/Oasis) scattered about. Winds create prolific [sand dunes](/source/Dune) that peak at more than 30 metres (100 ft) high. Egypt includes parts of the [Sahara](/source/Sahara) desert and of the [Libyan Desert](/source/Libyan_Desert).

Sinai peninsula hosts the highest mountain in Egypt, [Mount Catherine](/source/Mount_Catherine) at 2,642 metres. The [Red Sea Riviera](/source/Red_Sea_Riviera), on the east of the peninsula, is renowned for its wealth of coral reefs and marine life.

Towns and cities include [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria), the second largest city; [Aswan](/source/Aswan); [Asyut](/source/Asyut); [Cairo](/source/Cairo), the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; [El Mahalla El Kubra](/source/El_Mahalla_El_Kubra); [Giza](/source/Giza), the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; [Hurghada](/source/Hurghada); [Luxor](/source/Luxor); [Kom Ombo](/source/Kom_Ombo); [Port Safaga](/source/Port_Safaga); [Port Said](/source/Port_Said); [Sharm El Sheikh](/source/Sharm_El_Sheikh); [Suez](/source/Suez), where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; [Zagazig](/source/Zagazig); and [Minya](/source/Minya%2C_Egypt). [Oases](/source/Oasis) include [Bahariya](/source/Bahariya_Oasis), [Dakhla](/source/Dakhla_Oasis), [Farafra](/source/Farafra%2C_Egypt), [Kharga](/source/Kharga_Oasis) and [Siwa](/source/Siwa_Oasis). [Protectorates](/source/Protectorates) include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.

On 13 March 2015, plans for a [proposed new capital of Egypt](/source/Proposed_new_capital_of_Egypt) were announced.[121]

### Climate

Main article: [Climate of Egypt](/source/Climate_of_Egypt)

Snow in [Saint Catherine](/source/Saint_Catherine%2C_Egypt), [Sinai Peninsula](/source/Sinai_Peninsula)

Egypt was the eighth most water-stressed country in the world in 2022.

Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[122] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),[123] mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as [Damietta](/source/Damietta), [Baltim](/source/Baltim) and [Sidi Barrani](/source/Sidi_Barrani), and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.[124] [Frost](/source/Frost) is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.

Egypt has a very hot, sunny and dry climate. Average temperature highs are very high to extremely high throughout most of the country. The exception to this is the northern part of the country, which, although still hot, has its temperatures moderated by the cool Mediterranean winds consistently blowing in over the sea coast, especially at the height of summer. The [Khamaseen](/source/Khamaseen) is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over 50 °C (122 °F) in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less.

Prior to the construction of the [Aswan Dam](/source/Aswan_Dam), the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.

Egypt's hot and arid climate is increasingly strained by climate change, leading to extreme temperatures, droughts, floods, and rising sea levels.[125] As a highly vulnerable nation, these environmental shifts threaten food security, water availability, public health, and economic stability.[126][127]

### Biodiversity

Main article: [Wildlife of Egypt](/source/Wildlife_of_Egypt)

The [Eastern Imperial Eagle](/source/Eastern_Imperial_Eagle) is the national animal of Egypt.

Egypt signed the Rio [Convention on Biological Diversity](/source/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity) on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.[128] It produced a [National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan](/source/Biodiversity_Action_Plan) which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.[129]

The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.[130] For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.[131]

## Government

Main article: [Politics of Egypt](/source/Politics_of_Egypt)

[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi)
[President](/source/President_of_Egypt)

[Mostafa Madbouly](/source/Mostafa_Madbouly)
[Prime Minister](/source/Prime_Minister_of_Egypt)

The [House of Representatives](/source/House_of_Representatives_(Egypt)), whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. [Elections](/source/Elections_in_Egypt) were held between [November 2011 and January 2012](/source/2011%E2%80%9312_Egyptian_parliamentary_election), which were later dissolved.

After a wave of public discontent with the [Muslim Brotherhood](/source/Muslim_Brotherhood) government of President [Mohamed Morsi](/source/Mohamed_Morsi),[132] on 3 July 2013 then-[General](/source/Egyptian_Army_ranks) [Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi) announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the [constitution](/source/Egyptian_Constitution_of_2012). A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying [the constitution](/source/Egyptian_Constitution_of_2014), which was later published for [public voting](/source/Egyptian_constitutional_referendum%2C_2014) and was adopted on 18 January 2014.[133]

[The next parliamentary election](/source/Egyptian_parliamentary_election%2C_2015) was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.[134] Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president [Adly Mansour](/source/Adly_Mansour) pushed the date.[135] The [2014 Egyptian presidential election](/source/2014_Egyptian_presidential_election) took place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with [Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi) winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for [Hamdeen Sabahi](/source/Hamdeen_Sabahi).[136]

In 2024, as part of its [Freedom in the World](/source/Freedom_in_the_World) report, [Freedom House](/source/Freedom_House) rated [political rights](/source/Political_rights) in Egypt at 6 (with 40 representing the most free and 0 the least), and [civil liberties](/source/Civil_liberties) at 12 (with 60 being the highest score and 0 the lowest), which gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free".[137] According to the 2023 [V-Dem Democracy indices](/source/V-Dem_Democracy_indices) Egypt is the eighth least [democratic country in Africa](/source/Democracy_in_Africa).[138] The 2023 edition of [The Economist Democracy Index](/source/The_Economist_Democracy_Index) categorises Egypt as an "authoritarian regime", with a score of 2.93.[139]

Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.[140] The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.[140]

### Foreign relations

Main article: [Foreign relations of Egypt](/source/Foreign_relations_of_Egypt)

Top: Former President [Hosni Mubarak](/source/Hosni_Mubarak) with former US President [George W. Bush](/source/George_W._Bush) at Camp David in 2002.
Bottom: President [Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi) and Russian President [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin) in Sochi, August 2014.

Egypt's foreign policy is shaped by its strategic geographical position, historical legacy, and diplomatic influence in Africa, the Mediterranean, and Southwest Asia. As a founding member of the [Non-Aligned Movement](/source/Non-Aligned_Movement) and the United Nations, Egypt has maintained a non-aligned stance while playing a pivotal role in regional diplomacy. Cairo, historically a crossroads of commerce and culture, remains a centre of intellectual and political influence in the region.

The [United States](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93United_States_relations) has been a key partner, providing Egypt with US$1.3 billion in annual military assistance as of 2015.[141] In 1989, Egypt was designated a [major non-NATO ally](/source/Major_non-NATO_ally), but relations soured following the [2013 Egyptian coup d'état](/source/2013_Egyptian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat), as the [Obama administration](/source/Obama_administration) criticised Egypt's crackdown on the [Muslim Brotherhood](/source/Muslim_Brotherhood) and suspended joint military exercises.[142] Under President [Donald Trump](/source/Donald_Trump), relations improved, with [Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi)'s 2017 visit to the White House marking the first by an Egyptian president in eight years.[143]

Relations with [Russia](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Russia_relations) strengthened after Morsi's removal, with both nations expanding military cooperation[144] and trade relations.[145] Similarly, [relations with China](/source/China%E2%80%93Egypt_relations) have deepened, culminating in the establishment of a "comprehensive strategic partnership" in 2014.[146]

In 2024, Egypt and the [European Union](/source/European_Union) elevated their relationship to a "strategic and comprehensive partnership", emphasising political cooperation, and economic collaboration. Additionally, both sides are working on deepening trade relations under the Association Agreement, supporting Egypt's economic stability, and strengthening counterterrorism efforts.[147]

Egypt remains an influential mediator in Middle Eastern conflicts, particularly in brokering ceasefires in Gaza and facilitating the [Israeli–Palestinian peace process](/source/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process).[148] It is also a Member State of the [African Union](/source/African_Union) and the [Arab League](/source/Arab_League), hosting the Arab League headquarters in Cairo. The Arab League temporarily moved to Tunis in 1978 in protest of the [Egypt–Israel peace treaty](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_peace_treaty), but returned to Cairo in 1989. Egypt has also cultivated strong economic ties with Gulf nations such as [Saudi Arabia](/source/Egypt%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations) and the [United Arab Emirates](/source/United_Arab_Emirates), both of which have provided billions of dollars in financial assistance.[149]

### Military

Main article: [Egyptian Armed Forces](/source/Egyptian_Armed_Forces)

Further information: [Military industry of Egypt](/source/Military_industry_of_Egypt)

[Egyptian honour guard soldiers](/source/Egyptian_Republican_Guard) in 2009

The [Egyptian Armed Forces](/source/Egyptian_Armed_Forces) constitute Egypt's military establishment, comprising the [Egyptian Army](/source/Egyptian_Army), [Navy](/source/Egyptian_Navy), [Air Force](/source/Egyptian_Air_Force), and [Air Defense Forces](/source/Egyptian_Air_Defence_Forces) under the direct supervision of the Chief of Staff,[150] with their headquarters at the [State Strategic Command Center](/source/The_Octagon_(Egypt)), commonly known as the Octagon, in the [New Administrative Capital](/source/New_Administrative_Capital). The military primarily oversees external defence but also plays a domestic role, assisting police in protecting vital infrastructure during emergencies and counterterrorism operations.[151] They also participate in foreign peacekeeping missions and engage in bilateral and multinational military exercises.[152]

The military wields significant political influence, operating autonomously and remaining exempt from many civilian laws.[151] A significant amount of military information is not made publicly available, including budget information, the names of the general officers and the military's size (which is considered a state secret).[151] In addition, the military is a major driver of Egypt's economic landscape, engaging in infrastructure development, consumer goods production, and real estate holdings through the [National Service Projects Organization](/source/National_Service_Products_Organization).

With an active personnel strength of 438,500 and 479,000 reservists,[153] it is one of the largest and best-equipped militaries in the region.[152] Conscription is mandatory for men aged 18–30, with service obligations ranging from 14 to 36 months, depending on educational level, followed by a nine-year reserve duty. Voluntary enlistment is possible from age 16 for men and 17 for women.[152]

The military operates a diverse arsenal sourced primarily from China, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Recent efforts have focused on modernisation and procurement of advanced weaponry.[152] The domestic defence industry is also well-established, manufacturing small arms, armoured vehicles, and naval vessels, while maintaining licensed production agreements with countries such as [Germany](/source/Germany) and the [United States](/source/United_States).[152]

Egypt is one of few countries in the region to possess spy satellites, launching [EgyptSat 1](/source/EgyptSat_1) in 2007,[154] followed by [EgyptSat 2](/source/EgyptSat_2) in 2014.[155] In 2019, Egypt launched MisrSat-A, an observation satellite,[156] followed later that year by Tiba-1, a civilian and military communications satellite.[157][158] In 2023, Egypt launched Horus-1 and Horus-2, about a month apart. The country also placed MisrSat-2 into orbit later that year. All three of them are high-resolution observation satellites.[159][160][161] In 2024, two months after MisrSat-2's launch, the country successfully completed the initial operational phase of NEXSAT-1, its first experimental Earth observation satellite, achieving milestones such as developing indigenous onboard software, advanced attitude-control systems, and independently capturing and processing satellite imagery, all of which marked a major step forward in Egypt's national space capabilities.[162]

### Law

Main article: [Egyptian Civil Code](/source/Egyptian_Civil_Code)

The High Court of Justice in [Downtown Cairo](/source/Downtown_Cairo)

The legal system is based on [Islamic](/source/Sharia_law) and civil law (particularly the [Napoleonic Code](/source/Napoleonic_Code)); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory [International Court of Justice](/source/International_Court_of_Justice) jurisdiction only with reservations.[79] The highest judicial authority of Egypt is the [Supreme Constitutional Court](/source/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_(Egypt)), located in the [Maadi](/source/Maadi) district of Cairo.

Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the [Ministry of Justice](/source/Ministry_of_Justice_(Egypt)).[163] The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.[164]

On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a [referendum](/source/Egyptian_constitutional_referendum%2C_2012) held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.[165] It replaced the [2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt](/source/2011_Provisional_Constitution_of_Egypt), adopted following the revolution.

The Penal code was unique as it contains a "[Blasphemy Law](/source/Blasphemy_law_in_Egypt)".[166] The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual [tried *in absentia*](/source/Tried_in_absentia). Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.[167]

On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more [secular constitution](/source/Egyptian_Constitution_of_2014).[168] The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.[168] The parliament may impeach the president.[168] Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute [freedom of thought](/source/Freedom_of_Religion).[168] The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.[168] Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".[168]

#### Human rights

Main article: [Human rights in Egypt](/source/Human_rights_in_Egypt)

See also: [August 2013 Rabaa massacre](/source/August_2013_Rabaa_massacre) and [Persecution of Copts](/source/Persecution_of_Copts)

Protesters from the Third Square movement, which supported neither the former Morsi government nor the Armed Forces, 31 July 2013

The [National Council for Human Rights](/source/National_Council_for_Human_Rights) was established in 2003, but it has faced criticism from activists who argue it serves as a government propaganda tool to justify human rights violations and repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.[169][170][171]

Egypt has been ranked among the worst countries for religious freedom, with widespread discrimination against minorities such as [Coptic Christians](/source/Coptic_Christians), [Baháʼís](/source/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs), and other Muslim sects. A 2009 report by [Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life](/source/Pew_Forum_on_Religion_%26_Public_Life) ranked Egypt fifth worst globally for religious freedom,[172] while the [United States Commission on International Religious Freedom](/source/United_States_Commission_on_International_Religious_Freedom) has placed Egypt on its watch list due to state-tolerated violations.[173] A 2010 [Pew](/source/Pew_Research_Center) survey found that 84% of Egyptians supported the death penalty for [apostasy](/source/Apostasy_in_Islam), 77% backed amputations for theft, and 82% endorsed stoning for [adultery](/source/Adultery).[174]

Since the [2013 Egyptian coup d'état](/source/2013_Egyptian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat), political repression has intensified, with mass arrests and harsh crackdowns on dissent. During the [August 2013 sit-in dispersal](/source/August_2013_Egyptian_raids), 595 protesters were killed, making 14 August 2013 the deadliest day in Egypt's modern history.[175][176] Since then, an estimated 60,000 [political prisoners](/source/Political_prisoners_in_Egypt) remain behind bars.[177]

Egypt has also drawn international condemnation for mass death sentences, including a 2014 ruling sentencing 529 people to death in a single hearing.[178] The [United Nations](/source/United_Nations) and human rights groups have condemned these trials as gross violations of [international law](/source/International_law).[179]

[Homosexuality](/source/LGBT_rights_in_Egypt) remains [de facto](/source/De_facto) criminalised, with 95% of Egyptians opposing its acceptance, according to a 2013 [Pew](/source/Pew_Research_Center) survey.[180] A poll by the [Thomson Reuters Foundation](/source/Thomson_Reuters_Foundation), based on assessments from specialists in women's rights, ranked Cairo as the worst megacity for women, evaluating cities on sexual harassment, healthcare access, harmful cultural practices, and economic opportunities.[181]

#### Freedom of the press

[Reporters Without Borders](/source/Reporters_Without_Borders) ranked Egypt in their 2017 [World Press Freedom Index](/source/Press_Freedom_Index) at No. 160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, as of August 2015[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt&action=edit). A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defence".[182]

### Administrative divisions

Main article: [Subdivisions of Egypt](/source/Subdivisions_of_Egypt)

Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.[183]

Governorates of Egypt:

1. [Matrouh](/source/Matrouh_Governorate)
1. [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria_Governorate)
1. [Beheira](/source/Beheira_Governorate)
1. [Kafr El Sheikh](/source/Kafr_El_Sheikh_Governorate)
1. [Dakahlia](/source/Dakahlia_Governorate)
1. [Damietta](/source/Damietta_Governorate)
1. [Port Said](/source/Port_Said_Governorate)
1. [North Sinai](/source/North_Sinai_Governorate)
1. [Gharbia](/source/Gharbia_Governorate)
1. [Monufia](/source/Monufia_Governorate)
1. [Qalyubia](/source/Qalyubia_Governorate)
1. [Sharqia](/source/Sharqia_Governorate)
1. [Ismailia](/source/Ismailia_Governorate)
1. [Giza](/source/Giza_Governorate)
1. [Faiyum](/source/Faiyum_Governorate)
1. [Cairo](/source/Cairo_Governorate)
1. [Suez](/source/Suez_Governorate)
1. [South Sinai](/source/South_Sinai_Governorate)
1. [Beni Suef](/source/Beni_Suef_Governorate)
1. [Minya](/source/Minya_Governorate)
1. [New Valley](/source/New_Valley_Governorate)
1. [Asyut](/source/Asyut_Governorate)
1. [Red Sea](/source/Red_Sea_Governorate)
1. [Sohag](/source/Sohag_Governorate)
1. [Qena](/source/Qena_Governorate)
1. [Luxor](/source/Luxor_Governorate)
1. [Aswan](/source/Aswan_Governorate)

## Economy

Main article: [Economy of Egypt](/source/Economy_of_Egypt)

Change in per capita GDP of Egypt, 1820–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.

The economy of Egypt is the second-largest in [Africa](/source/Africa) and ranks [44th worldwide](/source/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)) as of 2025.[184] It is a major [emerging market](/source/Emerging_market) economy, marked by its membership in organisations like the [African Union](/source/African_Union), [Arab League](/source/Arab_League), [BRICS](/source/BRICS), and its participation in the [African Continental Free Trade Area](/source/African_Continental_Free_Trade_Area) (AfCFTA).[185] The Egyptian economy has evolved significantly since the early 2000s, transitioning toward a market-oriented system through fiscal and monetary reforms, privatisation efforts, and foreign investment incentives. These measures have contributed to macroeconomic stability and improved unemployment and poverty rates.[186][187]

Despite waves of privatisation and fiscal reforms, the government remains one of the country's largest employers, and state contracts continue to stimulate activity in other sectors of the still partly [socialised economy](/source/Socialist_economics).[188] Construction, particularly large-scale [public works](/source/Public_works), has remained a major source of employment and public expenditure.[188] However, as part of an $8 billion [International Monetary Fund](/source/International_Monetary_Fund) programme launched in 2024, Egypt has committed to rationalising such spending.[189] As a result, private investments rose to 47.5% of total executed investments in FY 2024/25, up from 39.6%, while public investment fell to 43.3%. This marks the highest private share in five years and represents a clear shift in Egypt's investment landscape.[190]

The central business district in Egypt's [new capital](/source/New_Administrative_Capital)

Egypt is among the world's top five recipients of [remittances](/source/Remittances),[191] which have more than doubled over the past decade, rising from $17.1 billion in FY 2015/2016 to a record $36.5 billion in FY 2024/2025, according to data from the [Central Bank of Egypt](/source/Central_Bank_of_Egypt).[192] These inflows are crucial for Egypt's foreign reserves and household incomes.[193]

International trade is a key component of Egypt's economy, accounting for 40% of GDP according to the [World Bank](/source/World_Bank). The country has pursued broader economic integration through free trade agreements, including the EU-Egypt Association Agreement and [AfCFTA](/source/African_Continental_Free_Trade_Area).[194] Egypt's exports have seen significant growth in the past years,[195] and the government aims to raise them to $145 billion by 2030.[196]

Since 1979, Egypt has received substantial [United States foreign aid](/source/United_States_foreign_aid), averaging $1.5 billion annually, with approximately $200 million allocated to economic assistance and the remainder directed toward military aid for procuring weapon systems from American suppliers.

### Manufacturing

See also: [Automotive industry in Egypt](/source/Automotive_industry_in_Egypt)

The fully electric [MCV](/source/Manufacturing_Commercial_Vehicles) C127 EV, made in Egypt for the German market

Egypt has the largest manufacturing sector in Africa, accounting for approximately 22% of the continent's total manufacturing value.[197] Under [Egypt Vision 2030](/source/Egypt_Vision_2030) and its related development plans, the country has relied on [industrial parks](/source/Industrial_parks), [free zones](/source/Free-trade_zone) and [special economic zones](/source/Special_economic_zones) to boost industrialisation and manufacturing.[198]

The industrial base is diverse, spanning [chemicals](/source/Chemical_products), [electronics](/source/Electronics), [steel](/source/Steel), [automotive manufacturing](/source/Automotive_manufacturing), [pharmaceuticals](/source/Pharmaceuticals), and [textiles](/source/Textiles). The chemical industry, one of the largest, includes [plastics](/source/Plastics), [rubber](/source/Rubber), [detergents](/source/Detergents), [fertilisers](/source/Fertilizers), and [glass](/source/Glass), with [petrochemicals](/source/Petrochemicals) alone contributing about 12% of industrial output, while total sector exports are projected to reach $9 billion in 2024.[199][200]

Light manufacturing is a pillar of Egypt's industrial base, with several government-led programmes aiming to accelerate its growth.[201] The *Egypt Makes Electronics* initiative has attracted factories from international firms, including [Vivo](/source/Vivo_(technology_company)), [Infinix](/source/Infinix), [Oppo](/source/Oppo), [Xiaomi](/source/Xiaomi), [Nokia](/source/Nokia), [Electrolux](/source/Electrolux), [Samsung](/source/Samsung), [Hisense](/source/Hisense), [Beko](/source/Beko), and [Haier](/source/Haier), contributing to Egypt's emergence as a regional hub for electronics and home appliance production.[202][203][204] The [textile industry](/source/Textile_industry) is also a cornerstone of Egypt's economy, contributing around 12% of export earnings and employing 2.5 million people. It spans the entire production chain from cotton cultivation to finished garments and is globally recognised for its premium [Giza cotton](/source/Gossypium_barbadense#Egyptian).[205][206]

In addition to light manufacturing, heavy industry plays a major role. Egypt is Africa's leading [steel](/source/Steel) producer and ranks 20th globally, with 9.8 million tons in 2022.[207] Egyptian steel company [EZDK](/source/EZDK) is the largest in the region, ranked 77th globally in 2020.[208] The country's [automotive industry](/source/Automotive_industry_in_Egypt), led by [Nasr](/source/El_Nasr_Automotive_Manufacturing_Company), [Ghabbour](/source/Ghabbour_Group), and [MCV](/source/Manufacturing_Commercial_Vehicles), is expanding through partnerships with global manufacturers under the government's *2024–2030 National Automotive Industry Development Strategy*, which targets 500,000 vehicles annually and promotes local [electric vehicle](/source/Electric_vehicle) production.[209]

### Retail and services

The [National Bank of Egypt](/source/National_Bank_of_Egypt) towers in [Cairo](/source/Cairo)

Egypt's retail and services sector has expanded steadily in recent years, driven by population growth, rising incomes, and urbanisation.[210] As of 2020 the country's retail market, encompassing shopping malls, supermarkets, convenience stores, and e-commerce platforms, was worth around $200 billion.[210]

The retail food and grocery sector is still largely dominated by traditional, family-run stores and [wet markets](/source/Wet_markets), although supermarket and convenience store chains expanded in both size and popularity between 2015 and 2020.[210] [Hypermarkets](/source/Hypermarkets) and [wholesale discounters](/source/Discount_store) recorded the highest growth rates over this period, at 153% and 162% respectively, accounting for 26% of the sector's sales.[210]

The country has also seen significant growth in [shopping malls](/source/Shopping_malls). With over 20 operating malls, [Cairo](/source/Cairo) has the highest number in the country, while smaller cities such as [Mansoura](/source/Mansoura%2C_Egypt) and [Tanta](/source/Tanta) have seen the opening of their first commercial malls in recent years.[210]

The Egyptian government plays a major role in the telecommunications sector through its majority ownership of [Telecom Egypt](/source/Telecom_Egypt).[211] Between 2019 and 2022, mobile internet subscriptions in Egypt grew 77.9%, from 39 million to 69.4 million, with total mobile subscriptions reaching 106.2 million by December 2023.[212] Internet penetration reached 72.2% in early 2024, with 82 million users.[213] Since 2022 Egypt has the fastest internet speeds in Africa.[214]

Egyptian banks are among the largest and most dynamic in the region. Most Egyptian lenders are adopting new technologies to expand into nonbanking financial services.[215] The [fintech](/source/Fintech) sector has grown 5.5-fold since 2020, with 177 startups, ranking Egypt 10th among emerging markets.[216] The banking sector is dominated by four state-owned commercial banks, the [National Bank of Egypt](/source/National_Bank_of_Egypt), [Banque Misr](/source/Banque_Misr), [Banque du Caire](/source/Banque_du_Caire), and [Bank of Alexandria](/source/Bank_of_Alexandria), which together account for about 55% of total banking assets.[217] [CIB](/source/Commercial_International_Bank) is the country's largest private bank and the third-largest overall.[218]

### Hydrocarbons and mining

Main articles: [Mining industry of Egypt](/source/Mining_industry_of_Egypt) and [Energy in Egypt](/source/Energy_in_Egypt)

An offshore platform in the Darfeel Gas Field

Egypt's oil production is concentrated in the Western Desert, the [Gulf of Suez](/source/Gulf_of_Suez), and the Nile Delta, with peak crude oil output reaching approximately 941,000 bbl/d (149,600 m3/d) in 1993 before declining to 630,000 bbl/d (100,000 m3/d) by 2008.[219] This decline transformed Egypt into a net oil importer by 2008–2009, prompting a strategic shift toward natural gas.

Natural gas has since become central to Egypt's economy, drawing major foreign investment.[219] The [Zohr gas field](/source/Zohr_gas_field), discovered by [Eni](/source/Eni) in 2015, is the Mediterranean's largest reserve, containing about 30 trillion cubic feet of gas. Production began in 2017 and reached 2.7 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d) by 2019,[220] greatly enhancing Egypt's energy outlook, though recent technical issues have reduced output; new drilling is planned to restore capacity.[221] [BP](/source/BP) has made major investments, including a $12 billion commitment in 2015 to the West Nile Delta project, along with other developments such as Atoll, North Damietta, and Qattameya, which began production in 2020.[222][223]

Egypt possesses substantial mineral wealth, with deposits of [gold](/source/Gold), [copper](/source/Copper), [iron ore](/source/Iron_ore), [phosphate](/source/Phosphate), [uranium](/source/Uranium), [tantalum](/source/Tantalum), [manganese](/source/Manganese), [chromium](/source/Chromium), [coal](/source/Coal), [zinc](/source/Zinc), [lead](/source/Lead), [tin](/source/Tin), and black sand minerals such as [ilmenite](/source/Ilmenite), [zircon](/source/Zircon), [rutile](/source/Rutile), and [magnetite](/source/Magnetite).[224] It also produces abundant industrial materials like [granite](/source/Granite), [marble](/source/Marble), [limestone](/source/Limestone), white sand, [kaolin](/source/Kaolin), and [feldspar](/source/Feldspar).[224] The [gold mining](/source/Gold_mining) sector has grown rapidly following investment reforms and exploration bids involving [AngloGold Ashanti](/source/AngloGold_Ashanti) and [Alexander Nubia International](/source/Alexander_Nubia_International).[225] The [Sukari mine](/source/Sukari_mine) remains the core operation, with the sector's GDP share expected to reach 5–6% by 2030.[226] Gold exports doubled to $2.17 billion in 2024, with Egypt aiming to join the world's top ten exporters by 2027.[227]

### Agriculture

Farmland in the Egyptian countryside

Egypt's agricultural sector remains essential to its economy, though its share of GDP and employment has declined over time. Egypt produces substantial quantities of [wheat](/source/Wheat), [maize](/source/Maize), [sugarcane](/source/Sugarcane), [fruits](/source/Fruits), [vegetables](/source/Vegetables), [fodder](/source/Fodder), and [rice](/source/Rice), yet remains reliant on wheat and maize imports, primarily from Ukraine and Russia, despite yield improvements since 1970.[228][229] This dependency stems from high domestic demand, driven by subsidies and a [culinary preference for bread](/source/Egyptian_cuisine#Bread), as well as Egypt's limited arable land and its emphasis on high-value export crops.[228] In 2024, Egypt exported $4.1 billion in agricultural goods[230] and roughly $6.1 billion in food industry products.[231]

The country has achieved self-sufficiency in several key agricultural products, including [vegetables](/source/Vegetables), [fruits](/source/Fruits), [poultry](/source/Poultry), [dairy](/source/Dairy), [eggs](/source/Eggs_as_food), and [rice](/source/Rice), while nearing full self-sufficiency in [sugar](/source/Sugar) and [fish](/source/Fish), with production reaching approximately 90% of demand.[232] Self-sufficiency ratios are lower for [red meat](/source/Red_meat) (60%),[233] [cereals](/source/Cereals) (58%), [vegetable oils](/source/Vegetable_oils) (26%), and [oil crops](/source/Food_oil) (35%). Consequently, Egypt relies on imports for roughly 45% of its domestic food demand.[234]

The [Aswan High Dam](/source/Aswan_High_Dam), completed in 1971, significantly improved irrigation stability.[235] In 2010, 3.6 million hectares were cultivated, with the government targeting 4.8 million hectares by 2030.[236] Major initiatives include the New Delta and [Toshka Project](/source/Toshka_Project), designed to convert desert areas into farmland using advanced irrigation techniques, [wastewater treatment](/source/Wastewater_treatment), [groundwater](/source/Groundwater) and water [desalination](/source/Desalination).[237] Efforts to deregulate agriculture have improved price alignment with global markets, but climate change and water scarcity continue to pose long-term challenges.

### Tourism

Main article: [Tourism in Egypt](/source/Tourism_in_Egypt)

Tourists riding a [camel](/source/Arabian_camel) in front of [Pyramid of Khafre](/source/Pyramid_of_Khafre). The [Giza Necropolis](/source/Giza_Necropolis) is one of Egypt's main tourist attractions.

Tourism is an important sector in Egypt's economy. A record of tourists was seen in 2024, at around 15.7 million tourists, which surpassed 14.9 million in 2023. Tourism revenues have also surged, reaching $14.1 billion, reflecting steady improvement over previous years.[238]

Egypt's tourism strategy aims to attract 30 million tourists by 2028, with a focus on infrastructure improvements, high-profile projects like the [Grand Egyptian Museum](/source/Grand_Egyptian_Museum), and enhancing visitor experiences. In 2024, the country's top tourism markets included Germany, Russia, and Saudi Arabia.[238] The [Giza Necropolis](/source/Giza_Necropolis) is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the [Seven Wonders of the Ancient World](/source/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World) still in existence.

Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over 3,000 kilometres (1,900 miles), are also popular tourist destinations; the [Gulf of Aqaba](/source/Gulf_of_Aqaba) beaches, [Safaga](/source/Safaga), [Sharm el-Sheikh](/source/Sharm_el-Sheikh), [Hurghada](/source/Hurghada), [Luxor](/source/Luxor), [Dahab](/source/Dahab), [Ras Sidr](/source/Ras_Sidr) and [Marsa Alam](/source/Marsa_Alam) are popular sites.

## Infrastructure

### Energy

Main articles: [Energy in Egypt](/source/Energy_in_Egypt) and [Electricity sector in Egypt](/source/Electricity_sector_in_Egypt)

Power plant of the [Aswan High Dam](/source/Aswan_High_Dam), with the dam itself in the background

Egypt's electricity sector has shifted from full state control to a more diversified energy mix that includes [natural gas](/source/Fossil_fuel_power_station), [renewables](/source/Renewable_energy), and [nuclear power](/source/Nuclear_power), with growing private sector participation and regional interconnections. [Fossil fuels](/source/Fossil_fuels) still dominate, generating 88% of electricity in 2023, while hydropower provides 7% and wind and solar together 5%, up from 1% in 2015 but still below the global average of 13% and Africa's 6%.[239] Egypt remains Africa's largest producer of gas-fired electricity, accounting for 45% of the continent's total in 2022, yet its per capita carbon emissions remain below the global average.[239]

The government undertook a series of rapid reforms in response to [blackouts](/source/Power_outage) during the summer of 2014 that lasted for up to six hours per day, cutting energy subsidies, and quickly developing the [Zohr gas field](/source/Zohr_gas_field) in the Mediterranean, which was discovered in 2015. The country now has an oversupply of electricity and aims to source 20% of its electricity from [renewables](/source/Renewable_energy) by 2022 and 55% by 2050.[240] As part of its renewable energy strategy, Egypt has undertaken large-scale projects like the [Benban Solar Park](/source/Benban_Solar_Park) and the Gabal El Zeit wind farm. Benban, located near Aswan, has a total capacity of 1650 MW and generates about 3.8 TWh annually, making it the fourth-largest solar power plant globally.[241] Additionally, the Gabal El Zeit wind farm, costing €340 million, spans 100 square kilometres with 300 turbines, generating 580 MW of electricity.[242][243] Egypt is currently constructing its first nuclear power facility, the [El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant](/source/El_Dabaa_Nuclear_Power_Plant), in the northern coastal region.[244]

Egypt and [Cyprus](/source/Cyprus) are considering implementing the proposed [EuroAfrica Interconnector](/source/EuroAfrica_Interconnector) project.[245] This consists of laying a 2 GW [HVDC](/source/High-voltage_direct_current) [undersea power cable](/source/Submarine_power_cable) between them and between Cyprus and Greece, thus connecting Egypt to the greater European power grid.[246] The interconnector will make Egypt an electricity hub between Europe and Africa.[247] The president of Egypt and the prime minister of Cyprus met in [Nicosia](/source/Nicosia) on 21 November 2017 and showed their full support for the EuroAfrica Interconnector pointing out its importance for their energy security.[248][249]

### Transport

Main article: [Transport in Egypt](/source/Transport_in_Egypt)

The [Cairo Metro Line 3](/source/Cairo_Metro_Line_3)

Transport in Egypt is primarily concentrated around Cairo, following the Nile River's settlement patterns. The country's 4,800-kilometre (3,000 mi) railway network is operated by [Egyptian National Railways](/source/Egyptian_National_Railways), with its main line running from [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria) to [Aswan](/source/Aswan). In 2021, Egypt launched a $4.5 billion [high-speed rail project](/source/High-speed_rail_in_Egypt) to connect [Ain Sokhna](/source/Ain_Sokhna), [Mersa Matruh](/source/Mersa_Matruh), and Alexandria, later expanding to include routes linking [Greater Cairo](/source/Greater_Cairo) to Aswan and [Luxor](/source/Luxor) to [Hurghada](/source/Hurghada) and [Safaga](/source/Safaga).[250][251]

The [Cairo Metro](/source/Cairo_Metro) operates three lines, with a fourth line under construction and plans for additional expansions in the future. Meanwhile, two [monorail lines](/source/Cairo_Monorail) are also being built in the city, along with a [metro system](/source/Alexandria_Metro) in [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria).[252]

Egypt has undertaken major road infrastructure expansion through the [National Roads Project](/source/National_Roads_Project), increasing the total length of main roads by nearly 30% from 23,500 km in 2014 to 30,500 km in 2024. Alongside constructing new highways, thousands of kilometres of roads have been upgraded, leading to improvements in Egypt's Road Quality Index, which rose from 118th place in 2015 to 18th place in 2024.[253]

Egypt's aviation sector is led by [EgyptAir](/source/EgyptAir), the country's [flag carrier](/source/Flag_carrier) and largest airline, founded in 1932 by [Talaat Harb](/source/Talaat_Harb). Now state-owned, EgyptAir operates from its [Cairo International Airport](/source/Cairo_International_Airport) hub, with scheduled passenger and cargo services to over 75 destinations across the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The airline's current fleet consists of 80 aircraft.

The [Suez Canal](/source/Suez_Canal), an artificial sea-level waterway, connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, enabling direct shipping between Europe and Asia without navigating around Africa. In 2023 it generated a record $9.4 billion in revenue for Egypt.[254] Opened in November 1869, the 193.30 km (120+1⁄8 mi) canal runs from [Port Said](/source/Port_Said) in the north to [Port Tawfiq](/source/Port_Tawfiq) in the south, with [Ismailia](/source/Ismailia) situated 3 kilometres (1+7⁄8 miles) west of its midpoint.[255]

The [Suez Canal Bridge](/source/Suez_Canal_Bridge)

The canal is 24 metres (79 feet) deep and 205 m (673 ft) wide as of 2010[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt&action=edit), consisting of a 22 km (14 mi) northern access channel, a 162.25 km (100+7⁄8 mi) main section, and a 9 km (5+1⁄2 mi) southern access channel. The Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake provide passing points along the canal, which operates without locks, allowing seawater to flow freely. [Expansions](/source/New_Suez_Canal) completed in 2015 increased its daily capacity from 49 to 97 ships, reducing transit times and boosting global maritime trade.[255][256][257]

### Water supply and sanitation

Main article: [Water supply and sanitation in Egypt](/source/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Egypt)

Green irrigated land along the Nile amidst the desert and in the [Nile Delta](/source/Nile_Delta)

Egypt's [water supply](/source/Water_supply) is heavily dependent on the [Nile River](/source/Nile_River), which provides approximately 90% of the country's total water resources, with an annual share of 55 billion cubic metres, unchanged since 1954. An additional 0.5 billion cubic metres comes from non-renewable groundwater sources. However, national demand exceeds 90 billion cubic metres annually, creating a persistent water deficit. As a result, Egypt's per capita water share fell to 570 cubic metres in 2018, well below the 1,000 cubic metre international water scarcity threshold. To address this, the government has prioritised efficient water management, particularly in response to population growth and agricultural expansion.[258]

Despite these challenges, water access has significantly improved. Between 1990 and 2010, piped water coverage rose from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas, eliminating [open defecation](/source/Open_defecation) in rural regions and achieving near-universal access to an [improved water source](/source/Improved_water_source). By 2015, 90% of the population had access to safely managed drinking water, increasing to 96.9% by 2019. Similarly, proper sanitation coverage expanded from 50% in 2015 to 66.2% in 2019, while the percentage of treated wastewater relative to total wastewater rose from 50% to 68.7% in the same period, reaching 74% in 2022.[259] However, gaps in sanitation infrastructure have historically led to health concerns, with a 2007 report estimating 17,000 child deaths annually from diarrhoeal diseases linked to poor sanitation.[260]

Egypt has made significant investments in wastewater treatment infrastructure as part of its broader water management strategy. In 2021, the Bahr El Baqar Wastewater Treatment Plant was completed, becoming the largest in the world at the time, with a capacity of 5 million cubic metres per day. The treated water from this facility is allocated to irrigating 342,000 acres under the Sinai Peninsula Development Plan.[258] In 2023, Egypt inaugurated the [New Delta Wastewater Treatment Plant](/source/New_Delta_Wastewater_Treatment_Plant), surpassing Bahr El Baqar as the largest wastewater facility globally, with a capacity of 7.5 million cubic metres per day.[261] A key component of Egypt's agricultural expansion strategy, the plant supports the New Delta reclamation project while also reducing pollution in [Lake Mariout](/source/Lake_Mariout) and the [Mediterranean Sea](/source/Mediterranean_Sea).[261]

Given Egypt's arid climate and lack of appreciable rainfall, agriculture is entirely dependent on irrigation. The Nile River, regulated by the [Aswan High Dam](/source/Aswan_High_Dam), releases an annual average of 55 billion cubic metres, of which 46 billion cubic metres are diverted into irrigation canals.[262] This irrigation sustains 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 square miles) of agricultural land in the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, producing an average of 1.8 crops per year.[262]

## Demographics

Main articles: [Demographics of Egypt](/source/Demographics_of_Egypt) and [Egyptians](/source/Egyptians)

Egypt's population density (people per km2)

Egypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on the [African continent](/source/African_continent), with about 95 million inhabitants as of 2017[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egypt&action=edit).[263] Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to [medical advances](/source/History_of_medicine#Late_modern_medicine) and increases in agricultural productivity[264] enabled by the [Green Revolution](/source/Green_Revolution).[265] Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when [Napoleon](/source/Napoleon_I_of_France) invaded the country in 1798.[266] The great majority of its people live near the banks of the [Nile](/source/Nile) River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the only [arable land](/source/Arable_land) is found. The large regions of the [Sahara](/source/Sahara) desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt's residents live across the country's urban areas,[267] with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.

Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the [fellahin](/source/Fellah), or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes [only 77,041 km2](http://citypopulation.de/Egypt-Cities.html), putting the [physiological density](/source/Physiological_density) at over 1,200 people per km2, similar to Bangladesh.

While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the [Arab Cold War](/source/Arab_Cold_War).[268] Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.[269] An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[270] The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.[271]

### Ethnic groups

Ethnic [Egyptians](/source/Egyptians) are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population.[79] Ethnic minorities include the [Abazas](/source/Abaza_people), [Turks](/source/Turkish_people), [Greeks](/source/Greeks), [Bedouin](/source/Bedouin) Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the [Sinai Peninsula](/source/Sinai_Peninsula), the [Berber](/source/Berber_language)-speaking [Siwis](/source/Siwis) ([Amazigh](/source/Berber_people)) of the [Siwa Oasis](/source/Siwa_Oasis), and the [Nubian](/source/Nubian_people) communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal [Beja](/source/Beja_people) communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number of [Dom](/source/Dom_people) clans mostly in the Nile Delta and [Faiyum](/source/Faiyum) who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases.

Egypt hosts a migrant population of over 9 million, constituting 8.7% of the country's total population, according to the International Organization for Migration. These migrants originate from 133 countries, with the largest groups being [Sudanese](/source/Sudanese) (4 million), [Syrians](/source/Syrians) (1.5 million), [Yemenis](/source/Yemenis) (1 million), and [Libyans](/source/Libyans) (1 million), collectively making up 80% of all international migrants in Egypt.[272]

### Languages

Main article: [Languages of Egypt](/source/Languages_of_Egypt)

The [official language](/source/Official_language) of Egypt is [Literary Arabic](/source/Modern_Standard_Arabic).[273] The [spoken languages](/source/Spoken_language) are: [Egyptian Arabic](/source/Egyptian_Arabic) (68%), [Sa'idi Arabic](/source/Sa'idi_Arabic) (29%), [Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic](/source/Bedawi_Arabic) (1.6%), [Sudanese Arabic](/source/Sudanese_Arabic) (0.6%), [Domari](/source/Domari_language) (0.3%), [Nobiin](/source/Nobiin_language) (0.3%),[274] [Beja](/source/Beja_language) (0.1%), [Siwi](/source/Siwi_language) and others.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Additionally, Greek, [Armenian](/source/Armenian_language) and Italian, and more recently, African languages like [Amharic](/source/Amharic_language) and [Tigrigna](/source/Tigrinya_language) are the main languages of immigrants.

The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian.

Historically [Egyptian](/source/Egyptian_language) was spoken, the latest stage of which is [Coptic Egyptian](/source/Coptic_language). Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in [Upper Egypt](/source/Upper_Egypt) as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the [Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria](/source/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria).[275][276] It forms a separate branch among the family of [Afroasiatic languages](/source/Afroasiatic_languages).

### Religion

Main article: [Religion in Egypt](/source/Religion_in_Egypt)

[Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hassan](/source/Mosque-Madrassa_of_Sultan_Hassan)

Islam is the [state religion](/source/State_religion) of Egypt. Egypt has the largest Muslim population in the [Arab world](/source/Arab_world) and the world's [sixth largest Muslim population](/source/Islam_by_country), accounting for five percent of all Muslims worldwide.[277] Egypt also has the [largest Christian population](/source/Christianity_in_the_Middle_East) in the [Middle East and North Africa](/source/Middle_East_and_North_Africa).[278] Official data about religion is lacking due to social and political sensitivities.[279] An estimated 85–90% are identified as Muslim, 10–15% as [Coptic Christians](/source/Coptic_Christians), and 1% as other Christian denominations; other estimates place the Christian population as high as 15–20%.[f]

Egypt was an early and leading centre of Christianity into [late antiquity](/source/Late_antiquity). The [Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria](/source/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria) was founded in the first century and remains the largest church in Egypt. With the arrival of Islam in the seventh century, Egypt was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.[285][286] It is unknown when Muslims reached a majority, variously estimated from c. 1000 CE to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the [Muslim world](/source/Muslim_world). Under [Anwar Sadat](/source/Anwar_Sadat), Islam became the official [state religion](/source/State_religion) and [Sharia](/source/Sharia) the main source of law.[64]

[St. Mark Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria](/source/Saint_Mark's_Coptic_Orthodox_Cathedral_(Alexandria))

The majority of Egyptian Muslims adhere to the [Sunni branch of Islam](/source/Sunni_Islam). [Nondenominational Muslims](/source/Non-denominational_Muslims) form roughly 12% of the population.[4][287] There is also a [Shi'a](/source/Shi'a) minority. The [Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs](/source/Jerusalem_Center_for_Public_Affairs) estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million[288] and could measure as much as 3 million.[289] The [Ahmadiyya](/source/Ahmadiyya) population is estimated at less than 50,000,[290] whereas the [Salafi](/source/Salafi) (ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million.[291]

[Cairo](/source/Cairo) is famous for its numerous mosque [minarets](/source/Minaret) and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".[292] The city also hosts [Al-Azhar University](/source/Al-Azhar_University), which is considered the preeminent institution of Islamic higher learning and jurisprudence.[293] Founded in the late tenth century, it is by some measures the second oldest continuously operating university in the world.[294]

It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow native Sufi [orders](/source/Tariqah),[295][296][297] with [Sufi](/source/Sufism) leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater, as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.[296] At least 305 people were killed during a [November 2017 attack](/source/2017_Sinai_mosque_attack) on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.[298]

Of the [Christian population in Egypt](/source/Christianity_in_Egypt) over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an [Oriental Orthodox](/source/Oriental_Orthodox) Christian Church.[299] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the [Coptic Catholic Church](/source/Coptic_Catholic_Church), the [Evangelical Church of Egypt](/source/Evangelical_Church_of_Egypt_(Synod_of_the_Nile)) and various other [Protestant](/source/Protestant) denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the [Syro-Lebanese](/source/Syro-Lebanese_in_Egypt), who belong to [Greek Catholic](/source/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church), [Greek Orthodox](/source/Greek_Orthodox), and [Maronite Catholic](/source/Maronite_Catholic) denominations.[300]

The Egyptian government recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects, such as the small [Baháʼí Faith](/source/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith) and [Ahmadiyya](/source/Ahmadiyya) communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.[301][302] Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards [are denied this ability](/source/Egyptian_identification_card_controversy), and were put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.[303][304]

### Education

Main article: [Education in Egypt](/source/Education_in_Egypt)

Egyptian literacy rate among the population aged 15 years and older by UNESCO Institute of Statistics

In 2022, Egypt's adult literacy rate was 74.5%, compared to 71.1% in 2017.[305] Literacy is lowest among those over 65 years of age, at 32.9% in 2021,[306] and highest among youth between 15 and 24 years of age, at 92.2% in 2022.[307]

[Cairo University](/source/Cairo_University)

A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.[308] Under British occupation, investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.[308]

In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.[308] The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.[308] Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.[308] Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.[308]

Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.[309] After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the [Thanaweya Amma](/source/Thanaweya_Amma), the leaving exam.[309] In 2025 Egypt introduced a new Baccalaureate Certificate System which will replace the [Thanaweya Amma](/source/Thanaweya_Amma) starting 2026.[310]

Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.[309]

The [QS World University Rankings](/source/QS_World_University_Rankings) 2025 includes 15 Egyptian universities, with [Cairo University](/source/Cairo_University) ranked highest among them. The [American University in Cairo](/source/American_University_in_Cairo) follows, improving its position to 410th place. Several Egyptian universities have advanced in rankings compared to the previous year, reflecting ongoing improvements in higher education.[311]

The country is currently opening new research institutes with the aim of modernising scientific research and development; the most recent example is [Zewail City of Science and Technology](/source/Zewail_City_of_Science_and_Technology). Egypt was ranked 86th in the [Global Innovation Index](/source/Global_Innovation_Index) in 2025.[312][313]

### Health

Main articles: [Health in Egypt](/source/Health_in_Egypt) and [Healthcare in Egypt](/source/Healthcare_in_Egypt)

[Egypt's children cancer hospital](/source/Children's_Cancer_Hospital_Egypt) known as *57357 hospital*

As of 2024, Egypt's average life expectancy stands at 75 years, with 73.8 years for males and 76.2 years for females.[314] Healthcare access has significantly improved in both urban and rural areas, with immunisation programmes now covering 98% of the population. Life expectancy has risen from 45 years in the 1960s to its current level, reflecting advancements in medical services and disease prevention. The infant mortality rate has also declined sharply, dropping from 101 to 132 deaths per 1,000 live births in the 1970s and 1980s to 50–60 per 1,000 in 2000, and further to 16–18 per 1,000 in 2024.[315][314]

The [Ministry of Health and Population](/source/Ministry_of_Health_and_Population_(Egypt)) oversees most public hospitals, while the [Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research](/source/Ministry_of_Higher_Education_and_Scientific_Research_(Egypt)) manages university hospitals, offering free medical services. Other ministries operate hospitals for employees, and the [Ministry of Defence](/source/Ministry_of_Defence_(Egypt)) and [Ministry of Interior](/source/Ministry_of_Interior_(Egypt)) run facilities that require out-of-pocket payments for non-service members.[316]

The private sector provides about 60% of healthcare services, including for-profit and nonprofit organisations, private hospitals, pharmacies, and independent practitioners. Numerous [nongovernmental organisations](/source/Nongovernmental_organizations) also offer healthcare, including religious and charitable institutions. As of 2021, Egypt had 1,145 private hospitals, a 23.69% increase since 2011.[317] Private healthcare facilities in Egypt are generally of high quality.[318]

Egypt grants refugees and asylum-seekers access to public healthcare on equal terms with citizens, allowing them to receive care at primary health facilities either free or at low cost.[319]

A 2008 report by the [World Health Organisation](/source/World_Health_Organization) estimated that 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to [genital mutilation](/source/Female_genital_mutilation). Government measures have reduced the practice among younger generations. By 2014, rates had dropped to 10.4% in urban areas and 15.9% in rural areas among girls aged 1–14. In June 2025 the [Minister of Social Solidarity](/source/Ministry_of_Social_Solidarity) announced that the percentage of girls aged 15 to 17 who had undergone the practice dropped to 37 percent in 2021, compared to 61 percent in 2014. Public support for FGM has also fallen, with the proportion of women endorsing the practice decreasing from 75 percent in 2000 to 30 percent in 2021. Legislative reforms, awareness campaigns, and stricter law enforcement contributed to this decline. In 2016, penalties for performing the practice were increased, with prison sentences of up to 15 years for practitioners and up to 3 years for [guardians](/source/Legal_guardian#Guardianship_for_minors) who facilitate the procedure.[320][321][322]

### Largest cities

See also: [List of cities and towns in Egypt](/source/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Egypt)

Largest cities or towns in Egypt 2023 estimate Rank Name Governorate Pop. Rank Name Governorate Pop. 1 Cairo Cairo 9,801,536 11 Faiyum Faiyum 531,861 2 Alexandria Alexandria 5,362,517 12 Khusus Qalyubia 502,864 3 Giza Giza 4,458,135 13 Zagazig Sharqia 460,501 4 Shubra El Kheima Qalyubia 1,275,700 14 Ismailia Ismailia 450,388 5 Port Said Port Said 791,749 15 Aswan Aswan 401,890 6 Suez Suez 716,458 16 6th of October Giza 376,302 7 Mansoura Dakahlia 632,330 17 Damanhur Beheira 329,572 8 El Mahalla El Kubra Gharbia 614,202 18 New Cairo Cairo 319,488 9 Tanta Gharbia 597,694 19 Damietta Damietta 312,863 10 Asyut Asyut 562,061 20 Minya Minya 298,021

## Culture

Main article: [Culture of Egypt](/source/Culture_of_Egypt)

Egypt is a recognised cultural trendsetter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.[323]

[Al-Azhar Park](/source/Al-Azhar_Park) is listed as one of the world's sixty great public spaces by the [Project for Public Spaces](/source/Project_for_Public_Spaces).

Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate [Islam](/source/Islam), Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, [Arabic](/source/Arabic_language), and its spoken descendant, [Egyptian Arabic](/source/Egyptian_Arabic), which has a significant [Coptic-Egyptian](/source/Coptic_language) [substrate](/source/Stratum_(linguistics)).[324]

The work of early 19th century scholar [Rifa'a al-Tahtawi](/source/Rifa'a_al-Tahtawi) renewed interest in [Egyptian antiquity](/source/Ancient_Egypt) and exposed Egyptian society to [Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment) principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer [Ali Mubarak](/source/Ali_Mubarak) a native [Egyptology](/source/Egyptology) school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as [Suyuti](/source/Suyuti) and [Maqrizi](/source/Maqrizi), who themselves studied the [history](/source/History_of_ancient_Egypt), [language](/source/Egyptian_language) and [antiquities](/source/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture) of Egypt.[325]

Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like [Muhammad Abduh](/source/Muhammad_Abduh), [Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed](/source/Ahmed_Lutfi_el-Sayed), [Muhammad Loutfi Goumah](/source/Muhammad_Loutfi_Goumah), [Tawfiq el-Hakim](/source/Tawfiq_el-Hakim), [Louis Awad](/source/Louis_Awad), [Qasim Amin](/source/Qasim_Amin), [Salama Moussa](/source/Salama_Moussa), [Taha Hussein](/source/Taha_Hussein) and [Mahmoud Mokhtar](/source/Mahmoud_Mokhtar). They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, [secularism](/source/Secularism) and faith in science to bring progress.[326]

### Arts

Main articles: [Contemporary art in Egypt](/source/Contemporary_art_in_Egypt) and [Art of ancient Egypt](/source/Art_of_ancient_Egypt)

See also: [Architecture of Egypt](/source/Architecture_of_Egypt)

The "weighing of the heart" scene from the *[Book of the Dead](/source/Book_of_the_Dead)*

The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and [architecture](/source/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture). [Egyptian blue](/source/Egyptian_blue), also known as calcium copper silicate, is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the [Pharaohs](/source/Pharaoh) followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal [pyramids](/source/Egyptian_pyramids), [temples](/source/Egyptian_temple) and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the [Pyramid of Djoser](/source/Pyramid_of_Djoser) designed by ancient architect and engineer [Imhotep](/source/Imhotep), the [Sphinx](/source/Sphinx), and the temple of [Abu Simbel](/source/Abu_Simbel).

Modern and contemporary Egyptian art spans a wide range of disciplines, ranging from the vernacular architecture of [Hassan Fathy](/source/Hassan_Fathy) and [Ramses Wissa Wassef](/source/Ramses_Wissa_Wassef) to the iconic sculptures of [Mahmoud Mokhtar](/source/Mahmoud_Mokhtar) and the distinctive [Coptic iconography](/source/Coptic_art) of [Isaac Fanous](/source/Isaac_Fanous). Its development in the twentieth century reflected a complex dialogue between national identity, global artistic trends, and social change. Early modern Egyptian artists sought to reconnect with their national heritage through Neo-Pharaonic styles in architecture, sculpture, and painting, with artists such as [Mahmoud Mokhtar](/source/Mahmoud_Mokhtar) and [Mahmoud Sa'id](/source/Mahmoud_Sa'id) incorporating symbolic references to ancient Egypt and rural life.[327][328]

Later generations embraced international movements like [Surrealism](/source/Surrealism), [Cubism](/source/Cubism), [Dadaism](/source/Dadaism), and [abstraction](/source/Abstract_art), while the [Art et Liberté](/source/Art_et_Libert%C3%A9) group, including [Ramses Younan](/source/Ramses_Younan), promoted individual expression and antifascist ideals.[327] The Contemporary Art Group, with artists such as [Gazbia Sirry](/source/Gazbia_Sirry) and [Abdel Hadi Al Gazzar](/source/Abdel_Hadi_Al_Gazzar), explored social realism and the quest for the Egyptian soul, while experimental painters and sculptors like Munir Canaan and Salah Abdel Kerim explored [Abstract Expressionism](/source/Abstract_Expressionism) and [assemblage](/source/Assemblage_(art)).[327] In the latter half of the century, artists responded to political and cultural shifts with Islamic-inspired calligraphy and geometric abstraction, exemplified by the Calligraphic School of Art.[327] Other notable artists from this era include [Inji Efflatoun](/source/Inji_Efflatoun) and [Kamal Amin](/source/Kamal_Amin).

The launch of institutions such as the [Townhouse Gallery](/source/Townhouse_Gallery) in 1998 democratised art access and introduced new media forms like video and installation art,[329] providing a platform for younger artists such as [Fathi Hassan](/source/Fathi_Hassan), [Ghada Amer](/source/Ghada_Amer), Medhat Shafik, [Moataz Nasr](/source/Moataz_Nasr), and Mona Marzouk to experiment with installation, video, and photography.[327] The [2011 Egyptian revolution](/source/2011_Egyptian_revolution) ushered in a new era of politically and socially engaged art. [Graffiti](/source/Graffiti) emerged as a prominent medium to document protests and communicate revolutionary messages,[330] with artists like [Bahia Shehab](/source/Bahia_Shehab), [Alaa Awad](/source/Alaa_Awad), [Aya Tarek](/source/Aya_Tarek), and [Ganzeer](/source/Ganzeer) creating works that memorialised martyrs, critiqued political figures, and reclaimed public spaces.[331]

*Khayamiya* design motives.

[Khayamiya](/source/Khayamiya) is a traditional Egyptian appliqué textile art primarily made in Cairo's historic *ShareʿEl Khayamiya* ([Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): شارع الخيامية, [romanised](/source/Romanization_of_Arabic): *Shāriʿ al-Khayāmiyya*, [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) 'Street of the Tentmakers'), also known as the Tentmakers Market. The craft, thought to date back to [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt), involves a labour-intensive hand-stitching process that can take weeks to complete, with designs ranging from geometric motifs to scenes drawn from Egyptian history and folklore. It was originally associated with decorated tents, but today it is also used for quilts, cushion covers, and wall hangings.[332]

The [Cairo Opera House](/source/Cairo_Opera_House) is Egypt's main performing arts venue, with the [Sayed Darwish Theatre](/source/Alexandria_Opera_House) in [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria) and the [Port Said Opera House](/source/Port_Said_Opera_House) in [Port Said](/source/Port_Said) serving their respective cities. In 2012 the [Downtown Contemporary Arts Festival](/source/Downtown_Contemporary_Arts_Festival) (D-CAF) was launched to revitalise Cairo's cultural scene and to provide an inclusive platform for contemporary arts. It is an annual arts festival held in Cairo, Egypt, presenting a range of performances, exhibitions, and workshops in theatre, dance, and visual arts.[333]

### Literature

Main article: [Egyptian literature](/source/Egyptian_literature)

The literary tradition of Egypt began in [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt), making it among the earliest in human history. Writing was first used by Egyptians to record texts on materials such as papyrus and carved inscriptions.[334] The *[Story of Sinuhe](/source/Story_of_Sinuhe)* is perhaps its best-known work;[335] and the autobiography has been called the earliest form of Egyptian literature.[336] By the eighth century Egypt became part of the Muslim Arab world. Literature and libraries thrived under the new order, papyrus was replaced by paper, and calligraphy became central.[337] In the 13th century, [Ibn al-Nafis](/source/Ibn_al-Nafis) wrote *[Theologus Autodidactus](/source/Theologus_Autodidactus)*, a theological novel with proto-science fiction elements.[338] Literary practices such as the *taqriz* (commendatory blurbs) appeared in 14th-century Egypt,[339] and Egyptian folklore contributed to *[One Thousand and One Nights](/source/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights)*.[340]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Egypt was central to the *[Nahda](/source/Nahda)*, the Arab cultural renaissance.[341] [Muhammad Abduh](/source/Muhammad_Abduh), a leading figure of Islamic modernism,[342] co-founded the revolutionary journal *[Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa](/source/Al-Urwah_al-Wuthqa)* with [Jamal al-Din al-Afghani](/source/Jamal_al-Din_al-Afghani) in 1884; though quickly banned by the British, it circulated widely across the Arab world.[343][344][345][346] [Ahmad Shawqi](/source/Ahmad_Shawqi) pioneered the expansion of the classical [qasida](/source/Qasida) form, though his work remained firmly rooted in neo-classical style. Following him, poets such as [Hafez Ibrahim](/source/Hafez_Ibrahim) began addressing themes of [anticolonialism](/source/Anti-imperialism) alongside traditional poetic subjects.[347] [Muhammad Husayn Haykal](/source/Muhammad_Husayn_Haykal)'s *[Zaynab](/source/Zaynab_(novel))* is considered the first modern Egyptian novel.[348] This novel started a movement of modernising Arabic fiction.[347] Poetry remained vibrant, with figures such as [Aziz Pasha Abaza](/source/Aziz_Pasha_Abaza) contributing classical-style verse with [Pan-Arabism](/source/Pan-Arabism) themes. The Abaza family produced several notable literary figures, including [Fekry Pasha Abaza](/source/Fekry_Pasha_Abaza), [Tharwat Abaza](/source/Tharwat_Abaza), and Desouky Pasha Abaza.[349][350]

[Naguib Mahfouz](/source/Naguib_Mahfouz), the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature

In the 20th century, modernist movements shaped Egyptian literature. *[Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha](/source/Al-Madrasa_al-%E1%B8%A4ad%C4%ABtha)* focused on the short story,[351] while two of the most prominent figures were [Taha Hussein](/source/Taha_Hussein) and [Naguib Mahfouz](/source/Naguib_Mahfouz), the latter the first Egyptian and Arabic-language writer to receive the [Nobel Prize in Literature](/source/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature). Avant-garde literary activity emerged through magazines like *[Galerie 68](/source/Galerie_68)*, founded by [Edwar al-Kharrat](/source/Edwar_al-Kharrat), giving voice to Egypt's 1960s generation.[352]

In the 1990s, Egyptian literature responded to socio-economic changes such as urbanisation and rising living costs, focusing on isolated individuals in a changing society, exemplified by Mustafa Zikri, [Nura Amin](/source/Nura_Amin), and [May Telmissany](/source/May_Telmissany).[353] This era also saw the rise of women writers, often called *kitabat al-banat* ("girls' writing"), with shorter, first-person narratives.[354][355]

Egyptians constitute the largest share of shortlisted authors for the [International Prize for Arabic Fiction](/source/International_Prize_for_Arabic_Fiction), with [Bahaa Taher](/source/Bahaa_Taher)'s *Sunset Oasis* winning the inaugural edition in 2008, followed the next year by [Youssef Ziedan](/source/Youssef_Ziedan)'s *Azazeel*.[356] Other notable contemporary authors include [Radwa Ashour](/source/Radwa_Ashour), acclaimed for the *[Granada](/source/Granada_(Trilogy))* trilogy; [Ahdaf Soueif](/source/Ahdaf_Soueif), whose English-language novel *The Map of Love* was shortlisted for the [Booker Prize](/source/Booker_Prize) in 1999; [Ahmed Khaled Tawfik](/source/Ahmed_Khaled_Tawfik), who introduced horror and science fiction to Egyptian literature with his *Ma Waraa al-Tabiaa* series; and [Ahmed Mourad](/source/Ahmed_Mourad), known for bestselling novels such as *Vertigo* and *[The Blue Elephant](/source/The_Blue_Elephant_(novel))*.[357] Feminist themes are explored by [Nawal El Saadawi](/source/Nawal_El_Saadawi) and [Alifa Rifaat](/source/Alifa_Rifaat), while vernacular poetry is represented by [Ahmed Fouad Negm](/source/Ahmed_Fouad_Negm), [Salah Jaheen](/source/Salah_Jaheen), and [Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi](/source/Abdel_Rahman_el-Abnudi).[358]

### Media

Main article: [Media of Egypt](/source/Media_of_Egypt)

See also: [List of radio stations in Egypt](/source/List_of_radio_stations_in_Egypt)

The first issue of [Al-Waqa'i' al-Misriyya](/source/Al-Waqa'i'_al-Misriyya), printed in 1828 by the [Amiriya Press](/source/Bulaq_Press). It and its predecessor [Jurnal al-Khidiw](/source/Jurnal_al-Khidiw) are the oldest Arabic-language newspapers.

Egypt is a major regional media hub, with its press among the most influential in the Arab world. The [printing press](/source/Printing_press) was first introduced to Egypt by [Napoleon Bonaparte](/source/Napoleon) during his [French Campaign in Egypt and Syria](/source/French_Campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria).[359] [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria) was the centre of Egyptian journalism for much of the 1800s,[360] with many literary journals starting there before moving to [Cairo](/source/Cairo).[361] By the 1890s, Cairo had become dominant, hosting 65% of publications, while Alexandria accounted for 28%.[360] The written press in Egypt today is highly diverse, with more than 600 newspapers, journals, and magazines.[362] The three leading state-owned press institutions are *[Al-Ahram](/source/Al-Ahram)*, [*Al-Akhbar*](/source/Al-Akhbar_(Egypt)) and *Dar Al-Tahrir,[363]* the latter being a major publishing house that issues a wide range of newspapers and magazines in different languages, including *[Al-Gomhuria](/source/Al_Gomhuria)*, *[The Egyptian Gazette](/source/The_Egyptian_Gazette)*, *[Le Progrès Egyptien](/source/Le_Progr%C3%A8s_Egyptien),* among others.[364]

Egypt was the first country in the region to introduce radio broadcasts to a wide population in 1926, initially through private short-wave stations with limited range, primarily located between [Cairo](/source/Cairo) and [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria).[365] The official Egyptian radio service launched on 31 May 1934, with the first broadcast featuring [Muhammad Rifat](/source/Muhammad_Rifat), a Quran reciter.[365] Following the [1952 Egyptian Revolution](/source/1952_Egyptian_Revolution), radio became a central tool of state communication and regional influence. Under President [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/source/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser), Egypt developed the [Voice of the Arabs](/source/Voice_of_the_Arabs) ([Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): صوت العرب, [romanised](/source/Romanization_of_Arabic): *Sawt El Arab*) service, launched in the 1950s as one of the most prominent Arabic-language broadcasts of its time.[366] Initially modest in size, Egypt's radio system was rapidly expanded by the revolutionary government. It was used to promote Arab unity, strengthen Egypt's leadership role in the region, often calling for solidarity and revolutionary action, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s.[366] Contemporary radio in Egypt is largely operated by the [Egyptian Radio and Television Union](/source/Egyptian_Radio_and_Television_Union) (ERTU), established in 1970, which manages multiple national and local stations. Private FM stations also exist, but state radio remains the most widespread. Programming includes news, cultural content, educational programmes.[363]

The [Maspero building](/source/Maspero_television_building) in [Cairo](/source/Cairo), headquarters of the [Egyptian Radio and Television Union](/source/Egyptian_Radio_and_Television_Union)

Egyptian television began in 1960 when Channel 1 launched with [Quran](/source/Quran) readings and a speech by President [Nasser](/source/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser), followed by Channel 2 in 1961 offering cultural, informational, and instructional programmes. Over the following decades, additional channels were launched regionally.[363] In the 21st century, Egypt's television and film industry continue to supply much of the region through Cairo's [Media Production City](/source/Egyptian_Media_Production_City). Television remains the most popular medium in the country, with [ERTU](/source/Egyptian_Radio_and_Television_Union) operating two national terrestrial channels, six local terrestrial channels covering all 27 governorates, three satellite channels, and over ten specialised channels, including news, sport, culture, education, and entertainment.[363] In addition, numerous private satellite television channels operate alongside the state networks.[363] Egypt is a major force in satellite broadcasting, being the first Arab country to launch its own satellite, [Nilesat](/source/Nilesat).

### Cinema

Main article: [Cinema of Egypt](/source/Cinema_of_Egypt)

[Soad Hosny](/source/Soad_Hosny)

[Faten Hamama](/source/Faten_Hamama)

[Omar Sharif](/source/Omar_Sharif)

[Ahmed Zaki](/source/Ahmed_Zaki_(actor))

[Egyptian cinema](/source/Egyptian_cinema), the oldest in Africa and the Arab world, began in 1896 with film screenings in [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria), [Cairo](/source/Cairo), and [Port Said](/source/Port_Said). Early production started in 1907 with short documentaries, and the first feature films appeared in 1917, directed by [Mohammed Karim](/source/Mohammed_Karim). By the 1920s and 1930s, the country's film scene expanded with productions such as [Layla](/source/Laila_(1927_film)) and [Sons of Aristocrats](/source/Sons_of_Aristocrats), the first Egyptian talkie.[367] In 1936, [Studio Misr](/source/Studio_Misr), financed by industrialist [Talaat Harb](/source/Talaat_Pasha_Harb), emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.[368] For over 100 years, more than 4,000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.[369][370]

The industry has been a dominant cultural force in the Arab world since its inception, earning the nickname "Arab Hollywood" and "Hollywood of the East".[371][372][367] Its golden age, spanning the 1940s to the 1960s, saw Egypt become the world's third-largest film producer, with hundreds of films across genres achieving widespread regional popularity.[371] Iconic filmmakers such as [Youssef Chahine](/source/Youssef_Chahine) and [Henry Barakat](/source/Henry_Barakat), and celebrated actors including [Faten Hamama](/source/Faten_Hamama), helped establish Egyptian cinema as a major influence on Arab cultural identity. Today, Egyptian films continue to reach audiences across the Arab world and beyond, maintaining the country's historic role as a central hub for Arabic-language cinema.[371]

Egypt hosts several film festivals, which have become important platforms for both local and international filmmakers. The [Cairo International Film Festival](/source/Cairo_International_Film_Festival), established in 1976, showcases a range of films from dramas to experimental works and attracts filmmakers and audiences from around the world.[373] It is listed by the [International Federation of Film Producers' Associations](/source/FIAPF) as one of the 11 competitive film festivals in the world.[374] The [Luxor African Film Festival](/source/Luxor_African_Film_Festival) highlights African cinema, while the [El Gouna Film Festival](/source/El_Gouna_Film_Festival) presents Arabic and international films. Other notable events include the Ismailia International Film Festival, which focuses on social and environmental themes, and the Alexandria Short Film Festival, which features narrative, documentary, and animated short films.[373]

The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of [talking films](/source/Talking_film), and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962. The cinema count fell to 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995, due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centres. Their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009.[375][376]

### Music

Main article: [Music of Egypt](/source/Music_of_Egypt)

An ancient Egyptian mural of people playing music.

[Egyptian music](/source/Music_of_Egypt) is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of [Egyptian culture](/source/Culture_of_Egypt) since antiquity. The ancient [Egyptians](/source/Egyptians) credited one of their gods [Hathor](/source/Hathor) with the invention of music, which [Osiris](/source/Osiris) in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.[377]

Contemporary Egyptian music has its roots in the work of early artists such as [Abdu al-Hamuli](/source/Abdu_al-Hamuli), Almaz, and Mahmoud Osman, whose contributions shaped and inspired later generations. It was recorded as early as the 1910s, with a thriving classical tradition developing in Cairo by the 1930s, blending indigenous folk influences with Western elements and producing iconic 20th-century stars such as [Sayed Darwish](/source/Sayed_Darwish), [Umm Kulthum](/source/Umm_Kulthum), [Mohammed Abdel Wahab](/source/Mohammed_Abdel_Wahab), [Abdel Halim Hafez](/source/Abdel_Halim_Hafez), and [Baligh Hamdi](/source/Baligh_Hamdi), many of whom became central to both popular culture and national identity.

[Umm Kulthum](/source/Umm_Kulthum), an icon of Egyptian music, often referred to as "Egypt's [Fourth Pyramid](/source/Giza_pyramid_complex)".[378] In 2023, *[Rolling Stone](/source/Rolling_Stone)* ranked Umm Kulthum at number 61 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.[379][380]

The music scene evolved from the golden age of mid-20th century [modern Egyptian classical](/source/Music_of_Egypt#Modern_Egyptian_classical_and_pop_music) heavyweights, to the rise of [Egyptian pop](/source/Arabic_pop) in the 1980s–90s with artists such as [Amr Diab](/source/Amr_Diab), [Hisham Abbas](/source/Hisham_Abbas), and [Mostafa Amar](/source/Mostafa_Amar).[381] At the same time, [Omar Khairat](/source/Omar_Khairat) emerged as a leading composer and pianist, blending [Western classical music](/source/Western_classical_music) with distinctive Egyptian influences. He has written numerous acclaimed film scores and symphonic works which has made him one of Egypt's most internationally respected contemporary musicians.[382]

In the 21st century, globalisation and the [2011 revolution](/source/2011_Egyptian_revolution) spurred diverse underground movements, with musicians and bands like [Ramy Essam](/source/Ramy_Essam) and [Cairokee](/source/Cairokee) addressing identity and political themes.[381] [Mahraganat](/source/Mahraganat) emerged from working-class communities to become mainstream, developing out of [shaabi](/source/Shaabi) music, which has been part of Egyptian culture since the 1970s with pioneers such as [Ahmed Adaweya](/source/Ahmed_Adaweya). Meanwhile, Egyptian [rap](/source/Rap), [trap](/source/Trap_music), and [techno](/source/Techno) gained prominence through artists like Abyusif, [Marwan Pablo](/source/Marwan_Pablo), and [Wegz](/source/Wegz).[381]

In recent years, Egypt's music scene has seen a generational shift, with new artists emerging as leading figures alongside established icons. According to [Spotify Wrapped](/source/Spotify_Wrapped) 2024, seven of the ten most-streamed songs in Egypt came from newer performers experimenting with [rap](/source/Rap), [R&B](/source/R%26B), [electronic fusions](/source/Electronic_music), and [street music](/source/Underground_music) alongside traditional influences. Rising artists such as Eslam Kabonga, Shehab, [TUL8TE](/source/TUL8TE), Mahmoud El Leithy, and Essam Sasa gained significant popularity, while established acts like Marwan Pablo, [Sherine](/source/Sherine), [Cairokee](/source/Cairokee), and [Tamer Ashour](/source/Tamer_Ashour) also remained highly streamed. The trend coincided with an 85 percent rise in local music consumption, underscoring the growing dominance of homegrown talent.[383] Egypt's music industry has seen rapid international growth through streaming platforms, with [Spotify](/source/Spotify) reporting a fivefold rise in royalties since 2022, over 90 percent of earnings going to independent artists, and more than 80 percent of revenue coming from listeners outside Egypt.[384]

### Dances

Egypt has a rich tradition of folk dances that reflect the country's regional and cultural diversity. In [Lower Egypt](/source/Lower_Egypt), dances such as *[ghawazi el sonbat](/source/Ghawazi)* (غوازي سنباط), *raqs el hagala* (رقص الحجلة), and *welad el sayala* (أولاد السيالة) incorporate colourful costumes and props to tell a story. For example, *welad el sayala*, performed in [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria), uses pocket knives and chairs to represent the lives and celebrations of fishermen and their communities.[385] In [Upper Egypt](/source/Upper_Egypt), dances include stick dances such as *raqs el assaya* (رقص العصا) and *[tahtib](/source/Tahtib)* (تحطيب), which are traditionally performed by men at weddings and festive occasions. These dances often symbolise strength and skill, with tahtib in particular originating from ancient martial arts traditions.[385] Nubian dance, originating in [Nubian communities](/source/Nubians) in Egypt's south, are characterised by rhythmic arm movements and upbeat tempos, often accompanied by the tambourine duff.[385]

A [tanoura](/source/Tanoura_(dance)) dancer performing

Egypt is often considered the home of [belly dance](/source/Belly_dance). Egyptian [belly dance](/source/Belly_dance) has two main styles: *[raqs baladi](/source/Raqs_baladi)* (رقص بلدي) and *[raqs sharqi](/source/Raqs_sharqi)* (رقص شرقي). There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern *shaabi* dance (رقص شعبي), which shares some elements with [raqs baladi](/source/Raqs_baladi). Belly dancing emphasises fluid movements of the hips, belly, and arms, often performed to the rhythm of the tabla drum, and is closely associated with femininity and performance in cinema and theatre.[385]

Other prominent forms of Egyptian dance include Sufi *[tanoura](/source/Tanoura_(dance))* (رقص التنورة) dancing, which involves multilayered skirts and is performed both as a spiritual practice to achieve trance-like states and as a cultural performance at festivals and tourist sites.[385]

### Museums

Main article: [List of museums in Egypt](/source/List_of_museums_in_Egypt)

The [Egyptian Museum](/source/Egyptian_Museum) in Cairo

Egypt is home to one of the world's oldest civilisations. It has engaged with numerous cultures and nations throughout its history and has experienced a vast array of eras, from the prehistoric age to modern times, encompassing periods such as [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt), [Ptolemaic](/source/Ptolemaic_Kingdom), [Roman](/source/Roman_Egypt), [Medieval](/source/Medieval_Egypt), [Ottoman](/source/Ottoman_Egypt), and the [Alawiyya dynasty](/source/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty).

Tutankhamun's burial mask is one of the major attractions of the [Egyptian Museum](/source/Egyptian_Museum).

Notable museums in Egypt include the [Egyptian Museum](/source/Egyptian_Museum) in Cairo, which houses over 120,000 items and is one of the world's largest museums as well as the first national museum in the Middle East, opened in 1902;[386] the [National Museum of Egyptian Civilization](/source/National_Museum_of_Egyptian_Civilization), home to 50,000 artefacts from various eras and the resting place of 22 ancient Egyptian kings and queens relocated there in 2021 during the [Pharaohs' Golden Parade](/source/Pharaohs'_Golden_Parade); and the [Abdeen Palace Museum](/source/Abdeen_Palace_Museum), one of Egypt's most famous royal palaces, which contains five museums showcasing arms, royal belongings, silverware, historical documents, and presidential gifts.[387]

The [Grand Egyptian Museum](/source/Grand_Egyptian_Museum) is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artefacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.[388] The museum is sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau.[389] It features a six-storey atrium with the 82-ton [Statue of Ramesses II](/source/Statue_of_Ramesses_II) and a grand staircase, while its galleries display artefacts spanning ancient Egypt's history. The Tutankhamun exhibition will showcase 5,600 objects from his tomb, including his gold mask and royal regalia. It is arranged around three central themes, life, death, and the afterlife, and features two opposing pathways: a chronological journey through his life and reign, and a forensic exploration of his tomb and excavation. The museum is set to open on 1 November 2025.[390]

### Festivals

Moulid celebrations in [Muizz Street](/source/Muizz_Street), Cairo

Egypt observes several religious Muslim and Christian festivals as public holidays. These include [Coptic Christmas](/source/Christmas), [Eid al-Fitr](/source/Eid_al-Fitr), [Eid al-Adha](/source/Eid_al-Adha), [Islamic New Year](/source/Islamic_New_Year), the [Day of Arafah](/source/Day_of_Arafah), and [Moulid al-Nabawi](/source/Mawlid).[391]

*[Sham Ennessim](/source/Sham_Ennessim)* (شم النسيم) is an annual [festival](/source/Festival) in Egypt marking the beginning of spring, celebrated by Egyptians of all religions and recognised as an official [public holiday](/source/Public_holiday).[392] It is observed on [Easter Monday](/source/Easter_Monday), the day after [Easter](/source/Easter),[393] typically between the [Egyptian months](/source/Egyptian_calendar) of [Paremoude](/source/Paremoude) (April) and [Pashons](/source/Pashons) (May). The festival is traditionally celebrated outdoors, with picnics in public gardens, along the [Nile](/source/Nile), or at the zoo. Typical foods include *[fesikh](/source/Fesikh)*, lettuce, [green onions](/source/Scallion), and [lupin beans](/source/Lupin_bean). Boiled eggs are often coloured and eaten or exchanged as gifts.[392] it is generally held that Sham Ennessim is a continuation of early forms of springtime festivities dating back over 4,500 years.[392]

[Moulids](/source/Mawlid#Other_uses), or saint's festivals, are a long-standing tradition throughout Egypt, celebrating both Islamic and Christian saints. The majority are Islamic and typically feature [dhikr](/source/Dhikr), the ritual chanting and recitation of prayers, as well as performances by Sufi groups, including music and spiritual gatherings.[394] Christian moulids follow comparable festive patterns. These events blend religious devotion with communal celebration, often centring on a shrine or mosque where pilgrims seek blessings through prayer, recitation of religious texts, circumambulation, and other acts of veneration.[394] They are also social and cultural occasions, with food, games, rides, and temporary stalls set up in the surrounding streets.[394] Major festivals, such as the *[Moulid Abu El Haggag](/source/Abu_Haggag_Mosque#Mawlid_celebration)* (مولد أبو الحجاج) in [Luxor](/source/Luxor), attract thousands of participants. It features boats and shrines paraded through the city in his honour, a tradition with origins dating back to [ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt).[394] The procession closely resembles the rituals of the [Opet Festival](/source/Opet_Festival).[395]

### Cuisine

Main article: [Egyptian cuisine](/source/Egyptian_cuisine)

[Koshary](/source/Koshary), one of Egypt's national dishes

[Egyptian cuisine](/source/Egyptian_cuisine) is deeply rooted in the agricultural traditions of the [Nile Valley](/source/Nile_Valley) and [Delta](/source/Nile_Delta), making heavy use of poultry, legumes, vegetables, and fruits. Staple dishes include *[mahshi](/source/Dolma)*, rice-stuffed vegetables and grape leaves, *[falafel](/source/Falafel)*, mainly known locally as *ta'ameya*, *[shawarma](/source/Shawarma)*, *[kabab](/source/Kebab#Egypt)*, and *[kofta](/source/Koftet_el_hati)*. Traditional Egyptian specialties include *[ful medames](/source/Ful_medames)*, mashed fava beans; *[feteer](/source/Feteer)*, flaky, layered pie with various fillings;[396] *[hawawshi](/source/Hawawshi)*, spiced minced meat baked inside bread;[397] *[molokhiya](/source/Molokhiya)*, a jute leaf stew; and *[koshary](/source/Koshary)*, a mix of lentils, rice, and pasta, which is recognised as [intangible cultural heritage](/source/Intangible_cultural_heritage) by [UNESCO](/source/UNESCO).[398] Many Egyptian dishes are traditionally prepared hands on at home, often slow-cooked, based on the culinary practices of rural kitchens passed down through generations,[399] including stews such as *[bamia](/source/Bamia)*, okra stew; *[qolqas](/source/Qolqas)*, taro root stew; and baked dishes, such as *[rozz me'ammar](/source/Rozz_me'ammar)*, a baked rice dish made with milk, butter, and [eshta](/source/Qeshta); as well as *[macarona bil-bechamel](/source/Macarona_bil-bechamel)*, a pasta bake with [penne](/source/Penne), spiced meat sauce, and [béchamel](/source/Bechamel_sauce).

Bread holds a central place in Egyptian cuisine and dining traditions, with more than 60 different types found across the country.[400] *[Eish baladi](/source/Eish_baladi)*, a round, whole-wheat flatbread, is a staple of nearly every meal and is commonly used as an edible utensil for dipping and scooping rather than simply accompanying dishes.[401][402] Cheesemaking in Egypt dates back to the [First Dynasty](/source/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt),[403] with *[Domiati cheese](/source/Domiati_cheese)* being the most widely consumed today.[404][405] Meat plays an important role in Egyptian cuisine, with poultry such as [squab](/source/Squab),[406] chicken, duck, [quail](/source/Quail), and goose being common, alongside lamb and beef for grilling and stews.[407] Cured meats such as *[bastirma](/source/Bastirma)* and *[sogoq](/source/Sogoq)* are traditionally consumed. Egyptian *bastirma* is made from salted, spiced, and air-dried beef or water buffalo,[408][409] and *sogoq*, a spicy sausage of ground beef stuffed into thin casings and left to dry and ferment.[410][411] Fish, especially [tilapia](/source/Tilapia) and [mullet](/source/Mullet_(fish)), are widely consumed, with seafood in general being particularly prevalent in coastal cities like [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria), [Suez](/source/Suez), and [Port Said](/source/Port_Said). A large portion of Egyptian cuisine is vegetarian due to limited grazing land, historical agricultural practices, and the religious customs of [Coptic Christians](/source/Coptic_Christians), who periodically observe a [vegan diet](/source/Lent).[412]

The cuisine commonly features an assortment of spices and aromatics such as [cumin](/source/Cumin), [coriander](/source/Coriander), [cardamom](/source/Cardamom), [chilli](/source/Chili_pepper), [aniseed](/source/Aniseed), [bay leaves](/source/Bay_leaves), [dill](/source/Dill), [parsley](/source/Parsley), [garlic](/source/Garlic), [ginger](/source/Ginger), [cinnamon](/source/Cinnamon), [mint](/source/Lamiaceae), and [cloves](/source/Cloves), with [cumin](/source/Cumin) being the most commonly used.[413] Popular desserts include [baqlawa](/source/Baqlawa), [basbousa](/source/Basbousa), [kunafa](/source/Kunafa), and [qatayef](/source/Qatayef), often featuring dates, honey, syrup, nuts and [semolina](/source/Semolina). Tea is the national drink, while coffee is also common and is traditionally prepared in the [Turkish style](/source/Turkish_coffee). Other popular beverages in Egypt include *[karkadeh](/source/Karkadeh)*, hibiscus tea; *['asir asab](/source/Sugarcane_juice)*, sugarcane juice; *'[erq sous](/source/Erq_sous)*, liquorice juice; *[kharob](/source/Kharob)*, carob juice; *[amar eddin](/source/Qamar_al-din)*, apricot drink; and *[sobia](/source/Sobia)*, sweet coconut milk drink. [Beer](/source/Beer_in_Egypt) is the most popular alcoholic beverage,[414] including traditional types like *[bouza](/source/Bouza_(beer))*, made from [barley](/source/Barley) and bread and consumed since the [Predynastic era](/source/Prehistoric_Egypt).[415]

### Sports

Main article: [Sport in Egypt](/source/Sport_in_Egypt)

A crowd at Cairo Stadium watching the [Egypt national football team](/source/Egypt_national_football_team)

[Football](/source/Association_football) is the most popular [national sport](/source/National_sport) of Egypt. The [Cairo Derby](/source/Cairo_Derby) is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.[416] [Al Ahly](/source/Al_Ahly_SC) is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals [Zamalek SC](/source/Zamalek_SC). They are known as the "[African Club of the Century](/source/CAF_Clubs_of_the_20th_Century)". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's [A.C. Milan](/source/A.C._Milan) and Argentina's [Boca Juniors](/source/Boca_Juniors), both having eighteen.[417]

The [Egyptian national football team](/source/Egypt_national_football_team), known as the Pharaohs, won the [African Cup of Nations](/source/African_Cup_of_Nations) seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the [FIFA World Cup](/source/FIFA_World_Cup) three times. Two goals from star player [Mohamed Salah](/source/Mohamed_Salah) in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the [2018 FIFA World Cup](/source/2018_FIFA_World_Cup).[418] The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the [2001 FIFA youth world cup](/source/2001_FIFA_World_Youth_Championship) in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the [1928](/source/1928_Summer_Olympics) and the [1964](/source/1964_Summer_Olympics) Olympics.

[Squash](/source/Squash_(sport)) and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. [Amr Shabana](/source/Amr_Shabana), [Ali Farag](/source/Ali_Farag) and [Ramy Ashour](/source/Ramy_Ashour) are Egypt's best players and all were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships five times, with the last title being in [2019](/source/2019_Men's_World_Team_Squash_Championships).

In 1999, Egypt [hosted](/source/1999_World_Men's_Handball_Championship) the [IHF World Men's Handball Championship](/source/IHF_World_Men's_Handball_Championship), and hosted it again in [2021](/source/2021_World_Men's_Handball_Championship). In 2001, the [national handball team](/source/Egypt_men's_national_handball_team) achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the [African Men's Handball Championship](/source/African_Men's_Handball_Championship) five times, being the best team in Africa. Egypt won the [Mediterranean Games](/source/Egypt_at_the_2013_Mediterranean_Games) in [2013](/source/Handball_at_the_2013_Mediterranean_Games), the [Beach Handball World Championships](/source/Beach_Handball_World_Championships) in [2004](/source/2004_Beach_Handball_World_Championships) and the [Summer Youth Olympics](/source/Egypt_at_the_2010_Summer_Youth_Olympics) in [2010](/source/Handball_at_the_2010_Summer_Youth_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Boys'_tournament). Among all African nations, the [Egypt national basketball team](/source/Egypt_national_basketball_team) holds the record for best performance at the [Basketball World Cup](/source/FIBA_Basketball_World_Cup) and at the [Summer Olympics](/source/Basketball_at_the_Summer_Olympics).[419][420] Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the [African Championship](/source/FIBA_Africa_Championship).

[Egypt has taken part](/source/Egypt_at_the_Olympics) in the [Summer Olympic Games](/source/Summer_Olympic_Games) since 1912 and has hosted [several other international competitions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:International_sports_competitions_hosted_by_Egypt) including [the first Mediterranean Games](/source/1951_Mediterranean_Games) in 1951, the [1991 All-Africa Games](/source/1991_All-Africa_Games), the [2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup](/source/2009_FIFA_U-20_World_Cup) and the [1953](/source/1953_Pan_Arab_Games), [1965](/source/1965_Pan_Arab_Games) and [2007](/source/2007_Pan_Arab_Games) editions of the [Pan Arab Games](/source/Pan_Arab_Games).

## See also

- [Outline of Egypt](/source/Outline_of_Egypt) - [Outline of ancient Egypt](/source/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-lang_3-0)** [Literary Arabic](/source/Modern_Standard_Arabic) is the sole official language.[2] [Egyptian Arabic](/source/Egyptian_Arabic) is the [spoken language](/source/Spoken_language). Other [dialects and minority languages](/source/Languages_of_Egypt) are spoken regionally.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-relig_7-0)** While [Islam](/source/Islam) is the majority and official religion of the country, the size of the country's historic [Christian minority](/source/Christianity_in_Egypt) is highly controversial and disputed by various entities and groups. Estimates range from as low as 5% to as high as 20%. Since 2006, religion has been omitted from censuses after widespread claims that the figures had been distorted.[3][4][5]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-UTCoff2_24-0)** Known locally as [Egypt Standard Time](/source/Egypt_Standard_Time) (EGY) ([Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): توقيت مصر القياسي *Tawqīt Miṣr al-qiyāsiyy*)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-UTCoff_25-0)** See [Daylight saving time in Egypt](/source/Daylight_saving_time_in_Egypt).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** [Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): مصر, [romanised](/source/Romanization_of_Arabic): *Miṣr*, pronounced [\[mɪsˤr\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic) [ⓘ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ar-Misr2.oga), [Egyptian Arabic](/source/Egyptian_Arabic_language): [\[mɑsˤr\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Egyptian_Arabic)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-290)** The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian, though estimates vary.[280][281][282] Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total.[283] The [Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life](/source/Pew_Research_Center) gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population, at 94.6%.[284] In 2017, the government-owned newspaper *[Al Ahram](/source/Al_Ahram)* estimated the percentage of Christians at 10 to 15%.[4]

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-CoARE_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-CoARE_1-1) ["Constitution of The Arab Republic of Egypt 2014"](http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf) (PDF). *sis.gov.eg*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150718052913/http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Provisional_Constitution_2-0)** ["Constitutional Declaration: A New Stage in the History of the Great Egyptian People"](http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155). Egypt State Information Service. 30 March 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110427083143/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155) from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:0_4-0)** ["How many Christians are there in Egypt?"](https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/). *Pew Research Center*. 16 February 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191002004401/https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/) from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2018.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-churches-deleg_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-churches-deleg_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-churches-deleg_5-2) Alhram Online (19 November 2017). ["Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo"](http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx). *Al Ahram*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180504020907/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx) from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** ["Egyptian Copts reject population estimate – Politics"](http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/53839/Egypt/Politics-/Egyptian-Copts-reject-population-estimate.aspx). *english.ahram.org.eg*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201029011854/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/53839/Egypt/Politics-/Egyptian-Copts-reject-population-estimate.aspx) from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Truex_&_Tavana_2019_8-0)** Truex, Rory; Tavana, Daniel L. (July 2019). "Implicit Attitudes toward an Authoritarian Regime". *The Journal of Politics*. **81** (3): 1014–1027. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/703209](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F703209).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-foreignpolicy_9-0)** Cambanis, Thanassis (22 May 2015). ["Egypt's Sisi Is Getting Pretty Good ... at Being a Dictator"](https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/22/egypts-sisi-is-getting-pretty-good-at-being-a-dictator/). *Foreign Policy*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210210231855/https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/22/egypts-sisi-is-getting-pretty-good-at-being-a-dictator/) from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:1_10-0)** ["Egypt: A Move to Enhance Authoritarian Rule"](https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/12/egypt-move-enhance-authoritarian-rule). *Human Rights Watch*. 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190713152806/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/12/egypt-move-enhance-authoritarian-rule) from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Raghavan, Sudarsan (9 July 2020). ["Egypt tries to silence its critics in the United States by jailing their relatives"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-tries-to-silence-its-critics-in-the-united-states-by-jailing-their-relatives/2020/07/08/c93a809e-c053-11ea-864a-0dd31b9d6917_story.html). *The Washington Post*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210109023939/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-tries-to-silence-its-critics-in-the-united-states-by-jailing-their-relatives/2020/07/08/c93a809e-c053-11ea-864a-0dd31b9d6917_story.html) from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Al-Arian, Abdullah (27 February 2020). ["Hosni Mubarak's legacy is Abdel Fattah el-Sisi"](https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/2/27/hosni-mubaraks-legacy-is-abdel-fattah-el-sisi). *Al Jazeera*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201019213139/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/2/27/hosni-mubaraks-legacy-is-abdel-fattah-el-sisi/) from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [6][7][8][9][10]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-goldschmidt_oldest_nation_14-0)** Goldschmidt, Arthur (1988). [*Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YmZyAAAAMAAJ&q=nation-state). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 5. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-86531-182-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86531-182-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201217150902/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Modern_Egypt/YmZyAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=nation-state) from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2015. Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["Background Note: Egypt"](https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm). United States Department of State [Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs](/source/Bureau_of_Near_Eastern_Affairs). 10 November 2010. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183905/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm) from the original on 4 June 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Crabitès, Pierre (2013) [1935]. [*Ibrahim of Egypt*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NbCRckI3EoC&pg=PA1). Vol. 8. Routledge. p. 1. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780203069387](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203069387). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-81121-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-81121-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130509064900/http://books.google.com/books?id=1NbCRckI3EoC&pg=PA1) from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013. ... on July 9, 1805, Constantinople conferred upon Muhammad Ali the pashalik of Cairo ...

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** ["Density By Governorate 1/7/2020 – Area km2 (Theme: Population – pg.14)"](https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/StaticPages.aspx?page_id=5035). Capmas.gov.eg. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181102023819/https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/StaticPages.aspx?page_id=5035) from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["Total area km2, pg.15"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150321110107/http://capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf) (PDF). Capmas.Gov – Arab Republic of Egypt. Archived from [the original](http://www.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf) (PDF) on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** ["Population estimates by Sex & Governorate"](https://www.capmas.gov.eg/publications/150). *www.capmas.gov.eg*. [CAPMAS](/source/Central_Agency_for_Public_Mobilization_and_Statistics_(Egypt)). Retrieved 27 January 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** ["الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء"](http://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20/Admin/Pages%20Files/2017109143840cns.pdf) (PDF). *www.capmas.gov.eg*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171013224804/http://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20%2FAdmin%2FPages%20Files%2F2017109143840cns.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-IMFWEO.EG_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-IMFWEO.EG_21-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-IMFWEO.EG_21-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-IMFWEO.EG_21-3) ["World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition)"](https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0)). *www.imf.org*. [International Monetary Fund](/source/International_Monetary_Fund). 14 April 2026. Retrieved 19 April 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["Gini Index coefficient"](https://web.archive.org/web/20251214092912/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/). [The World Factbook](/source/The_World_Factbook). Archived from [the original](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/) on 14 December 2025. Retrieved 28 December 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-UNHDR_23-0)** ["Human Development Report 2025"](https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf) (PDF). [United Nations Development Programme](/source/United_Nations_Development_Programme). 6 May 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-gov_27-0)** ["محافظة الأسكندرية"](https://www.egy-map.com/). *Egypt's Projects Map*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230525194517/https://www.egy-map.com/) from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. *The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings*. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-dictator_29-0)** Sources that categorise Sisi as a dictator: - ["Egypt's rushed election shows Abdel-Fattah al-Sisi is nervous"](https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/10/03/egypts-rushed-election-shows-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-is-nervous). *The Economist*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. Last month Abdel-Fattah al-Sisi, Egypt's military dictator...{{[cite news](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_news)}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_deprecated_archival_service)) - Dunne, Michele (8 April 2019). ["Why Is Trump Helping Egypt's Dictator Entrench His Power?"](https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/04/08/donald-trump-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-egypt-226579/). *POLITICO Magazine*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. - ["President Trump, Condemn This Sham Egyptian Election"](https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/president-trump-condemn-sham-egyptian-election). *The Washington Institute*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. ...issued a statement praising the Egyptian dictator's magnificent work for the country - ["A Blank Check for Egypt's Dictator"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-06-26/u-dot-s-dot-gives-egypts-dictator-a-blank-check?embedded-checkout=false). *Bloomberg.com*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. - Toosi, Nahal (12 July 2021). ["In D.C. visit, Egypt spy boss claims U.S. agreed—in writing—to jail American activist"](https://www.politico.com/news/2021/07/12/egypt-spy-boss-jail-american-498983). *POLITICO*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. ...Abdel Fattah El-Sisi, the Egyptian dictator who has imprisoned tens of thousands of dissidents.Lawler, Dave (23 April 2019). ["Egypt's President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi could rule until 2030 after winning referendum"](https://www.axios.com/2019/04/23/sisi-referendum-rule-egypt-2030-constitution). *Axios*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. He has now cemented his status as Egypt's dictator without losing his position as a U.S. ally. - Greenwald, Glenn (31 March 2015). ["Obama Personally Tells the Egyptian Dictator That U.S. Will Again Send Weapons (and Cash) to His Regime"](https://theintercept.com/2015/03/31/obama-lifts-freeze-weapons-transfer-egyptian-dictator/). *The Intercept*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. - Williams, Jennifer (3 April 2017). ["Egypt's president is a bloodthirsty dictator. Trump thinks he's done a "fantastic job.""](https://www.vox.com/world/2017/4/3/15160358/trump-egypt-abdel-fattah-el-sisi-white-house). *Vox*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. - ["Egypt President Abdul Fattah al-Sisi: Ruler with an iron grip"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-19256730). *BBC News*. 1 December 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2024. - ["Egypt is again under military rule, but Sisi lacks Nasser's appeal"](https://www.economist.com/special-report/2021/08/24/egypt-is-again-under-military-rule-but-sisi-lacks-nassers-appeal). *The Economist*. Retrieved 25 November 2024.{{[cite news](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_news)}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_deprecated_archival_service)) - Grewal, Sharan (2023). "Egypt: A Coup against Democracy". *Soldiers of Democracy?*. pp. 136–176. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780192873910.003.0007](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780192873910.003.0007). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-287391-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-287391-0). - ["EU Deal with Egypt Rewards Authoritarianism, Betrays 'EU Values' | Human Rights Watch"](https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/03/15/eu-deal-egypt-rewards-authoritarianism-betrays-eu-values). 15 March 2024. Retrieved 14 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Cooper, Andrew F.; Antkiewicz, Agata; Shaw, Timothy M. (10 December 2007). "Lessons from/for BRICSAM about South-North Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else?: Economic Size Trumps All Else?". *International Studies Review*. **9** (4): 673–689. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1468-2486.2007.00730.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2486.2007.00730.x). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [4621867](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4621867).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-IMFOCT2024_31-0)** ["Report for Selected Countries and Subjects"](https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=469,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LUR,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGSB,GGSB_NPGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2023&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1). *IMF*. Retrieved 24 October 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** [*Ancient Egypt Etymology*](http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/gri/9kemet.html), retrieved 9 January 2026

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Rosalie, David (1997). *Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce*. Routledge. p. 18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār (1990). [*Ancient Civilizations of Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gZWuVAL2GooC&pg=PA43). Currey. p. 43. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-85255-092-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85255-092-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170131155854/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZWuVAL2GooC&pg=PA43) from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Antonio Loprieno, "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", in *Phonologies of Asia and Africa (including the Caucasus). Vol 1 of 2.* Ed: Alan S Kaye. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997: p. 449

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Loprieno, Antonio (1995). [*Ancient Egyptian : a linguistic introduction*](http://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianl0000lopr). Internet Archive. Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-44384-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44384-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Loprieno, Antonio (2001). *Language Typology and Language Universals*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** ["Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Χ χ, χεσι^φωνέω, Χημία"](http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic+letter=*x:entry+group=20:entry=*xhmi/a). *www.perseus.tufts.edu*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212900/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic+letter=*x:entry+group=20:entry=*xhmi/a) from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 9 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** ["A Brief History of Alchemy"](http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html). University of Bristol School of Chemistry. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20081005180735/http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html) from the original on 5 October 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Breasted, James Henry; Peter A. Piccione (2001). [*Ancient Records of Egypt*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC). University of Illinois Press. pp. 76, 40. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-252-06975-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06975-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-TaWy_41-0)** Sleim, Ahmed (January 2020), ["tAwy The Two Lands: The North and the South or the East and the West?"](https://www.academia.edu/97245539), *academia.edu*, retrieved 9 January 2026

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Breyer, Fr. A. K. "[Morgenländische Wörter im Deutschen: Die ägyptischen Lehnwörter](https://books.google.com/books?id=JpNY7VPn1WUC&dq=%22a-ku-pi-ti-yo%22&pg=PA381) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240409180842/https://books.google.com/books?id=JpNY7VPn1WUC&dq=%22a-ku-pi-ti-yo%22&pg=PA381) 9 April 2024 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)". In: W. Raunig/St. Wenig. *Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internatio-nalen Littmann-Konferenz 2. bis 5. Mai 2002 in München*. Meroitica 22. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005. p. 381. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783447051750](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447051750).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Engsheden_43-0)** Engsheden, Åke (2018). "An etymological safari to Aigyptos". *Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur*. **47**: 1–30. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [26863322](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26863322).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Jerome-Chronicon_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Jerome-Chronicon_44-1) [St. Jerome, Chronicon (Hier.+Chron.), B1479](https://topostext.org/work/530#B1479)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Siewert-Mayer, B.; Röllig, W.; Kopp, H. (21 March 2025). ["ḥwt-kꜣ-Ptḥ: a Pleiades name resource"](https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/736963/hwt-ka723-pth). *Pleiades: a gazetteer of past places*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Campbell, Mike. ["Meaning, origin and history of the name Egypt"](https://www.behindthename.com/name/egypt). *Behind the Name*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** [Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, 14.6](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0072%3Abook%3D14%3Achapter%3D6)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Stephanus_of_Byzantium-Aeria_48-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Stephanus_of_Byzantium-Aeria_48-1) [Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, p. 61, 70](https://archive.org/details/STEPHANUSBYZANTIUSETHNICAvol.AALPHAGAMMA2006ByMargaretheBillerbeck/page/60/mode/2up)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-George_W._Mooney_49-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-George_W._Mooney_49-1) [George W. Mooney, Commentary on Apollonius: Argonautica](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0068%3Atext%3Dcomm%3Abook%3D4%3Acommline%3D267)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Z., T. (1928). ["Il-Belt (Valletta)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160417234107/http://melitensiawth.com/incoming/Index/Il-Malti/Il-Malti.%20004%281928%292/01.pdf) (PDF). *Il-Malti* (in Maltese). **2** (1) (2 ed.). Il-Ghaqda tal-Kittieba tal-Malti: 35. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-AncientCivils_51-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-AncientCivils_51-1) Dallmayr, Fred; Akif Kayapınar, M.; Yaylacı, İsmail (24 September 2014), [*Civilizations and World Order*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5QeqBAAAQBAJ&q=misr+means+civilization&pg=PA87), Lexington Books, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780739186077](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739186077), retrieved 31 July 2024

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** The ending of the Hebrew form is either a [dual](/source/Dual_(grammatical_number)) or an ending identical to the dual in form (perhaps a [locative](/source/Locative)), and this has sometimes been taken as referring to the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, the application of the (possibly) "dual" ending to some toponyms and other words, a development peculiar to Hebrew, does not in fact imply any "two-ness" about the place. The ending is found, for example, in the Hebrew words for such single entities as "water" ("מַיִם"), "noon" ("צָהֳרַיִם"), "sky/heaven" ("שָׁמַיִם"), and in the *[qere](/source/Qere_and_Ketiv)* – but not the original "ketiv" – of "Jerusalem" ("ירושל[י]ם"). It should also be noted that the dual ending – which may or may not be what the *-áyim* in "Mitzráyim" actually represents – was available to other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, but was not applied to Egypt. See *inter alia* Aaron Demsky ("Hebrew Names in the Dual Form and the Toponym Yerushalayim" in Demsky (ed.) *These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics*, Vol. 3 (Ramat Gan, 2002), pp. 11–20), [Page 128](https://books.google.com/books?id=p1AMBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA128) in Hurvitz, Avi (2014). "List of Abbreviations and Sigla". *A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew*. pp. 18–243. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004266438_004](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004266438_004). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-26643-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26643-8). and Na'aman, Nadav (31 December 2008). "Shaaraim – The Gateway To The Kingdom Of Judah". *The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures*. **8**. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5508/jhs.2008.v8.a24](https://doi.org/10.5508%2Fjhs.2008.v8.a24).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Izre'el, Shlomo (1984). "On the So-Called Ventive Morpheme in the Akkadian Texts of Amurru". *Ugarit-Forschungen*. **16**: 83–92.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-akkadian_54-0)** Black, Jeremy A.; George, Andrew; Postgate, J.N. (2000). [*A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&pg=PA212). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-447-04264-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04264-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** As in inscriptions such as the [Rassam cylinder](/source/Rassam_cylinder) of [Ashurbanipal](/source/Ashurbanipal). For transcription, the word being written Mu-s,ur [\[1\]](https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P421807) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200613113247/https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P421807) 13 June 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** [Masr and Egypt: A Tale of Two Extremes](https://www.milleworld.com/masr-and-egypt-a-tale-of-two-extremes/)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. *The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings*. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** ["The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BCE Neolithic"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090214084636/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC). The British Museum. 2005. Archived from [the original](http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC) on 14 February 2009. Retrieved 21 August 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). [*The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt*](https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/69). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. [69](https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/69). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-280458-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280458-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** ["The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml). BBC. 17 February 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20111117133705/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml) from the original on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** ["The Kushite Conquest of Egypt"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110201014554/http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm). Ancientsudan.org. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). [*The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt*](https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/383). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. [383](https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/383). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-280458-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280458-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** Jones, Prudence J. (2006). [*Cleopatra: A Sourcebook*](https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. [14](https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone/page/14). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0806137414](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806137414). They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Bowman, Alan K (1996). *Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642* (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 25–26. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-520-20531-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20531-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Stanwick, Paul Edmond (2003). *Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs*. Austin: [University of Texas Press](/source/University_of_Texas_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-292-77772-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-77772-8).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** ["Ancient Egypt - Roman, Byzantine, 30 BCE-642 CE"](https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt/Roman-and-Byzantine-Egypt-30-bce-642-ce). *www.britannica.com*. 31 March 2025. Retrieved 26 April 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Bowman, Alan (2011). "Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt". *Settlement, Urbanization, and Population*. pp. 317–358. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199602353.003.0011](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199602353.003.0011). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-960235-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960235-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pop_68-0)** Janzen, Mark (2017). ["Ancient Egypt Population Estimates: Slaves and Citizens"](https://thetorah.com/ancient-egypt-population-estimates-slaves-and-citizens/). *TheTorah.com*. Retrieved 18 August 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-georgetown_69-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-georgetown_69-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-georgetown_69-2) ["Egypt"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt). [Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs](/source/Berkley_Center_for_Religion%2C_Peace%2C_and_World_Affairs). Archived from [the original](http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt) on 20 December 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** Kamil, Jill. *Coptic Egypt: History and Guide*. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Abu-Lughod_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Abu-Lughod_71-1) [Abu-Lughod, Janet L.](/source/Janet_Abu-Lughod) (1991) [1989]. ["The Mideast Heartland"](https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&pg=PA244). [*Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350*](https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. [243–244](https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-506774-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506774-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** ["Egypt – Major Cities"](http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm). Countrystudies.us. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130117011718/http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm) from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** ["Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows"](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm). *ScienceDaily*. 22 November 2006. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013900/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm) from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Nejla_M._Abu_Izzeddin_1973,_p_2_74-0)** Izzeddin, Nejla M. Abu (1981). *Nasser of the Arabs: an Arab assessment*. Third World Centre for Research and Publishing. p. 2. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-86199-012-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86199-012-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-auto_75-0)** Baten, Jörg (2016). *A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present*. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-50718-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-50718-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, *Nasser of the Arabs*, p. 2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, *Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981*. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p. 11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, *Historical Dictionary of Egypt*. Metuchen, NJ; 1984; Scarecrow. p. 17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** Jankowski, James. *Egypt, A Short History*. p. 111.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** ["Treaty of Lausanne – World War I Document Archive"](https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne). *wwi.lib.byu.edu*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180613183950/https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne) from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-jankowski-112_81-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-jankowski-112_81-1) Jankowski, James. *Egypt, A Short History*. p. 112.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ModernSudan_82-0)** Collins, Robert O.; Collins, Professor of History Robert O. (29 May 2008). [*A History of Modern Sudan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-zpShVWIxwIC&q=%22Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium+Agreement%22+%221899%22&pg=PA33). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-85820-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85820-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175515/https://books.google.com/books?id=-zpShVWIxwIC&q=%22Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium+Agreement%22+%221899%22&pg=PA33) from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 10 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Britro_83-0)** ["British troops in Egypt"](https://www.britishmilitaryhistory.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/124/2020/07/British-Troops-Egypt-History-Personnel.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 29 July 2025.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-423)** ["Al-Ahly – master of the world"](http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/11/al-ahly-master-world/). *Daily News Egypt*. 11 December 2014. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141211115406/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/11/al-ahly-master-world/) from the original on 11 December 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-424)** ["Mo Salah's late penalty gives Egypt first World Cup qualification since 1990"](https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/08/world-cup-round-up-egypt-poland-qualify). *The Guardian*. 8 October 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171206052043/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/08/world-cup-round-up-egypt-poland-qualify) from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-425)** ["1950 World Championship for Men"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121113212042/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2902/_/1950_FIBA_World_Championship_for_Men/index.html). FIBA. 9 June 2012. Archived from [the original](https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2902/_/1950_FIBA_World_Championship_for_Men/index.html) on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-426)** ["Egypt – 1952 Olympic Games; Tournament for Men"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120811212844/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/team/p/sid/2933/tid/276/_/1952_Olympic_Games_Tournament_for_Men/index.html). FIBA. 9 June 2012. Archived from [the original](https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/team/p/sid/2933/tid/276/_/1952_Olympic_Games_Tournament_for_Men/index.html) on 11 August 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012.

## External links

[Library resources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library) about
 **Egypt**

- [Resources in your library](https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Egypt)

- [Resources in other libraries](https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Egypt&library=0CHOOSE0)

- [Key Development Forecasts for Egypt](https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=EG) from [International Futures](/source/International_Futures)

### Government

- [Information Portal](https://www.eip.gov.eg/) – Official Egypt Information Portal

- [Information and Decision](http://www.idsc.gov.eg/) – Egypt Information and Decision Support Center

- [Information Services](https://www.sis.gov.eg/) – official website of Egypt State Information Services

- [Presidency](https://www.presidency.eg/en/) – official website of the president of Egypt

- [Prime Minister](https://www.cabinet.gov.eg/) – official website of the prime minister of Egypt

- [House of Representatives](http://www.parliament.gov.eg) – official website of Egypt House of Representatives

- [Senate](https://senate.eg) – official website of the Senate of Egypt

- [Supreme Constitutional Court](https://sccourt.gov.eg) – official website of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt

- [Mobilization and Statistics](https://www.capmas.gov.eg) – official website of Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics

### History

- ["History"](https://sis.gov.eg/en/egypt/history/egypts-history/) – Egyptian history at Egypt Information Portal

- ["Description de l'Egypte"](https://descegy.bibalex.org/en) – Ancient, modern and natural history of Egypt at The [Bibliotheca Alexandrina](/source/Bibliotheca_Alexandrina)

- ["Modern Egypt"](https://modernegypt.bibalex.org/) – website from the Bibliotheca Alexandrina

### Tourism

- [Experience Egypt](https://www.experienceegypt.eg/) – Egypt's official tourism portal

### Maps

- [Wikimedia Atlas of Egypt](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_Egypt)

- Geographic data related to [Egypt](https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/1473947) at [OpenStreetMap](/source/OpenStreetMap)

v t e Egypt topics History Chronology Prehistoric Ancient topics Achaemenid 27th Dynasty 31st Dynasty Ptolemaic Battle of Actium Lighthouse of Alexandria Roman Diocese of Egypt Library of Alexandria Christian Sassanid Muslim Rashidun Caliphate Fustat Islamization Tulunid dynasty Ikhshidid dynasty Fatimid Caliphate Crusader invasions Ayyubid dynasty Mamluk Sultanate Mamluk Ottoman Ottoman Egypt Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt Muhammad Ali dynasty Nahda Khedivate Egyptian–Ethiopian War Urabi revolt Modern French occupation Revolt of Cairo British occupation 1919 revolution Sultanate World War II Kingdom 1948 Arab–Israeli War Republic Nasser era 1952 Egyptian revolution Land reform Suez Crisis United Arab Republic Six-Day War Sadat era Yom Kippur War Egyptian–Libyan War Assassination of Anwar Sadat Mubarak era 2010s Crisis 2011 Egyptian revolution 2013 Rabaa massacre By topic Anarchism Capital Cigarette industry Constitution Copts Genetic Jews Muslim Brotherhood 1928–1938 1939–1954 1954–present Parliament Population Postal Saladin Timekeeping devices By city Alexandria Cairo Port Said Geography Cities Climate Earthquakes Environmental issues Fossils Geology Halfaya Pass Islands Lakes Mount Sinai Nile Delta Northern coast Oases Qattara Depression Red Sea Riviera Rivers Nile Sinai Peninsula Suez Canal Towns and villages Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Governorates Civil Code Corruption Conscription Constitution Elections Foreign relations Missions Islamic extremism Judiciary Law enforcement Massacres Military Supreme Council Nationality law Parliament Passport Political parties President list Prime Minister list Proposed new capital Refugees of the Syrian civil war Terrorism Terrorism and tourism Twin towns and sister cities Economy Agriculture Banking National Bank Companies Economic regions Egyptian stock exchange Egyptian pound Energy Entrepreneurship policies Fishing Impact on the environment Lighthouses Military industry Mining Mines Nuclear program Power stations Aswan Dam Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces Tallest buildings Telecommunications Internet Tourism Cultural tourism Transport Airlines Airports Railway stations Water supply and sanitation Water resources management Society General Abortion Animal welfare Billionaires Cannabis Capital punishment Censuses Corruption Crime Human trafficking Mass sexual assault Rape Demographics Diaspora Education Academic grading Law schools Medical schools Schools Universities Families Abaza family Feminism Gender inequality Health Healthcare Hospitals Housing Human rights Freedom of religion LGBT rights International rankings Languages Egyptian Arabic Saʽidi Arabic Sign Language Liberalism Literature Prostitution Religion Baháʼí Blasphemy law Christianity Catholic dioceses Coptic Churches Hinduism Identification card controversy Irreligion Islam Ahmadiyya Mosques Niqāb Judaism Synagogues Scientology Smoking Units of measurement Vehicle registration plates Waste management Women Culture Architecture Art (ancient) Art (contemporary) Botanical gardens Castles Cinema Clothing in ancient Egypt Dance in ancient Egypt Belly dance Almah Raqs sharqi Baladi Tahtib Tanoura Zaffa Cuisine Coat of arms Cuisine Films Beer Wine National symbols Flag list regions Football Football clubs Football stadiums Egyptians Mass media Magazines Newspapers Radio TV Museums Music Mythology National anthem Sport Olympics Public holidays World Heritage Sites Category Portal WikiProject Commons

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[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals):
- [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Egypt)
- [Middle East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Middle_East)
- [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Africa)
- [Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Asia)
- [Countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Countries)

**Egypt** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects):

- [**Media**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1) from Commons
- [**Quotations**](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Egypt) from Wikiquote
- [**Travel guides**](https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Egypt) from Wikivoyage

Authority control databases International ISNI 2 VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France 2 3 BnF data 2 3 Japan Czech Republic Spain Portugal Norway Israel Croatia Geographic MusicBrainz area Artists KulturNav People Trove UK Parliament Other IdRef Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine 2 İslâm Ansiklopedisi Yale LUX

[26°N 30°E / 26°N 30°E / 26; 30](https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Egypt&params=26_N_30_E_dim:1000km_type:country_region:EG)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.