# Ecology

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Ecology
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Ecology.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology
> Source revision: 1356317998
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Study of organisms and their environment

For other uses, see [Ecology (disambiguation)](/source/Ecology_(disambiguation)). Not to be confused with [ethology](/source/Ethology), [ethnology](/source/Ethnology), [etiology](/source/Etiology), or [deep ecology](/source/Deep_ecology).

Ecology Ecology addresses the full scale of life, from tiny bacteria to processes that span the entire planet. Ecologists study many diverse and complex relations among species, such as predation and pollination. The diversity of life is organized into different habitats, from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems.

Part of a series on Biology Index Outline Glossary History (timeline) Key components Cell theory Ecosystem Evolution Phylogeny Properties of life Adaptation Energy processing Growth Order Regulation Reproduction Death Response to environment Groups of life Archaea Bacteria Eukaryotes (Animals, Fungi, Land plants, Protists) Branches Abiogenesis Aerobiology Agronomy Agrostology Anatomy Anthropogeny Anthropology Astrobiology Bacteriology Biochemistry Biogeography Biogeology Bioinformatics Biological engineering Biomathematics Biomechanics Biophysics Biosemiotics Biostatistics Biotechnology Botany Cell biology Cellular microbiology Chemical biology Chronobiology Cognitive biology Comparative biology Computational biology Conservation biology Cryobiology Cytogenetics Dendrology Developmental biology Ecological genetics Ecology Embryology Epidemiology Epigenetics Evolutionary biology Freshwater biology Generative biology Genetics Genomics Geobiology Gerontology Herpetology Histology Human biology Ichthyology Immunology Lipidology Mammalogy Marine biology Microbiology Molecular biology Mycology Neontology Neuroscience Nutrition Ornithology Osteology Paleontology Parasitology Pathology Pharmacology Photobiology Phycology Phylogenetics Physiology Pomology Primatology Proteomics Protistology Quantum biology Relational biology Reproductive biology Sociobiology Spatial biology Structural biology Synthetic biology Systematics Systems biology Taxonomy Teratology Toxicology Virology Virophysics Welfare biology Xenobiology Zoology Research Biologist (list) List of biology awards List of journals List of research methods List of unsolved problems Applications Agricultural science Biomedical sciences Health technology Pharming Biology portal Category v t e

**Ecology** (from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) [οἶκος](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BF%E1%BC%B6%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek)*(*oîkos*)* 'house' and [-λογία](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek)*(*[-logía](/source/-logy)*)* 'study of')[A] is the [natural science](/source/Natural_science) of the relationships among living [organisms](/source/Organism) and their [environment](/source/Natural_environment). Ecology considers organisms at the individual, [population](/source/Population_(biology)), [community](/source/Community_(ecology)), [ecosystem](/source/Ecosystem), and [biosphere](/source/Biosphere) levels. Ecology overlaps with the closely related sciences of [biogeography](/source/Biogeography), [evolutionary biology](/source/Evolutionary_biology), [genetics](/source/Genetics), [ethology](/source/Ethology), and [natural history](/source/Natural_history).

Ecology is a branch of [biology](/source/Biology), and is the study of [abundance](/source/Abundance_(ecology)), [biomass](/source/Biomass_(ecology)), and distribution of organisms in the context of the environment. It encompasses life processes, interactions, and [adaptations](/source/Adaptation); movement of materials and [energy](/source/Energy) through living communities; [successional](/source/Ecological_succession) development of ecosystems; cooperation, competition, and predation within and between [species](/source/Species); and patterns of [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity) and its effect on ecosystem processes.

Ecology has practical applications in fields such as [conservation biology](/source/Conservation_biology), [wetland](/source/Wetland) management, [natural resource management](/source/Natural_resource_management), and [human ecology](/source/Human_ecology).

The term *ecology* ([German](/source/German_language): *Ökologie*) was coined in 1866 by the German scientist [Ernst Haeckel](/source/Ernst_Haeckel). The science of ecology as it is known today began with a group of American botanists in the 1890s.[1] [Evolutionary](/source/Evolution) concepts relating to adaptation and [natural selection](/source/Natural_selection) are cornerstones of modern [ecological theory](/source/Theoretical_ecology).

Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living ([abiotic](/source/Abiotic_component)) components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as [primary production](/source/Primary_production), [nutrient cycling](/source/Nutrient_cycling), and [niche construction](/source/Niche_construction), regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Ecosystems have [biophysical](/source/Biophysics) feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living ([biotic](/source/Biotic_component)) and abiotic components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and provide [ecosystem services](/source/Ecosystem_service) such as [biomass](/source/Biomass) production (food, fuel, fiber, and medicine), the regulation of [climate](/source/Climate), global [biogeochemical cycles](/source/Biogeochemical_cycle), [water filtration](/source/Water_filtration), [soil formation](/source/Soil_formation), [erosion control](/source/Erosion_control), flood protection, and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.

## Levels, scope, and scale of organization

Further information: [Outline of ecology](/source/Outline_of_ecology)

Ecosystems vary from tiny to vast. A single tree is of little consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem, but is critically relevant to organisms living in and on it.[2] Several generations of an [aphid](/source/Aphid) population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, supports diverse [bacterial](/source/Bacteria) communities.[3] The nature of connections in ecological communities cannot be explained by knowing the details of each species in isolation, because the emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem is studied as an integrated whole.[4]

The main subdisciplines of ecology, [population](/source/Population_ecology) (or [community](/source/Community_ecology)) ecology and [ecosystem ecology](/source/Ecosystem_ecology), differ in their contrasting paradigms. The former focuses on organisms' distribution and abundance, while the latter focuses on materials and energy fluxes.[5]

### Hierarchy

See also: [Biological organisation](/source/Biological_organisation)

To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a [hierarchy](/source/Biological_organisation), ranging in scale from (as far as ecology is concerned) [organisms](/source/Organism), to [populations](/source/Population_ecology), to [guilds](/source/Guild_(ecology)), to [communities](/source/Community_(ecology)), to [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem), to [biomes](/source/Biome), and up to the level of the [biosphere](/source/Biosphere).[6] This framework forms a [panarchy](/source/Panarchy_(ecology))[7] and exhibits [non-linear](/source/Non-linear) behaviors; this means that "effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small changes to critical variables, such as the number of [nitrogen fixers](/source/Nitrogen_fixation), can lead to disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties."[8]: 14

### Biodiversity

Main article: [Biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity)

Biodiversity of a [coral reef](/source/Coral_reef). [Corals](/source/Coral) adapt to and modify their environment by forming [calcium carbonate](/source/Calcium_carbonate) skeletons. This provides growing conditions for future generations and forms a habitat for many other species.[9]

Biodiversity (an abbreviation of "biological diversity") describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of [biological organization](/source/Biological_organisation). The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization.[10][11][12] Biodiversity includes [species diversity](/source/Species_diversity), [ecosystem diversity](/source/Ecosystem_diversity), and [genetic diversity](/source/Genetic_diversity) and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels.[11][13][14]

Biodiversity plays an important role in [ecosystem services](/source/Ecosystem_service) which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life.[12][15][16] It delivers ecosystem services across heterogeneous real-world landscapes, influenced by human management and environmental conditions.[17] Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity. [Natural capital](/source/Natural_capital) that supports populations is critical for maintaining [ecosystem services](/source/Ecosystem_services)[18][19] and species [migration](/source/Animal_migration) (e.g., riverine fish runs and avian insect control) has been implicated as one mechanism by which those service losses are experienced.[20] An understanding of biodiversity has practical applications for species and ecosystem-level conservation planners as they make management recommendations to consulting firms, governments, and industry.[21]

### Habitat

Main article: [Habitat](/source/Habitat)

[Long-tailed broadbill](/source/Long-tailed_broadbill) building its [nest](/source/Bird_nest)

The habitat of a species describes the environment over which it occurs and the type of community that is formed.[22] More specifically, "habitats can be defined as regions in environmental space that are composed of multiple dimensions, each representing a biotic or abiotic environmental variable; that is, any component or characteristic of the environment related directly (e.g. forage biomass and quality) or indirectly (e.g. elevation) to the use of a location by the animal."[23]: 745

### Niche

Main article: [Ecological niche](/source/Ecological_niche)

[Termite](/source/Termite) mounds with varied heights of chimneys regulate gas exchange, temperature and other environmental parameters that are needed to sustain the internal physiology of the entire colony.[24][25]

Definitions of niche date back to 1917.[26] In 1957, [G. Evelyn Hutchinson](/source/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson) introduced "the set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain stable population sizes."[26]: 519 The niche is a central concept in the ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into *fundamental* and *realized* niches. The fundamental niche is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to persist. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species persists.[26][27][28] The Hutchinsonian niche is defined more technically as a "[Euclidean](/source/Euclidean_space) [hyperspace](/source/N-dimensional_space) whose *dimensions* are defined as environmental variables and whose *size* is a function of the number of values that the environmental values may assume for which an organism has *positive fitness*."[29]: 71

### Niche construction

Main article: [Niche construction](/source/Niche_construction)

See also: [Ecosystem engineering](/source/Ecosystem_engineering)

Organisms are subject to environmental pressures, but they also modify their habitats. The [regulatory feedback](/source/Negative_feedback) between organisms and their environment can affect conditions from local (e.g., a [beaver](/source/Beaver) [pond](/source/Pond)) to global scales, over time and even after death, such as decaying logs or [silica](/source/Silica) skeleton deposits from marine organisms.[30] [Ecosystem engineering](/source/Ecosystem_engineering) is related to [niche construction](/source/Niche_construction), but the former relates only to the physical modifications of the habitat whereas the latter also considers the evolutionary implications of physical changes to the environment and feedback on natural selection. Ecosystem engineers are defined as: "organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats."[31]: 373

### Biome

Main article: [Biome](/source/Biome)

Biomes are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems, mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation.[32] There are different methods to define the continental boundaries of biomes dominated by different functional types of vegetative communities that are limited in distribution by climate, precipitation, weather, and other environmental variables. Biomes include [tropical rainforest](/source/Tropical_rainforest), [temperate broadleaf and mixed forest](/source/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forest), [temperate deciduous forest](/source/Temperate_deciduous_forest), [taiga](/source/Taiga), [tundra](/source/Tundra), [hot desert](/source/Hot_desert), and [polar desert](/source/Polar_desert).[33] Other researchers have recently categorized other biomes, such as the human and oceanic [microbiomes](/source/Microbiome). To a [microbe](/source/Microorganism), the human body is a habitat and a landscape.[34] Microbiomes were discovered largely through advances in [molecular genetics](/source/Molecular_genetics), which have revealed a hidden richness of microbial diversity on the planet. The oceanic microbiome plays a significant role in the ecological biogeochemistry of the planet's oceans.[35]

### Biosphere

Main article: [Biosphere](/source/Biosphere)

The largest scale of ecological organization is the biosphere: the total sum of ecosystems on the planet. [Ecological relationships](/source/Ecological_relationship) regulate the flux of energy, nutrients, and climate all the way up to the planetary scale. For example, the dynamic history of the planetary atmosphere's CO2 and O2 composition has been affected by the biogenic flux of gases coming from respiration and photosynthesis, with levels fluctuating over time in relation to the ecology and evolution of plants and animals.[36] Ecological theory has also been used to explain self-emergent regulatory phenomena at the planetary scale: for example, the [Gaia hypothesis](/source/Gaia_hypothesis) is an example of [holism](/source/Holism) applied in ecological theory.[37] The Gaia hypothesis states that there is an emergent [feedback loop](/source/Feedback_loop) generated by the [metabolism](/source/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology) of living organisms that maintains the core temperature of the Earth and atmospheric conditions within a narrow self-regulating range of tolerance.[38]

### Population ecology

Main article: [Population ecology](/source/Population_ecology)

Population ecology studies the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the wider environment.[39] A population consists of individuals of the same species that live, interact, and migrate through the same niche and habitat.[40]

A primary law of population ecology is the [Malthusian growth model](/source/Malthusian_growth_model)[41] which states, "a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains constant."[41]: 18 Simplified population [models](/source/Scientific_modelling) usually starts with four variables: death, birth, [immigration](/source/Immigration), and [emigration](/source/Emigration).

An example of an introductory population model describes a closed population, such as on an island, where immigration and emigration does not take place. Hypotheses are evaluated with reference to a null hypothesis which states that [random](/source/Random) processes create the observed data. In these island models, the rate of population change is described by:

- d ⁡ N ( t ) d ⁡ t = b N ( t ) − d N ( t ) = ( b − d ) N ( t ) = r N ( t ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=bN(t)-dN(t)=(b-d)N(t)=rN(t),}

where *N* is the total number of individuals in the population, *b* and *d* are the per capita rates of birth and death respectively, and *r* is the per capita rate of population change.[41][42]

Using these modeling techniques, Malthus' population principle of growth was later transformed into a model known as the [logistic equation](/source/Law_of_population_growth) by [Pierre Verhulst](/source/Pierre_Verhulst):

- d ⁡ N ( t ) d ⁡ t = r N ( t ) − α N ( t ) 2 = r N ( t ) ( K − N ( t ) K ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=rN(t)-\alpha N(t)^{2}=rN(t)\left({\frac {K-N(t)}{K}}\right),}

where *N(t)* is the number of individuals measured as [biomass](/source/Biomass_(ecology)) density as a function of time, *t*, *r* is the maximum per-capita rate of change commonly known as the intrinsic rate of growth, and α {\displaystyle \alpha } is the crowding coefficient, which represents the reduction in population growth rate per individual added. The formula states that the rate of change in population size ( d N ( t ) / d t {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t} ) will grow to approach equilibrium, where ( d N ( t ) / d t = 0 {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t=0} ), when the rates of increase and crowding are balanced, r / α {\displaystyle r/\alpha } . A common, analogous model fixes the equilibrium, r / α {\displaystyle r/\alpha } as *K*, which is known as the "carrying capacity."

Population ecology builds upon these introductory models to further understand demographic processes in real study populations. Commonly used types of data include [life history](/source/Biological_life_cycle), [fecundity](/source/Fecundity), and survivorship, and these are analyzed using mathematical techniques such as [matrix algebra](/source/Matrix_(mathematics)). The information is used for managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas.[42][43] In cases where basic models are insufficient, ecologists may adopt different kinds of statistical methods, such as the [Akaike information criterion](/source/Akaike_information_criterion),[44] or use models that can become mathematically complex as "several competing hypotheses are simultaneously confronted with the data."[45]

### Metapopulations and migration

Main article: [Metapopulation](/source/Metapopulation)

See also: [Animal migration](/source/Animal_migration)

The concept of metapopulations was defined in 1969[46] as "a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize".[47]: 105 Metapopulation ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in [conservation research](/source/Conservation_biology).[48] Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality,[49] and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms. Animal migration is set apart from other kinds of movement because it involves the seasonal departure and return of individuals from a habitat.[50] Migration is also a population-level phenomenon, as with the migration routes followed by plants as they occupied northern post-glacial environments. Plant ecologists use pollen records that accumulate and stratify in wetlands to reconstruct the timing of plant migration and dispersal relative to historic and contemporary climates. These migration routes involved an expansion of the range as plant populations expanded from one area to another. There is a larger taxonomy of movement, such as commuting, foraging, territorial behavior, stasis, and ranging. Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration because it involves the one-way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population.[51][52]

### Community ecology

Interspecific interactions such as [predation](/source/Predation) are a key aspect of [community ecology](/source/Community_ecology).

Main article: [Community ecology](/source/Community_ecology)

Community ecology examines how interactions among species and their environment affect the abundance, distribution and diversity of species within communities.

— Johnson & Stinchcomb (2007)[53]: 250

Community ecology is the study of the interactions among a collection of species that inhabit the same geographic area. Community ecologists study the determinants of patterns and processes for two or more interacting species. Research in community ecology might measure [species diversity](/source/Species_diversity) in grasslands in relation to soil fertility. It might also include the analysis of predator-prey dynamics, competition among similar plant species, or mutualistic interactions between crabs and corals.[53]: 250

### Ecosystem ecology

Main article: [Ecosystem ecology](/source/Ecosystem_ecology)

These ecosystems, as we may call them, are of the most various kinds and sizes. They form one category of the multitudinous physical systems of the universe, which range from the universe as a whole down to the atom.

— Tansley (1935)[54]: 299

A [riparian forest](/source/Riparian_forest) in the [White Mountains, New Hampshire](/source/White_Mountains_(New_Hampshire)) (US) is an example of [ecosystem ecology](/source/Ecosystem_ecology)

The underlying concept of an ecosystem can be traced back to 1864 in the published work of [George Perkins Marsh](/source/George_Perkins_Marsh) ("Man and Nature").[55][56] Ecosystems may be habitats within biomes that form an integrated whole and a dynamically responsive system having both physical and biological complexes. Ecosystem ecology is the science of determining the fluxes of materials (e.g. carbon, phosphorus) between different pools (e.g., tree biomass, soil organic material). Ecosystem ecologists attempt to determine the underlying causes of these fluxes. Research in ecosystem ecology might measure [primary production](/source/Primary_production) (g C/m^2) in a [wetland](/source/Wetland) in relation to decomposition and consumption rates (g C/m^2/y). This requires an understanding of the community connections between plants (i.e., primary producers) and the decomposers (e.g., [fungi](/source/Fungi) and bacteria).[57]

### Food webs

Main article: [Food web](/source/Food_web)

Generalized food web of waterbirds from [Chesapeake Bay](/source/Chesapeake_Bay)

A food web is the archetypal [ecological network](/source/Ecological_network). Plants capture [solar energy](/source/Solar_energy) and use it to synthesize [simple sugars](/source/Simple_sugars) during [photosynthesis](/source/Photosynthesis). As plants grow, they accumulate nutrients and are eaten by grazing [herbivores](/source/Herbivores), and the energy is transferred through a chain of organisms by consumption. The simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a basal [trophic species](/source/Trophic_species) to a top consumer is called the [food chain](/source/Food_chain). Food chains in an ecological community create a complex food web. Food webs are a type of [concept map](/source/Concept_map) used to illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows.[58][59][60]

### Trophic levels

Main article: [Trophic level](/source/Trophic_level)

A trophic pyramid (a) and a food-web (b) illustrating [ecological relationships](/source/Ecological_relationship) among creatures that are typical of a northern [boreal](/source/Boreal_ecosystem) terrestrial ecosystem. The trophic pyramid roughly represents the biomass (usually measured as total dry-weight) at each level. Plants generally have the greatest biomass. Names of trophic categories are shown to the right of the pyramid. Some ecosystems, such as many wetlands, do not organize as a strict pyramid, because aquatic plants are not as productive as long-lived terrestrial plants such as trees. Ecological trophic pyramids are typically one of three kinds: 1) pyramid of numbers, 2) pyramid of biomass, or 3) pyramid of energy.[39]: 598

A trophic level (from Greek *troph*, τροφή, trophē, meaning "food" or "feeding") is "a group of organisms acquiring a considerable majority of its energy from the lower adjacent level (according to [ecological pyramids](/source/Ecological_pyramid)) nearer the abiotic source."[61]: 383 Links in food webs primarily connect feeding relations or [trophism](/source/Trophism) among species. Biodiversity within ecosystems can be organized into trophic pyramids, in which the vertical dimension represents feeding relations that become further removed from the base of the food chain up toward top predators, and the horizontal dimension represents the [abundance](/source/Relative_species_abundance) or biomass at each level.[62] When the relative abundance or biomass of each species is sorted into its respective trophic level, they naturally sort into a 'pyramid of numbers'.[63]

Species are broadly categorized as [autotrophs](/source/Autotrophs) (or [primary producers](/source/Primary_producers)), [heterotrophs](/source/Heterotrophs) (or [consumers](/source/Consumer_(food_chain))), and [Detritivores](/source/Detritivore) (or [decomposers](/source/Decomposers)). Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food (production is greater than respiration) by photosynthesis or [chemosynthesis](/source/Chemosynthesis). Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and energy (respiration exceeds production).[39] Heterotrophs can be further sub-divided into different functional groups, including [primary consumers](/source/Primary_consumers) (strict herbivores), [secondary consumers](/source/Trophic_dynamics) ([carnivorous](/source/Carnivorous) predators that feed exclusively on herbivores), and tertiary consumers (predators that feed on a mix of herbivores and predators).[64] Omnivores do not fit neatly into a functional category because they eat both plant and animal tissues. It has been suggested that omnivores have a greater functional influence as predators because compared to herbivores, they are relatively inefficient at grazing.[65]

Trophic levels are part of the [holistic](/source/Holistic) or [complex systems](/source/Complex_systems) view of ecosystems.[66][67] Each trophic level contains unrelated species that are grouped together because they share common ecological functions, giving a macroscopic view of the system.[68] While the notion of trophic levels provides insight into energy flow and top-down control within food webs, it is troubled by the prevalence of omnivory in real ecosystems. This has led some ecologists to "reiterate that the notion that species clearly aggregate into discrete, homogeneous trophic levels is fiction."[69]: 815 Nonetheless, recent studies have shown that real trophic levels do exist, but "above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as a tangled web of omnivores."[70]: 612

### Keystone species

Main article: [Keystone species](/source/Keystone_species)

[Sea otters](/source/Sea_otter), an example of a keystone species

A keystone species is a species that is connected to a disproportionately large number of other species in the [food-web](/source/Food-web). Keystone species have lower levels of biomass in the trophic pyramid relative to the importance of their role. The many connections that a keystone species holds means that it maintains the organization and structure of entire communities. The loss of a keystone species results in a range of dramatic cascading effects (termed *trophic cascades*) that alters trophic dynamics, other food web connections, and can cause the extinction of other species.[71][72] The term keystone species was coined by Robert Paine in 1969 and is a reference to the [keystone](/source/Keystone_(architecture)) architectural feature as the removal of a keystone species can result in a community collapse just as the removal of the keystone in an arch can result in the arch's loss of stability.[73] [Sea otters](/source/Sea_otter) (*Enhydra lutris*) are commonly cited as an example because they limit the density of [sea urchins](/source/Sea_urchins) that feed on [kelp](/source/Kelp).[74] If sea otters are removed from the system, the urchins graze until the kelp beds disappear, and this has a dramatic effect on community structure.[75]

## Complexity

Main article: [Complexity](/source/Complexity)

Complexity is understood as a large computational effort needed to assemble numerous interacting parts. Global patterns of biological diversity are complex. This [biocomplexity](/source/Biocomplexity) stems from the interplay among ecological processes that influence patterns at different scales, such as transitional areas or [ecotones](/source/Ecotones) spanning landscapes. Complexity stems from the interplay among levels of biological organization as energy, and matter is integrated into larger units that superimpose onto the smaller parts.[76]: 209 Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain larger ones, as in Aristotle's expression "the sum is greater than the parts".[77][78][E] "Complexity in ecology is of at least six distinct types: spatial, temporal, structural, process, behavioral, and geometric."[79]: 3 From these principles, ecologists have identified [emergent](/source/Emergence) and [self-organizing](/source/Self-organization#Biology) phenomena that operate at different environmental scales of influence, ranging from molecular to planetary, and these require different explanations at each [integrative level](/source/Integrative_level).[38][80]

### Holism

Main article: [Holism](/source/Holism)

Holism is a critical part of the theory of ecology. Holism addresses the [biological organization](/source/Biological_organisation) of life that [self-organizes](/source/Systems_biology) into layers of emergent whole systems that function according to non-reducible properties. This means that higher-order patterns of a whole functional system, such as an [ecosystem](/source/Ecosystem), cannot be predicted or understood by a simple summation of the parts.[81] "New properties emerge because the components interact, not because the basic nature of the components is changed."[39]: 8

## Relation to evolution

Main article: [Evolutionary ecology](/source/Evolutionary_ecology)

Ecology and evolutionary biology are sister disciplines. [Natural selection](/source/Natural_selection), [life history](/source/Biological_life_cycle), [development](/source/Developmental_biology), [adaptation](/source/Adaptation), [populations](/source/Population_(biology)), and [inheritance](/source/Heredity) thread equally into both. In this framework, the analytical tools of ecologists and evolutionists overlap as they study life through [phylogenetics](/source/Phylogenetics) or [Linnaean taxonomy](/source/Linnaean_taxonomy).[82] There is no sharp boundary separating ecology from evolution, and they differ more in their areas of applied focus. Both explain properties and processes across different spatial or temporal scales of organization.[83][38] Ecologists study the abiotic and biotic factors that influence evolutionary processes,[84][85] and evolution can be rapid, occurring on ecological timescales as short as one generation.[86]

### Behavioural ecology

Main article: [Behavioural ecology](/source/Behavioural_ecology)

Social display and colour variation in differently adapted species of [chameleons](/source/Chameleons) (*Bradypodion* spp.). Chameleons change their skin colour to match their background as a behavioural defence mechanism and also use colour to communicate with other members of their species, such as dominant (left) versus submissive (right) patterns shown in the three species (A-C) above.[87]

All organisms have behaviours. Even plants express complex behaviour, including memory and communication.[88] Behavioural ecology is the study of an organism's behaviour in its environment and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Ethology is the study of observable movement or behaviour in animals. This could include investigations of motile [sperm](/source/Sperm) of plants, mobile [phytoplankton](/source/Phytoplankton), [zooplankton](/source/Zooplankton) swimming toward the female egg, the cultivation of fungi by [weevils](/source/Weevils), the mating dance of a [salamander](/source/Salamander), or social gatherings of [amoeba](/source/Amoeba).[89][90][91][92][93]

Adaptation is the central unifying concept in behavioural ecology.[94] Behaviours can be recorded as traits and inherited in much the same way that eye and hair colour can. Behaviours can evolve by means of natural selection as adaptive traits conferring functional utilities that increases reproductive fitness.[95][96]

### Cognitive ecology

Cognitive ecology integrates theory and observations from [evolutionary ecology](/source/Evolutionary_ecology) and [cognitive science](/source/Cognitive_science), to understand the effect of animal interaction with their habitat on their cognitive systems.[97] "Until recently, however, cognitive scientists have not paid sufficient attention to the fundamental fact that cognitive traits evolved under particular natural settings. With consideration of the selection pressure on cognition, cognitive ecology can contribute intellectual coherence to the multidisciplinary study of cognition."[98][99]

### Social ecology

Main article: [Social ecology (academic field)](/source/Social_ecology_(academic_field))

Social-ecological behaviours are notable in the [social insects](/source/Social_insects), [slime moulds](/source/Slime_moulds), [social spiders](/source/Social_spider), [human society](/source/Human_society), and [naked mole-rats](/source/Naked_mole-rat) where [eusocialism](/source/Eusocialism) has evolved. Social behaviours include reciprocally beneficial behaviours among kin and nest mates[91][96][100] and evolve from kin and group selection. [Kin selection](/source/Kin_selection) explains altruism through genetic relationships, whereby an altruistic behaviour leading to death is rewarded by the survival of genetic copies distributed among surviving relatives. The social insects, including [ants](/source/Ant), [bees](/source/Bee), and [wasps](/source/Wasp) are most famously studied for this type of relationship because the male drones are [clones](/source/Cloning) that share the same genetic make-up as every other male in the colony.[96] In contrast, [group selectionists](/source/Group_selection) find examples of altruism among non-genetic relatives and explain this through selection acting on the group; whereby, it becomes selectively advantageous for groups if their members express altruistic behaviours to one another. Groups with predominantly altruistic members survive better than groups with predominantly selfish members.[96][101]

### Coevolution

Main article: [Coevolution](/source/Coevolution)

[Bumblebees](/source/Bumblebee) and the [flowers](/source/Flower) they [pollinate](/source/Pollination) have coevolved so that both have become dependent on each other for survival.

**Parasitism:** A harvestman [arachnid](/source/Arachnid) being parasitized by [mites](/source/Mite). The harvestman is being consumed, while the mites benefit from traveling on and feeding off of their host.

Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a [host](/source/Host_(biology)) and an associate relationship. A host is any entity that harbours another that is called the associate.[102] Relationships [between species](/source/Interspecific_interaction) that are mutually or reciprocally beneficial are called [mutualisms](/source/Mutualisms). Examples of mutualism include [fungus-growing ants](/source/Fungus-growing_ants) employing agricultural symbiosis, bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the [fig wasp](/source/Fig_wasp) and [yucca moth](/source/Prodoxidae) pollination complex, [lichens](/source/Lichen) with fungi and photosynthetic [algae](/source/Algae), and [corals](/source/Coral) with photosynthetic algae.[103][104] If there is a physical connection between host and associate, the relationship is called [symbiosis](/source/Symbiosis). Approximately 60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship with [arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi](/source/Arbuscular_mycorrhizal_fungi) living in their roots forming an exchange network of carbohydrates for [mineral nutrients](/source/Nutrients).[105]

### Biogeography

Main article: [Biogeography](/source/Biogeography)

Biogeography is the comparative study of the geographic distribution of organisms and the corresponding evolution of their traits in space and time.[106] The *[Journal of Biogeography](/source/Journal_of_Biogeography)* was established in 1974.[107] Biogeography and ecology share many of their disciplinary roots. *[Island biogeography](/source/Island_biogeography)*, published by Robert MacArthur and [Edward O. Wilson](/source/Edward_O._Wilson) in 1967,[108] is one of the fundamentals of ecological theory.[109] Biogeography has a long history in the natural sciences concerning the spatial distribution of plants and animals. Ecology and evolution provide the explanatory context for biogeographical studies.[106] Biogeographical patterns result from ecological processes that influence range distributions, such as [migration](/source/Animal_migration) and [dispersal](/source/Biological_dispersal).[109] and from historical processes that split populations or species into different areas. The biogeographic processes that result in the natural splitting of species explain much of the modern distribution of the Earth's biota. The splitting of lineages in a species is called [vicariance biogeography](/source/Allopatric_speciation) and it is a sub-discipline of biogeography.[110] There are also practical applications in the field of biogeography concerning ecological systems and processes. For example, the range and distribution of biodiversity and invasive species responding to climate change is a serious concern and active area of research in the context of [global warming](/source/Global_warming).[111][112]

#### r/K selection theory

Main article: [r/K selection theory](/source/R%2FK_selection_theory)

r/K selection theory[D] is one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain [life-history evolution](/source/Life_history_theory). Its premise is that natural selection varies with [population density](/source/Population_densities). For example, when an island is first colonized, density of individuals is low. The initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available [resources](/source/Resource_(biology)) for rapid population growth. These early phases of [population growth](/source/Population_growth) experience *density-independent* forces of natural selection, which is called *r*-selection. As the population becomes more crowded, it approaches the island's carrying capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for fewer available resources. Under crowded conditions, the population experiences density-dependent forces of natural selection, called *K*-selection.[113] In the *r/K*-selection model, the first variable *r* is the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size and the second variable *K* is the carrying capacity of a population.[28]

### Molecular ecology

Main article: [Molecular ecology](/source/Molecular_ecology)

The relationship between ecology and genetic inheritance predates modern techniques for molecular analysis. Molecular ecological research became more feasible with the development of rapid and accessible genetic technologies, such as the [polymerase chain reaction (PCR)](/source/Polymerase_chain_reaction). The rise of molecular technologies and the influx of research questions into this new field resulted in the publication *[Molecular Ecology](/source/Molecular_Ecology)* in 1992.[114] [Molecular ecology](/source/Molecular_ecology) uses analytical techniques to study genes in an evolutionary and ecological context. In 1994, [John Avise](/source/John_Avise) played a leading role in this area of science with the publication of his book, *Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution*.[115]

## Human ecology

### A dual discipline

Main article: [Human ecology](/source/Human_ecology)

Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species man acquired significant power to alter the nature of his world.

— [Rachel Carson](/source/Rachel_Carson), "Silent Spring"[116]

Ecology is both a biological science and a human science.[39] Human ecology is an [interdisciplinary](/source/Interdisciplinary) investigation into the ecology of our species. "Human ecology may be defined: (1) from a bioecological standpoint as the study of man as the ecological dominant in plant and animal communities and systems; (2) from a bioecological standpoint as simply another animal affecting and being affected by his physical environment; and (3) as a human being, somehow different from animal life in general, interacting with physical and modified environments in a distinctive and creative way. A truly interdisciplinary human ecology will most likely address itself to all three."[117]: 3 The term was formally introduced in 1921, but many sociologists, geographers, psychologists, and other disciplines were interested in human relations to natural systems centuries prior, especially in the late 19th century.[117][118]

### Restoration Ecology

Main article: [Restoration ecology](/source/Restoration_ecology)

Ecosystem management is not just about science nor is it simply an extension of traditional resource management; it offers a fundamental reframing of how humans may work with nature.

— Grumbine (1994)[119]: 27

Ecology is an employed science of restoration, repairing disturbed sites through human intervention, in natural resource management, and in [environmental impact assessments](/source/Environmental_impact_assessment). Edward O. Wilson predicted in 1992 that the 21st century "will be the era of restoration in ecology".[120]

## Relation to the environment

Main article: [Natural environment](/source/Natural_environment)

The environment of ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes. It is dynamically interlinked and contains [resources](/source/Resource_(biology)) for organisms at any time throughout their life cycle.[39][121] Like ecology, the term environment has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of nature. Environment "includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation."[122]: 62 The physical environment is external to the level of biological organization under investigation, including [abiotic](/source/Abiotic) factors such as temperature, radiation, light, chemistry, [climate](/source/Climate) and geology. The biotic environment includes genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species ([conspecifics](/source/Conspecific)) and other species that share a habitat.[123]

### Disturbance and resilience

Main article: [Resilience (ecology)](/source/Resilience_(ecology))

A disturbance is any process that changes or removes biomass from a community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or predation.[124] Disturbances are both the cause and product of natural fluctuations within an ecological community.[125][124][126][127] Biodiversity can protect ecosystems from disturbances.[127]

### Metabolism and the early atmosphere

Main article: [Early atmosphere](/source/Early_atmosphere)

Metabolism – the rate at which energy and material resources are taken up from the environment, transformed within an organism, and allocated to maintenance, growth and reproduction – is a fundamental physiological trait.

— Ernest et al.[128]: 991

The Earth was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago.[129] As it cooled and a crust and oceans formed, its atmosphere transformed from being dominated by [hydrogen](/source/Hydrogen) to one composed mostly of [methane](/source/Methane) and [ammonia](/source/Ammonia). Over the next billion years, the metabolic activity of life transformed the atmosphere into a mixture of [carbon dioxide](/source/Carbon_dioxide), [nitrogen](/source/Nitrogen), and water vapor. These gases changed the way that light from the sun hit the Earth's surface and greenhouse effects trapped heat. There were untapped sources of free energy within the mixture of [reducing and oxidizing](/source/Redox) gasses that set the stage for primitive ecosystems to evolve and, in turn, the atmosphere also evolved.[130]

The [leaf](/source/Leaf) is the primary site of [photosynthesis](/source/Photosynthesis) in many higher plants.

Throughout history, the Earth's atmosphere and [biogeochemical cycles](/source/Biogeochemical_cycles) have been in a [dynamic equilibrium](/source/Dynamic_equilibrium) with planetary ecosystems. The history is characterized by periods of significant transformation followed by millions of years of stability.[131] The evolution of the earliest organisms, likely anaerobic [methanogen](/source/Methanogen) microbes, started the process by converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane (4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O). [Anoxygenic photosynthesis](/source/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis) reduced hydrogen concentrations and increased [atmospheric methane](/source/Atmospheric_methane), by converting [hydrogen sulfide](/source/Hydrogen_sulfide) into water or other sulfur compounds (for example, 2H2S + CO2 + h*v* → CH2O + H2O + 2S). Early forms of [fermentation](/source/Fermentation_(biochemistry)) also increased levels of atmospheric methane. The transition to an oxygen-dominant atmosphere (the *[Great Oxidation](/source/Great_Oxygenation_Event)*) did not begin until approximately 2.4–2.3 billion years ago, but photosynthetic processes started 0.3–1 billion years prior.[131][132]

### Radiation: heat, temperature and light

The biology of life operates within a certain range of temperatures. Heat is a form of energy that regulates temperature. Heat affects growth rates, activity, behaviour, and [primary production](/source/Primary_production). Temperature is largely dependent on the incidence of [solar radiation](/source/Solar_radiation). The latitudinal and longitudinal spatial variation of [temperature](/source/Temperature) greatly affects climates and consequently the distribution of [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity) and levels of primary production in different ecosystems or biomes across the planet. Heat and temperature relate importantly to metabolic activity. [Poikilotherms](/source/Poikilotherms) have a body temperature largely dependent on the temperature of the external environment. In contrast, [homeotherms](/source/Homeotherms) regulate their internal body temperature by expending [metabolic energy](/source/Food_energy).[84][85][133] There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological [energy budgets](/source/Energy_budget). Sunlight is the primary input of energy into the planet's ecosystems. Light is composed of [electromagnetic energy](/source/Electromagnetic_energy) of different [wavelengths](/source/Wavelength). [Radiant energy](/source/Radiant_energy) from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life, and also acts as a catalyst for [genetic mutation](/source/Genetic_mutation).[84][85][133] Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy through [photosynthesis](/source/Photosynthesis). Organisms capable of assimilating energy by photosynthesis or through inorganic fixation of [H2S](/source/Hydrogen_sulfide) are [autotrophs](/source/Autotrophs). Autotrophs—responsible for primary production—assimilate light energy which becomes metabolically stored as [potential energy](/source/Potential_energy) in the form of biochemical [enthalpic](/source/Enthalpy) bonds.[84][85][133]

### Physical environments

#### Water

Main article: [Aquatic ecosystem](/source/Aquatic_ecosystem)

Wetland conditions such as shallow water, high plant productivity, and anaerobic substrates provide a suitable environment for important physical, biological, and chemical processes. Because of these processes, wetlands play a vital role in global nutrient and element cycles.

— Cronk & Fennessy (2001)[134]: 29

Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air. When soils are flooded, they quickly lose oxygen, becoming [hypoxic](/source/Hypoxia_(environmental)) (an environment with O2 concentration below 2 mg/liter) and eventually completely [anoxic](/source/Anoxic_waters) where [anaerobic bacteria](/source/Anaerobic_bacteria) thrive among the roots. Water influences the intensity and [spectral composition](/source/Electromagnetic_spectrum) of light as it reflects off the water surface and submerged particles.[134] Salt water plants ([halophytes](/source/Halophyte)) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and [osmoregulating](/source/Osmoregulation) their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in [estuarine](/source/Estuary), [brackish](/source/Brackish), or [oceanic](/source/Ocean) environments.[134] The physiology of fish is adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation. Their gills form [electrochemical gradients](/source/Electrochemical_gradient) that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.[135]

#### Gravity

The shape and energy of the land are significantly affected by gravitational forces. These govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of biomes across the Earth. On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues for plant and fungal growth ([gravitropism](/source/Gravitropism)), orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the [biomechanics](/source/Biomechanics) and size of animals.[84] Ecological traits, such as allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves.[136] The [cardiovascular systems](/source/Circulatory_system) of animals are functionally adapted to overcome the pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size, shape), their behaviour (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).[137]

#### Pressure

Climatic and [osmotic pressure](/source/Osmotic_pressure) places [physiological](/source/Physiological) constraints on organisms, especially those that fly and respire at high altitudes, or dive to deep ocean depths.[138] These constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere, as organisms are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water pressure differences.[84] For example, oxygen levels decrease with decreasing pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes.[139] [Water transportation](/source/Xylem) by plants is affected by osmotic pressure gradients.[140][141][142] [Water pressure](/source/Fluid_pressure) in the depths of oceans requires that organisms adapt to these conditions. For example, diving animals such as [whales](/source/Whale), [dolphins](/source/Dolphin), and [seals](/source/Seal_(animal)) are adapted to deal with changes in sound due to water pressure differences.[143]

#### Wind and turbulence

The architecture of the [inflorescence](/source/Inflorescence) in grasses is subject to the physical pressures of wind and shaped by the forces of natural selection facilitating wind-pollination ([anemophily](/source/Anemophily)).[144][145]

[Turbulent forces](/source/Turbulent_forces) in air and water affect the environment and ecosystem distribution, form, and dynamics. On a planetary scale, ecosystems are affected by circulation patterns in the global [trade winds](/source/Trade_winds). Wind power and the turbulent forces it creates can influence heat, nutrient, and biochemical profiles of ecosystems.[84] For example, wind running over the surface of a lake creates turbulence, mixing the [water column](/source/Water_column) and influencing the environmental profile to create [thermally layered zones](/source/Thermally_layered_zones), affecting how fish, algae, and other parts of the [aquatic ecosystem](/source/Aquatic_ecosystem) are structured.[146][147]

Wind speed and turbulence influence [evapotranspiration rates](/source/Evapotranspiration_rates) and energy budgets in plants and animals.[134][148] Wind speed, temperature and moisture content vary as winds travel across different land features and elevations. For example, the [westerlies](/source/Westerlies) come into contact with the [coastal](/source/Coastal) and interior mountains of western North America to produce a [rain shadow](/source/Rain_shadow) on the leeward side of the mountain. The air expands and moisture condenses as the winds increase in elevation; this is called [orographic lift](/source/Orographic_lift) and can cause precipitation. This environmental process produces spatial divisions in biodiversity, as species adapted to wetter conditions are range-restricted to the coastal mountain valleys and unable to migrate across the [xeric](/source/Xeric) ecosystems to intermix with sister lineages that are segregated to the interior mountain systems.[149][150]

#### Fire

Main article: [Fire ecology](/source/Fire_ecology)

Forest fires modify the land by leaving behind an environmental mosaic that diversifies the landscape into different [seral](/source/Seral_community) stages and habitats of varied quality (left). Some species are adapted to forest fires, such as pine trees that open their cones only after fire exposure (right).

Plants convert carbon dioxide into biomass and emit oxygen into the atmosphere. By approximately 350 million years ago (the end of the [Devonian period](/source/Devonian_period)), photosynthesis had brought the concentration of atmospheric oxygen above 17%, which allowed combustion to occur.[151] Fire releases CO2 and converts fuel into ash and tar. Fire is a significant ecological parameter that raises many issues pertaining to its control and suppression.[152] While the issue of fire in relation to ecology and plants has been recognized for a long time,[153] [Charles Cooper](/source/Charles_F._Cooper_(ecologist)) brought attention to the issue of forest fires in relation to the ecology of forest fire suppression and management in the 1960s.[154][155]

#### Soils

Main article: [Soil ecology](/source/Soil_ecology)

Soil is the living top layer of mineral and organic dirt that covers the surface of the planet. It is the chief organizing centre of most ecosystem functions, and it is of critical importance in agricultural science and ecology. The [decomposition](/source/Decomposition) of dead organic matter (for example, leaves on the forest floor), results in soils containing [minerals](/source/Minerals) and nutrients that feed into plant production. The whole of the planet's soil ecosystems is called the [pedosphere](/source/Pedosphere) where a large biomass of the Earth's biodiversity organizes into trophic levels. Invertebrates that feed and shred larger leaves, for example, create smaller bits for smaller organisms in the feeding chain. Collectively, these organisms are the [detritivores](/source/Detritivore) that regulate soil formation.[156][157] Soils form composite phenotypes where inorganic matter is enveloped into the physiology of a whole community. As organisms feed and migrate through soils they physically displace materials, an ecological process called [bioturbation](/source/Bioturbation). This aerates soils and stimulates heterotrophic growth and production. Soil [microorganisms](/source/Microorganisms) are influenced by and are fed back into the trophic dynamics of the ecosystem.[158][159]

#### Biogeochemistry and climate

Main article: [Biogeochemistry](/source/Biogeochemistry)

Ecologists study nutrient budgets to understand how these materials are regulated, flow, and [recycled](/source/Recycling_(ecological)) through the environment.[84][85][133] This research has led to an understanding that there is global feedback between ecosystems and the physical parameters of this planet, including minerals, soil, pH, ions, water, and atmospheric gases. Six major elements ([hydrogen](/source/Hydrogen), [carbon](/source/Carbon), [nitrogen](/source/Nitrogen), [oxygen](/source/Oxygen), [sulfur](/source/Sulfur), and [phosphorus](/source/Phosphorus); H, C, N, O, S, and P) form the constitution of all biological macromolecules and feed into the Earth's geochemical processes. From the smallest scale of biology, the combined effect of billions of ecological processes amplify and regulate the [biogeochemical cycles](/source/Biogeochemical_cycle) of the Earth.[160]

## History

Main article: [History of ecology](/source/History_of_ecology)

### Early beginnings

By ecology, we mean the whole science of the relations of the organism to the environment including, in the broad sense, all the "conditions of existence". Thus, the theory of evolution explains the housekeeping relations of organisms mechanistically as the necessary consequences of effectual causes; and so forms the [monistic](/source/Monism) groundwork of ecology.

— Ernst Haeckel (1866)[161]: 140 [B]

Ecology has a complex origin.[162] Ancient Greek philosophers such as [Hippocrates](/source/Hippocrates) and [Aristotle](/source/Aristotle) recorded observations on natural history. However, they saw species as unchanging, while varieties were seen as aberrations. Modern ecology sees varieties as the real phenomena, leading to adaptation by [natural selection](/source/Natural_selection).[39][163][164] Ecological concepts such as a balance and regulation in nature can be traced to [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus) (died *c*. 425 BC), who described [mutualism](/source/Mutualism_(biology)) in his observation of "natural dentistry". Basking [Nile crocodiles](/source/Nile_crocodile), he noted, opened their mouths to give [sandpipers](/source/Sandpiper) safe access to pluck [leeches](/source/Leech) out, giving nutrition to the sandpiper and oral hygiene for the crocodile.[162] Aristotle and his student [Theophrastus](/source/Theophrastus) observed plant and animal migrations, biogeography, physiology, and their behavior, giving an early analogue to the concept of an ecological niche.[165][166]

Nowhere can one see more clearly illustrated what may be called the sensibility of such an organic complex, – expressed by the fact that whatever affects any species belonging to it, must speedily have its influence of some sort upon the whole assemblage. He will thus be made to see the impossibility of studying any form completely, out of relation to the other forms, – the necessity for taking a comprehensive survey of the whole as a condition to a satisfactory understanding of any part.

— Stephen Forbes (1887)[167]

 [Ernst Haeckel](/source/Ernst_Haeckel) (left) and [Eugenius Warming](/source/Eugenius_Warming) (right), two founders of ecology

Ecological concepts such as food chains, population regulation, and productivity were developed in the 1700s, through the works of microscopist [Antonie van Leeuwenhoek](/source/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek) (1632–1723) and botanist [Richard Bradley](/source/Richard_Bradley_(botanist)) (1688?–1732).[39] Biogeographer [Alexander von Humboldt](/source/Alexander_von_Humboldt) (1769–1859) recognized ecological gradients, where species are replaced or altered in form along [environmental gradients](/source/Environmental_gradient). Humboldt drew inspiration from [Isaac Newton](/source/Isaac_Newton), as he developed a form of "terrestrial physics".[168][169][170] Natural historians, such as Humboldt, [James Hutton](/source/James_Hutton), and [Jean-Baptiste Lamarck](/source/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck) laid the foundations of ecology.[171] The term "ecology" ([German](/source/German_language): *Oekologie, Ökologie*) was coined by [Ernst Haeckel](/source/Ernst_Haeckel) in his book *Generelle Morphologie der Organismen* (1866).[172] Haeckel was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a professor of comparative anatomy.[161][173]

Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called the economy of nature.[174] He influenced Charles Darwin, who adopted Linnaeus' phrase in *[The Origin of Species](/source/The_Origin_of_Species)*.[161] Linnaeus was the first to frame the [balance of nature](/source/Balance_of_nature) as a testable hypothesis.[175]

The layout of the first ecological experiment, carried out in a grass garden at [Woburn Abbey](/source/Woburn_Abbey) in 1816, was noted by Charles Darwin in *The Origin of Species*. The experiment studied the performance of different mixtures of species planted in different kinds of soils.[176][177]

### Since 1900

Modern ecology first attracted substantial scientific attention toward the end of the 19th century. [Ellen Swallow Richards](/source/Ellen_Swallow_Richards) adopted the term "[oekology](/source/Oekology)" in the U.S. as early as 1892.[178] In the early 20th century, ecology transitioned from description to a more [analytical form](/source/Scientific_method) of *scientific natural history*.[168][171][179] [Frederic Clements](/source/Frederic_Clements) published the first American ecology book, *Research Methods in Ecology* in 1905,[180] presenting the idea of plant communities as a [superorganism](/source/Superorganism). This launched a debate between ecological holism and individualism that lasted until the 1970s.[181]

In 1942, [Raymond Lindeman](/source/Raymond_Lindeman) wrote a landmark paper on the [trophic dynamics](/source/Trophic_dynamics#Trophic_dynamics_and_multitrophic_interactions) of ecology. Trophic dynamics became the foundation for much work on energy and material flow through ecosystems. [Robert MacArthur](/source/Robert_MacArthur) advanced mathematical theory, predictions, and tests in ecology in the 1950s.[171][182][183]

This whole chain of poisoning, then, seems to rest on a base of minute plants which must have been the original concentrators. But what of the opposite end of the food chain—the human being who, in probable ignorance of all this sequence of events, has rigged his fishing tackle, caught a string of fish from the waters of Clear Lake, and taken them home to fry for his supper?

— [Rachel Carson](/source/Rachel_Carson) (1962)[184]: 48

Ecology surged in popular and scientific interest during the 1960–1970s [environmental movement](/source/Environmental_movement).[171] In 1962, marine biologist and ecologist [Rachel Carson](/source/Rachel_Carson)'s book *[Silent Spring](/source/Silent_Spring)* helped to mobilize the environmental movement by alerting the public to toxic [pesticides](/source/Pesticide), such as [DDT](/source/DDT) (C14H9Cl5), [bioaccumulating](/source/Bioaccumulation) in the environment. Since then, ecologists have worked to bridge their understanding of the degradation of the planet's ecosystems with environmental politics, law, restoration, and natural resources management.[21][171][185][186]

## See also

- [Anoxic microsites](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anoxic_microsites&action=edit&redlink=1)

- [Carrying capacity](/source/Carrying_capacity)

- [Ecological death](/source/Ecological_death)

- [Ecological overshoot](/source/Ecological_overshoot)

- [Ecological psychology](/source/Ecological_psychology)

- [Ecology movement](/source/Ecology_movement)

- [Ecopsychology](/source/Ecopsychology)

- [Natural resource](/source/Natural_resource)

- [Philosophy of ecology](/source/Philosophy_of_ecology)

- [Sustainable development](/source/Sustainable_development)

**Lists**

- [Glossary of ecology](/source/Glossary_of_ecology)

- [List of ecologists](/source/List_of_ecologists)

- [Terminology of ecology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ecology_terminology)

## Notes

1. **[^](#ref_A_1)** In Ernst Haeckel's (1866) footnote where the term ecology originates, he also gives attribute to [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language): χώρας, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek): *khōrā*, [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) 'χωρα', meaning "dwelling place, distributional area" —quoted from Stauffer (1957).

1. **[^](#ref_B_1)** This is a copy of Haeckel's original definition (Original: Haeckel, E. (1866) Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Allgemeine Grundzige der organischen Formen- Wissenschaft, mechanisch begriindet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz-Theorie. 2 vols. Reimer, Berlin.) translated and quoted from Stauffer (1957).

1. **[^](#ref_C_1)** Foster & Clark (2008) note how Smut's holism contrasts starkly against his racial political views as the father of [apartheid](/source/Apartheid).

1. **[^](#ref_D_1)** First introduced in MacArthur & Wilson's (1967) book of notable mention in the history and theoretical science of ecology, *[The Theory of Island Biogeography](/source/The_Theory_of_Island_Biogeography)*.

1. **[^](#ref_E_1)** Aristotle wrote about this concept in *[Metaphysics](/source/Metaphysics_(Aristotle))* (Quoted from [The Internet Classics Archive](http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.mb.txt) translation by [W. D. Ross](/source/W._D._Ross). Book VIII, Part 6): "To return to the difficulty which has been stated with respect both to definitions and to numbers, what is the cause of their unity? In the case of all things which have several parts and in which the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts, there is a cause; for even in bodies contact is the cause of unity in some cases and in others viscosity or some other such quality."

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** S. E. Kingsland, "Foundational Papers: Defining Ecology as a Science", in L. A. Real and J. H. Brown, eds., *Foundations of Ecology: Classic Papers with Commentaries*. Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 1991. pp. 1–2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Stadler98_2-0)** Stadler, B.; Michalzik, B.; Müller, T. (1998). "Linking aphid ecology with nutrient fluxes in a coniferous forest". *Ecology*. **79** (5): 1514–1525. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079\[1514:LAEWNF\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9658%281998%29079%5B1514%3ALAEWNF%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0012-9658](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Humphreys97_3-0)** Humphreys, N. J.; Douglas, A. E. (1997). ["Partitioning of symbiotic bacteria between generations of an insect: a quantitative study of a *Buchnera* sp. in the pea aphid (*Acyrthosiphon pisum*) reared at different temperatures"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1389233). *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*. **63** (8): 3294–3296. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1997ApEnM..63.3294H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997ApEnM..63.3294H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1128/AEM.63.8.3294-3296.1997](https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.63.8.3294-3296.1997). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1389233](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1389233). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16535678](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16535678).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Liere2012_4-0)** Liere, Heidi; Jackson, Doug; Vandermeer, John; Wilby, Andrew (20 September 2012). ["Ecological Complexity in a Coffee Agroecosystem: Spatial Heterogeneity, Population Persistence and Biological Control"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3447771). *PLOS ONE*. **7** (9) e45508. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2012PLoSO...745508L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...745508L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pone.0045508](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0045508). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3447771](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3447771). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23029061](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23029061).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Steward T.A. Pickett; Jurek Kolasa; Clive G. Jones (1994). [*Ecological Understanding: The Nature of Theory and the Theory of Nature*](https://archive.org/details/ecologicalunders0000pick). San Diego: Academic Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-554720-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-554720-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Nachtomy01_6-0)** Nachtomy, Ohad; Shavit, Ayelet; Smith, Justin (2002). "Leibnizian organisms, nested individuals, and units of selection". *Theory in Biosciences*. **121** (2): 205–230. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s12064-002-0020-9](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12064-002-0020-9). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [23760946](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23760946).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Holling01_7-0)** Holling, C. S. (2004). "Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems". *Ecosystems*. **4** (5): 390–405. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s10021-001-0101-5](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10021-001-0101-5). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [7432683](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7432683).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Levin99_8-0)** Levin, S. A. (1999). [*Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FUJsj2KOEeoC). Reading, MA: Perseus Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7382-0319-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0319-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318134738/http://books.google.com/books?id=FUJsj2KOEeoC) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kiessling09_9-0)** Kiessling, W.; Simpson, C.; Foote, M. (2009). ["Reefs as cradles of evolution and sources of biodiversity in the Phanerozoic"](http://geosci.uchicago.edu/%7Efoote/REPRINTS/SCI2010.pdf) (PDF). *Science*. **327** (5962): 196–198. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2010Sci...327..196K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Sci...327..196K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1182241](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1182241). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20056888](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20056888). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [206523585](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206523585). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110112054939/http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~foote/REPRINTS/SCI2010.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 12 January 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Noss90_10-0)** Noss, R. F. (1990). "Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: A hierarchical approach". *Conservation Biology*. **4** (4): 355–364. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1990ConBi...4..355N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990ConBi...4..355N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00309.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1523-1739.1990.tb00309.x). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2385928](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2385928).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Scholes08_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Scholes08_11-1) Scholes, R. J.; Mace, G. M.; Turner, W.; Geller, G. N.; Jürgens, N.; Larigauderie, A.; Muchoney, D.; Walther, B. A.; Mooney, H. A. (2008). ["Toward a global biodiversity observing system"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110710163453/http://www.earthobservations.com/documents/committees/uic/200809_8thUIC/07b-Health0Montira-Pongsiri-BON-Article-in-Science.pdf) (PDF). *Science*. **321** (5892): 1044–1045. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1162055](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1162055). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18719268](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18719268). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [206514712](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206514712). Archived from [the original](http://www.earthobservations.com/documents/committees/uic/200809_8thUIC/07b-Health0Montira-Pongsiri-BON-Article-in-Science.pdf) (PDF) on 10 July 2011.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-cardinale2012_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-cardinale2012_12-1) Cardinale, Bradley J.; Duffy, J. Emmett; Gonzalez, Andrew; Hooper, David U.; Perrings, Charles; Venail, Patrick; Narwani, Anita; Mace, Georgina M.; Tilman, David; Wardle, David A.; Kinzig, Ann P.; Daily, Gretchen C.; Loreau, Michel; Grace, James B.; Larigauderie, Anne; Srivastava, Diane S.; Naeem, Shahid (6 June 2012). ["Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity"](https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10240/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf) (PDF). *Nature*. **486** (7401): 59–67. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2012Natur.486...59C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.486...59C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/nature11148](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature11148). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [22678280](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22678280). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4333166](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4333166). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170921233215/http://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10240/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wilson00b_13-0)** Wilson, E. O. (2000). "A global biodiversity map". *Science*. **289** (5488): 2279. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2000Sci...289.2279W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Sci...289.2279W). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11041790](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11041790).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Purvis00_14-0)** Purvis, A.; Hector, A. (2000). ["Getting the measure of biodiversity"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140428173805/http://www.botanischergarten.ch/BiodivVorles-2005WS/Nature-Insight-Biodiversity-2000.pdf) (PDF). *Nature*. **405** (6783): 212–218. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/35012221](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35012221). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10821281](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10821281). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4333920](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4333920). Archived from [the original](http://www.botanischergarten.ch/BiodivVorles-2005WS/Nature-Insight-Biodiversity-2000.pdf) (PDF) on 28 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ostfeld09_15-0)** Ostfeld, R. S. (2009). ["Biodiversity loss and the rise of zoonotic pathogens"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-0691.2008.02691.x). *Clinical Microbiology and Infection*. **15** (s1): 40–43. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.02691.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-0691.2008.02691.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19220353](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19220353).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tierney09_16-0)** Tierney, Geraldine L.; Faber-Langendoen, Don; Mitchell, Brian R.; Shriver, W. Gregory; Gibbs, James P. (2009). ["Monitoring and evaluating the ecological integrity of forest ecosystems"](https://web.archive.org/web/20101229085236/http://www.uvm.edu/~bmitchel/Publications/Tierney_Forest_monitoring.pdf) (PDF). *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*. **7** (6): 308–316. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009FrEE....7..308T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009FrEE....7..308T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/070176](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F070176). Archived from [the original](http://www.uvm.edu/~bmitchel/Publications/Tierney_Forest_monitoring.pdf) (PDF) on 29 December 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Qiu, J. & Mitchell, M. (2024). *Understanding biodiversity–ecosystem service linkages in real landscapes.* *Landscape Ecology*, 39, 188. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-024-01980-3](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-024-01980-3)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ceballos02_18-0)** Ceballos, G.; Ehrlich, P. R. (2002). ["Mammal population losses and the extinction crisis"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720094351/http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/gmeyer/envsc330/CeballosEhrlichmammalextinct2002.pdf) (PDF). *Science*. **296** (5569): 904–907. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2002Sci...296..904C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...296..904C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1069349](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1069349). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11988573](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11988573). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [32115412](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32115412). Archived from [the original](http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/gmeyer/envsc330/CeballosEhrlichmammalextinct2002.pdf) (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Palumbi09_19-0)** [Palumbi, Stephen R.](/source/Stephen_Palumbi); Sandifer, Paul A.; Allan, J. David; Beck, Michael W.; Fautin, Daphne G.; Fogarty, Michael J.; Halpern, Benjamin S.; Incze, Lewis S.; Leong, Jo-Ann; et al. (2009). ["Managing for ocean biodiversity to sustain marine ecosystem services"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100611095626/http://research.usm.maine.edu/gulfofmaine-census/wp-content/docs/Palumbi-et-al-2009_Managing-for-ocean-biodiversity.pdf) (PDF). *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*. **7** (4): 204–211. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009FrEE....7..204P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009FrEE....7..204P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/070135](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F070135). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1808/13308](https://hdl.handle.net/1808%2F13308). Archived from [the original](http://research.usm.maine.edu/gulfofmaine-census/wp-content/docs/Palumbi-et-al-2009_Managing-for-ocean-biodiversity.pdf) (PDF) on 11 June 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wilcove08_20-0)** Wilcove, D. S.; Wikelski, M. (2008). ["Going, going, gone: Is animal migration disappearing"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2486312). *PLOS Biology*. **6** (7) e188. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pbio.0060188](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0060188). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2486312](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2486312). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18666834](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18666834).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hammond09_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hammond09_21-1) Hammond, H. (2009). [*Maintaining Whole Systems on the Earth's Crown: Ecosystem-based Conservation Planning for the Boreal Forest*](https://web.archive.org/web/20091205015923/http://www.silvafor.org/crown). Slocan Park, BC: Silva Forest Foundation. p. 380. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9734779-0-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9734779-0-0). Archived from [the original](http://www.silvafor.org/crown) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Whittaker73_22-0)** Whittaker, R. H.; Levin, S. A.; Root, R. B. (1973). ["Niche, habitat, and ecotope"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120905195208/http://labs.bio.unc.edu/Peet/courses/bio669/papers/Ch1_supp_readings/Whittaker1973.pdf) (PDF). *The American Naturalist*. **107** (955): 321–338. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1973ANat..107..321W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973ANat..107..321W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/282837](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F282837). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [84504783](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84504783). Archived from [the original](http://labs.bio.unc.edu/Peet/courses/bio669/papers/Ch1_supp_readings/Whittaker1973.pdf) (PDF) on 5 September 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Beyer10_23-0)** Beyer, Hawthorne L.; Haydon, Daniel T.; Morales, Juan M.; Frair, Jacqueline L.; Hebblewhite, Mark; Mitchell, Michael; Matthiopoulos, Jason (2010). ["The interpretation of habitat preference metrics under use–availability designs"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2894962). *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B*. **365** (1550): 2245–2254. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1098/rstb.2010.0083](https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0083). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2894962](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2894962). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20566501](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20566501).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Laland99_24-0)** Laland, K. N.; Odling-Smee, F. J.; Feldman, M. W. (1999). ["Evolutionary consequences of niche construction and their implications for ecology"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC17873). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. **96** (18): 10242–10247. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1999PNAS...9610242L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PNAS...9610242L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.96.18.10242](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.96.18.10242). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [17873](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC17873). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10468593](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10468593).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hughes08_25-0)** Hughes, D. P.; Pierce, N. E.; Boomsma, J. J. (2008). ["Social insect symbionts: evolution in homeostatic fortresses"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110606133109/http://www.csub.edu/~psmith3/Teaching/discussion3C.pdf) (PDF). *Trends in Ecology & Evolution*. **23** (12): 672–677. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008TEcoE..23..672H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008TEcoE..23..672H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.tree.2008.07.011](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2008.07.011). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18951653](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18951653). Archived from [the original](https://www.csub.edu/~psmith3/Teaching/discussion3C.pdf) (PDF) on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2010.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wiens05_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wiens05_26-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Wiens05_26-2) Wiens, J. J.; Graham, C. H. (2005). ["Niche conservatism: Integrating evolution, ecology, and conservation biology"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121024222432/http://163.238.8.180/~fburbrink/Courses/Seminar%20in%20Systematics/Wiens_Graha_m_AnnRev2005.pdf) (PDF). *Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics*. **36**: 519–539. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102803.095431](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.36.102803.095431). Archived from [the original](http://163.238.8.180/~fburbrink/Courses/Seminar%20in%20Systematics/Wiens_Graha_m_AnnRev2005.pdf) (PDF) on 24 October 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hutchinson57b_27-0)** Hutchinson, G. E. (1957). "Concluding remarks". *Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology*. **22** (797): 415–427. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1101/SQB.1957.022.01.039](https://doi.org/10.1101%2FSQB.1957.022.01.039).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Begon05_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Begon05_28-1) Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2005). [*Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems*](https://web.archive.org/web/20131030083242/http://ca.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405111178.html) (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 752. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-4051-1117-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-1117-8). Archived from [the original](http://ca.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405111178.html) on 30 October 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hardesty75_29-0)** D. L., Hardesty (1975). "The niche concept: suggestions for its use in human ecology". *Human Ecology*. **3** (2): 71–85. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1975HumEc...3...71H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975HumEc...3...71H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/BF01552263](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01552263). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [4602315](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4602315). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [84328940](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84328940).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hastings07_30-0)** Hastings, Alan; Byers, James E.; Crooks, Jeffrey A.; Cuddington, Kim; Jones, Clive G.; Lambrinos, John G.; Talley, Theresa S.; Wilson, William G. (2007). "Ecosystem engineering in space and time". *Ecology Letters*. **10** (2): 153–164. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007EcolL..10..153H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcolL..10..153H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00997.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2006.00997.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17257103](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17257103). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [44870405](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44870405).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Jones94_31-0)** Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H.; Shachak, Moshe (1994). "Organisms as ecosystem engineers". *Oikos*. **69** (3): 373–386. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1994Oikos..69..373J](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Oikos..69..373J). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3545850](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3545850). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3545850](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3545850).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Palmer94_32-0)** Palmer, M.; White, P. S. (1994). ["On the existence of ecological communities"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120905195222/http://labs.bio.unc.edu/Peet/courses/bio669/papers/Ch1_supp_readings/Palmer_White.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of Vegetation Sciences*. **5** (2): 279–282. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1994JVegS...5..279P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994JVegS...5..279P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3236162](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3236162). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3236162](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3236162). Archived from [the original](http://labs.bio.unc.edu/Peet/courses/bio669/papers/Ch1_supp_readings/Palmer_White.pdf) (PDF) on 5 September 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Prentice92_33-0)** Prentice; I. C.; Harrison, S. P.; Leemans, R.; Monserud, R. A.; Solomon, A. M. (1992). ["Special paper: A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate"](https://hal-amu.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01788308/file/ICP1992.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of Biogeography*. **19** (2): 117–134. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1992JBiog..19..117P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992JBiog..19..117P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2845499](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2845499). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2845499](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2845499). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221220135609/https://hal-amu.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01788308/file/ICP1992.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Turnbaugh07_34-0)** Turnbaugh, Peter J.; Ley, Ruth E.; Hamady, Micah; Fraser-Liggett, Claire M.; Knight, Rob; Gordon, Jeffrey I. (2007). ["The human microbiome project"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3709439). *Nature*. **449** (7164): 804–810. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007Natur.449..804T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.449..804T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/nature06244](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06244). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3709439](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3709439). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17943116](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17943116).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-DeLong09_35-0)** DeLong, E. F. (2009). ["The microbial ocean from genomes to biomes"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110718062251/http://researchpages.net/media/resources/2009/07/30/nature08059.pdf) (PDF). *Nature*. **459** (7244): 200–206. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009Natur.459..200D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.459..200D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/nature08059](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08059). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1721.1/69838](https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F69838). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19444206](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19444206). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [205216984](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205216984). Archived from [the original](http://researchpages.net/media/resources/2009/07/30/nature08059.pdf) (PDF) on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 14 January 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-igamberdiev06_36-0)** Igamberdiev, Abir U.; Lea, P. J. (2006). ["Land plants equilibrate O2 and CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194011/http://www.mun.ca/biology/igamberdiev/PhotosRes_CO2review.pdf) (PDF). *Photosynthesis Research*. **87** (2): 177–194. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2006PhoRe..87..177I](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhoRe..87..177I). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s11120-005-8388-2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11120-005-8388-2). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16432665](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16432665). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [10709679](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10709679). Archived from [the original](https://www.mun.ca/biology/igamberdiev/PhotosRes_CO2review.pdf) (PDF) on 3 March 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lovelock73_37-0)** Lovelock, J.E.; Margulis, L. (1974). ["Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis"](https://doi.org/10.3402%2Ftellusa.v26i1-2.9731). *Tellus A*. **26** (1–2): 2–10. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1974Tell...26....2L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Tell...26....2L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3402/tellusa.v26i1-2.9731](https://doi.org/10.3402%2Ftellusa.v26i1-2.9731). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [129803613](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129803613).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Lovelock03_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Lovelock03_38-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Lovelock03_38-2) Lovelock, J. (2003). "The living Earth". *Nature*. **426** (6968): 769–770. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003Natur.426..769L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.426..769L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/426769a](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F426769a). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [14685210](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14685210). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [30308855](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30308855).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Odum05_39-7) Odum, E. P.; Barrett, G. W. (2005). [*Fundamentals of Ecology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vC9FAQAAIAAJ). Brooks Cole. p. 598. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-534-42066-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-42066-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200728103444/https://books.google.com/books?id=vC9FAQAAIAAJ) from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Waples06_40-0)** Waples, R. S.; Gaggiotti, O. (2006). ["What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity"](http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1462&context=usdeptcommercepub). *Molecular Ecology*. **15** (6): 1419–1439. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02890.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-294X.2006.02890.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16629801](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16629801). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [9715923](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9715923). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191025104846/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1462&context=usdeptcommercepub) from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Turchin01_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Turchin01_41-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Turchin01_41-2) Turchin, P. (2001). "Does population ecology have general laws?". *Oikos*. **94** (1): 17–26. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2001Oikos..94...17T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Oikos..94...17T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.11310.x](https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0706.2001.11310.x). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [27090414](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27090414).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Vandermeer03_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Vandermeer03_42-1) Vandermeer, J. H.; Goldberg, D. E. (2003). *Population Ecology: First Principles*. Woodstock, Oxfordshire: Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-691-11440-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11440-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Berryman92_43-0)** Berryman, A. A. (1992). "The origins and evolution of predator-prey theory". *Ecology*. **73** (5): 1530–1535. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1992Ecol...73.1530B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Ecol...73.1530B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1940005](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1940005). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1940005](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1940005). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [84321947](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84321947).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Anderson00_44-0)** Anderson, D. R.; Burnham, K. P.; Thompson, W. L. (2000). ["Null hypotheses testing: Problems, prevalence, and an alternative"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130602150107/http://people.nnu.edu/jocossel/BIOL4240/Anderson%20et%20al%202000.pdf) (PDF). *J. Wildl. Manage*. **64** (4): 912–923. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3803199](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3803199). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3803199](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3803199). Archived from [the original](http://people.nnu.edu/jocossel/BIOL4240/Anderson%20et%20al%202000.pdf) (PDF) on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 4 August 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Johnson04_45-0)** Johnson, J. B.; Omland, K. S. (2004). ["Model selection in ecology and evolution"](http://faculty.washington.edu/skalski/classes/QERM597/papers/Johnson%20and%20Omland.pdf) (PDF). *Trends in Ecology and Evolution*. **19** (2): 101–108. [CiteSeerX](/source/CiteSeerX_(identifier)) [10.1.1.401.777](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.401.777). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.013](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2003.10.013). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16701236](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701236). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121014095941/http://faculty.washington.edu/skalski/classes/QERM597/papers/Johnson%20and%20Omland.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 14 October 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Levins69_46-0)** Levins, R. (1969). ["Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity for biological control"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8jfmor8wVG4C&pg=PA162). *Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America*. **15** (3): 237–240. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/besa/15.3.237](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbesa%2F15.3.237). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220408181207/https://books.google.com/books?id=8jfmor8wVG4C&pg=PA162) from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Levins70_47-0)** Levins, R. (1970). "Extinction". In Gerstenhaber, M. (ed.). [*Some Mathematical Questions in Biology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CfZHU1aZqJsC). American Mathematical Soc. pp. 77–107. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8218-1152-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-1152-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318164618/http://books.google.com/books?id=CfZHU1aZqJsC) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Smith05_48-0)** Smith, M. A.; Green, D. M. (2005). ["Dispersal and the metapopulation paradigm in amphibian ecology and conservation: Are all amphibian populations metapopulations?"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0906-7590.2005.04042.x). *Ecography*. **28** (1): 110–128. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2005Ecogr..28..110A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Ecogr..28..110A). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.0906-7590.2005.04042.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0906-7590.2005.04042.x).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hanski98_49-0)** Hanski, I. (1998). ["Metapopulation dynamics"](https://web.archive.org/web/20101231165339/http://www.helsinki.fi/~ihanski/Articles/Nature%201998%20Hanski.pdf) (PDF). *Nature*. **396** (6706): 41–49. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1998Natur.396...41H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Natur.396...41H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/23876](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F23876). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4405264](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4405264). Archived from [the original](http://www.helsinki.fi/~ihanski/Articles/Nature%201998%20Hanski.pdf) (PDF) on 31 December 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Nebel10_50-0)** Nebel, S. (2010). ["Animal migration"](http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/animal-migration-13259533). *Nature Education Knowledge*. **10** (1): 29. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110716054109/http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/animal-migration-13259533) from the original on 16 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Clark98_51-0)** Clark, J. S.; Fastie, C.; Hurtt, G.; Jackson, S. T.; Johnson, C.; King, G. A.; Lewis, M.; Lynch, J.; Pacala, S.; et al. (1998). ["Reid's paradox of rapid plant migration"](http://www.mathstat.ualberta.ca/~mlewis/publications/25Clark1998B.pdf) (PDF). *BioScience*. **48** (1): 13–24. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1313224](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1313224). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1313224](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1313224). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110706210036/http://www.mathstat.ualberta.ca/~mlewis/publications/25Clark1998B.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dingle96_52-0)** Dingle, H. (18 January 1996). [*Migration: The Biology of Life on the Move*](https://books.google.com/books?id=adguyA_ZlAMC). Oxford University Press. p. 480. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-509723-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509723-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318130627/http://books.google.com/books?id=adguyA_ZlAMC) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Johnson07_53-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Johnson07_53-1) Johnson, M. T.; Strinchcombe, J. R. (2007). "An emerging synthesis between community ecology and evolutionary biology". *Trends in Ecology and Evolution*. **22** (5): 250–257. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007TEcoE..22..250J](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007TEcoE..22..250J). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.tree.2007.01.014](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2007.01.014). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17296244](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17296244).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tansley35_54-0)** Tansley, A. G. (1935). ["The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110726213308/http://karljaspers.org/files/tansley.pdf) (PDF). *Ecology*. **16** (3): 284–307. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1935Ecol...16..284T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935Ecol...16..284T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1930070](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1930070). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1930070](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1930070). Archived from [the original](http://karljaspers.org/files/tansley.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Marsh64_55-0)** Marsh, G. P. (1864). [*Man and Nature: Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action*](https://archive.org/details/manandnatureorp02marsgoog). Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. p. [560](https://archive.org/details/manandnatureorp02marsgoog/page/n581).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-O'Neil01_56-0)** O'Neil, R. V. (2001). ["Is it time to bury the ecosystem concept? (With full military honors, of course!)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110519041044/http://www.esa.org/history/Awards/papers/ONeill_RV_MA.pdf) (PDF). *Ecology*. **82** (12): 3275–3284. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082\[3275:IITTBT\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9658%282001%29082%5B3275%3AIITTBT%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0012-9658](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658). Archived from [the original](http://www.esa.org/history/Awards/papers/ONeill_RV_MA.pdf) (PDF) on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Brinson81_57-0)** Brinson, M. M.; Lugo, A. E.; Brown, S (1981). "Primary Productivity, Decomposition and Consumer Activity in Freshwater Wetlands". *Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics*. **12** (1): 123–161. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1981AnRES..12..123B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981AnRES..12..123B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.es.12.110181.001011](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.12.110181.001011).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-O'Neill86_58-0)** O'Neill, D. L.; Deangelis, D. L.; Waide, J. B.; Allen, T. F. H. (1986). [*A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems*](https://archive.org/details/hierarchicalconc00onei). Princeton University Press. p. [253](https://archive.org/details/hierarchicalconc00onei/page/253). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-691-08436-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08436-X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pimm02_59-0)** Pimm, S. (2002). [*Food Webs*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tjHOtK4amfQC&pg=PA173). University of Chicago Press. p. 258. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-66832-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66832-1). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318141026/http://books.google.com/books?id=tjHOtK4amfQC&pg=PA173) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pimm91_60-0)** Pimm, S. L.; Lawton, J. H.; Cohen, J. E. (1991). ["Food web patterns and their consequences"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100610135513/http://nicholas.duke.edu/people/faculty/pimm/publications/pimmreprints/71_Pimm_Lawton_Cohen_Nature.pdf) (PDF). *Nature*. **350** (6320): 669–674. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1991Natur.350..669P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Natur.350..669P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/350669a0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F350669a0). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4267587](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4267587). Archived from [the original](http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/people/faculty/pimm/publications/pimmreprints/71_Pimm_Lawton_Cohen_Nature.pdf) (PDF) on 10 June 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hariston93_61-0)** Hairston, N. G. Jr.; Hairston, N. G. Sr. (1993). ["Cause-effect relationships in energy flow, trophic structure, and interspecific interactions"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720120313/http://limnology.wisc.edu/courses/zoo955/Spring2005/food%20web%20seminar%20papers/hairston93AmNat.pdf) (PDF). *The American Naturalist*. **142** (3): 379–411. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1993ANat..142..379H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993ANat..142..379H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/285546](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F285546). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1813/57238](https://hdl.handle.net/1813%2F57238). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [55279332](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55279332). Archived from [the original](http://limnology.wisc.edu/courses/zoo955/Spring2005/food%20web%20seminar%20papers/hairston93AmNat.pdf) (PDF) on 20 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Duffy07_62-0)** Duffy, J. Emmett; Cardinale, Bradley J.; France, Kristin E.; McIntyre, Peter B.; Thébault, Elisa; Loreau, Michel (2007). ["The functional role of biodiversity in ecosystems: incorporating trophic complexity"](https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1655&context=vimsarticles). *Ecology Letters*. **10** (6): 522–538. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007EcolL..10..522D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EcolL..10..522D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01037.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2007.01037.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17498151](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17498151). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200305121833/https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1655&context=vimsarticles) from the original on 5 March 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Elton27_63-0)** Elton, C. S. (1927). *Animal Ecology*. London: Sidgwick and Jackson. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-226-20639-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-20639-4). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-David03_64-0)** Davic, R. D. (2003). ["Linking keystone species and functional groups: a new operational definition of the keystone species concept"](http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/2966/linking.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (PDF). *Conservation Ecology*. **7** (1) resp11: r11. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003ConEc...7Pes11D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ConEc...7Pes11D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5751/ES-00502-0701r11](https://doi.org/10.5751%2FES-00502-0701r11). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10535/2966](https://hdl.handle.net/10535%2F2966). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200730215632/http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/2966/linking.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Oksanen91_65-0)** Oksanen, L. (1991). "Trophic levels and trophic dynamics: A consensus emerging?". *Trends in Ecology and Evolution*. **6** (2): 58–60. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1991TEcoE...6...58O](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991TEcoE...6...58O). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0169-5347(91)90124-G](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0169-5347%2891%2990124-G). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21232425](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21232425).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Loehle88_66-0)** Loehle, C.; Pechmann, Joseph H. K. (1988). "Evolution: The missing ingredient in systems ecology". *The American Naturalist*. **132** (9): 884–899. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1988ANat..132..884L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988ANat..132..884L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/284895](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F284895). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2462267](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2462267). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [85120393](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85120393).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ulanowicz79_67-0)** Ulanowicz, R. E.; Kemp, W. Michael (1979). ["Toward canonical trophic aggregations"](http://aquaticcommons.org/2010/1/838.pdf) (PDF). *The American Naturalist*. **114** (6): 871–883. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1979ANat..114..871U](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979ANat..114..871U). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/283534](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F283534). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[1834/19829](https://hdl.handle.net/1834%2F19829). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2460557](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2460557). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [85371147](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85371147). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181101011042/http://aquaticcommons.org/2010/1/838.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 10 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Li00_68-0)** Li, B. (2000). "Why is the holistic approach becoming so important in landscape ecology?". *Landscape and Urban Planning*. **50** (1–3): 27–41. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2000LUrbP..50...27L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000LUrbP..50...27L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00078-5](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-2046%2800%2900078-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Polis96_69-0)** Polis, G. A.; Strong, D. R. (1996). ["Food web complexity and community dynamics"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720120231/http://limnology.wisc.edu/courses/zoo955/Spring2005/food%20web%20seminar%20papers/polis96AmNat.pdf) (PDF). *The American Naturalist*. **147** (5): 813–846. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1996ANat..147..813P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996ANat..147..813P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/285880](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F285880). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [85155900](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85155900). Archived from [the original](http://limnology.wisc.edu/courses/zoo955/Spring2005/food%20web%20seminar%20papers/polis96AmNat.pdf) (PDF) on 20 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Thompson07_70-0)** Thompson, R. M.; Hemberg, M.; Starzomski, B. M.; Shurin, J. B. (2007). ["Trophic levels and trophic tangles: The prevalence of omnivory in real food webs"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110815150110/http://myweb.dal.ca/br238551/thompson_hem_star_shur_ecology07.pdf) (PDF). *Ecology*. **88** (3): 612–617. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2007Ecol...88..612T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Ecol...88..612T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/05-1454](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F05-1454). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17503589](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17503589). Archived from [the original](http://myweb.dal.ca/br238551/thompson_hem_star_shur_ecology07.pdf) (PDF) on 15 August 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Fisher06_71-0)** Fischer, J.; Lindenmayer, D. B.; Manning, A. D. (2006). ["Biodiversity, ecosystem function, and resilience: ten guiding principles for commodity production landscapes"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110706154515/http://www.tecniflora.com.br/1_-_Guidelines_commodity_production.pdf) (PDF). *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*. **4** (2): 80–86. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/1540-9295(2006)004\[0080:BEFART\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1540-9295%282006%29004%5B0080%3ABEFART%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1540-9295](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1540-9295). Archived from [the original](http://www.tecniflora.com.br/1_-_Guidelines_commodity_production.pdf) (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Libralato06_72-0)** Libralato, S.; Christensen, V.; Pauly, D. (2006). ["A method for identifying keystone species in food web models"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120519082210/http://www.seaaroundus.org/researcher/dpauly/PDF/2005/JournalArticles/MethodIdentifyKeystoneSpeciesFoodWebModels.pdf) (PDF). *Ecological Modelling*. **195** (3–4): 153–171. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2006EcMod.195..153L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006EcMod.195..153L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.11.029](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecolmodel.2005.11.029). Archived from [the original](http://www.seaaroundus.org/researcher/dpauly/PDF/2005/JournalArticles/MethodIdentifyKeystoneSpeciesFoodWebModels.pdf) (PDF) on 19 May 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Paine, R. T. (January 1969). "A Note on Trophic Complexity and Community Stability". *The American Naturalist*. **103** (929): 91–93. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1969ANat..103...91P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969ANat..103...91P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/282586](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F282586). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [83780992](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83780992).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Estes, James A.; Burdin, Alexander; Doak, Daniel F. (26 January 2016). ["Sea otters, kelp forests, and the extinction of Steller's sea cow"](https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1502552112). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. **113** (4): 880–885. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.1502552112](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1502552112). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0027-8424](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4743786](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4743786). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [26504217](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26504217).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mills93_75-0)** Mills, L. S.; Soule, M. E.; Doak, D. F. (1993). ["The keystone-species concept in ecology and conservation"](https://zenodo.org/record/8204920). *BioScience*. **43** (4): 219–224. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1312122](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1312122). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1312122](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1312122). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [85204808](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85204808).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Novikoff45_76-0)** Novikoff, A. B. (1945). ["The concept of integrative levels and biology"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110515183451/http://rogov.zwz.ru/Macroevolution/novikoff.pdf) (PDF). *Science*. **101** (2618): 209–215. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1945Sci...101..209N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1945Sci...101..209N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.101.2618.209](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.101.2618.209). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17814095](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17814095). Archived from [the original](http://rogov.zwz.ru/Macroevolution/novikoff.pdf) (PDF) on 15 May 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Schneider01_77-0)** Schneider, D. D. (2001). ["The rise of the concept of scale in ecology"](https://www.mun.ca/biology/dschneider/Publications/2001DCS_AIBS_RiseOfScale.pdf) (PDF). *BioScience*. **51** (7): 545–553. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051\[0545:TROTCO\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1641%2F0006-3568%282001%29051%5B0545%3ATROTCO%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0006-3568](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3568). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202603/http://www.mun.ca/biology/dschneider/Publications/2001DCS_AIBS_RiseOfScale.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Molnar04_78-0)** Molnar, J.; Marvier, M.; Kareiva, P. (2004). "The sum is greater than the parts". *Conservation Biology*. **18** (6): 1670–1671. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2004ConBi..18.1670M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ConBi..18.1670M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00l07.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1523-1739.2004.00l07.x). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [40349801](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40349801).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Loehle04_79-0)** Loehle, C. (2004). "Challenges of ecological complexity". *Ecological Complexity*. **1** (1): 3–6. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2004EcoCm...1....3.](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004EcoCm...1....3.). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ecocom.2003.09.001](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecocom.2003.09.001).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Odum1977_80-0)** Odum, E. P. (1977). "The emergence of ecology as a new integrative discipline". *Science*. **195** (4284): 1289–1293. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1977Sci...195.1289O](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977Sci...195.1289O). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.195.4284.1289](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.195.4284.1289). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17738398](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17738398). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [36862823](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36862823).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Liu09_81-0)** Liu, J.; Dietz, Thomas; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Folke, Carl; Alberti, Marina; Redman, Charles L.; Schneider, Stephen H.; Ostrom, Elinor; Pell, Alice N.; et al. (2009). ["Coupled human and natural systems"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110809091026/http://ambio.allenpress.com/archive/0044-7447/36/8/pdf/i0044-7447-36-8-639.pdf) (PDF). *Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment*. **36** (8): 639–649. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36\[639:CHANS\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1579%2F0044-7447%282007%2936%5B639%3ACHANS%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0044-7447](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-7447). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18240679](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18240679). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [18167083](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18167083). Archived from [the original](http://ambio.allenpress.com/archive/0044-7447/36/8/pdf/i0044-7447-36-8-639.pdf) (PDF) on 9 August 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Miles93_82-0)** Miles, D. B.; Dunham, A. E. (1993). "Historical perspectives in ecology and evolutionary biology: The use of phylogenetic comparative analyses". *Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics*. **24** (1): 587–619. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1993AnRES..24..587M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993AnRES..24..587M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.es.24.110193.003103](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.24.110193.003103).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Levins80_83-0)** Levins, R.; Lewontin, R. (1980). ["Dialectics and reductionism in ecology"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130510183920/http://www.ecologia.unam.mx/laboratorios/comunidades/pdf/pdf%20curso%20posgrado%20Elena/Tema%201/LevinsLewontinSynthese1980.pdf) (PDF). *Synthese*. **43**: 47–78. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/bf00413856](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00413856). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [46984334](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46984334). Archived from [the original](http://www.ecologia.unam.mx/laboratorios/comunidades/pdf/pdf%20curso%20posgrado%20Elena/Tema%201/LevinsLewontinSynthese1980.pdf) (PDF) on 10 May 2013.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Allee49_84-7) Allee, W. C.; Park, O.; Emerson, A. E.; Park, T.; Schmidt, K. P. (1949). [*Principles of Animal Ecology*](https://archive.org/stream/principlesofanim00alle#page/n5/mode/2up). W. B. Sunders, Co. p. 837. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7216-1120-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7216-1120-6). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ricklefs96_85-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ricklefs96_85-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Ricklefs96_85-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Ricklefs96_85-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Ricklefs96_85-4) Rickleffs, Robert E. (1996). *The Economy of Nature*. University of Chicago Press. p. 678. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7167-3847-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-3847-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** Yoshida, T (2003). "Rapid evolution drives ecological dynamics in a predator–prey system". *Nature*. **424** (6946). Nature Publishing Group: 303–306. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003Natur.424..303Y](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.424..303Y). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/nature01767](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01767). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12867979](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12867979). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4425455](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4425455).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Stuart-Fox08_87-0)** Stuart-Fox, D.; Moussalli, A. (2008). ["Selection for social signalling drives the evolution of chameleon colour change"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2214820). *PLOS Biology*. **6** (1) e25. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pbio.0060025](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0060025). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2214820](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2214820). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18232740](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18232740).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Karban08_88-0)** Karban, R. (2008). ["Plant behaviour and communication"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2008.01183.x). *Ecology Letters*. **11** (7): 727–739. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008EcolL..11..727K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008EcolL..11..727K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01183.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2008.01183.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18400016](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18400016).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tinbergen63_89-0)** Tinbergen, N. (1963). ["On aims and methods of ethology"](http://www.esf.edu/EFB/faculty/documents/Tinbergen1963onethology.pdf) (PDF). *Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie*. **20** (4): 410–433. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1963Ethol..20..410T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963Ethol..20..410T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110609122714/http://www.esf.edu/EFB/faculty/documents/Tinbergen1963onethology.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hamner85_90-0)** Hamner, W. M. (1985). ["The importance of ethology for investigations of marine zooplankton"](http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1985/00000037/00000002/art00005). *Bulletin of Marine Science*. **37** (2): 414–424. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110607143812/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1985/00000037/00000002/art00005) from the original on 7 June 2011.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Strassmann00_91-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Strassmann00_91-1) Strassmann, J. E.; Zhu, Y.; Queller, D. C. (2000). "Altruism and social cheating in the social amoeba *Dictyostelium discoideum*". *Nature*. **408** (6815): 965–967. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2000Natur.408..965S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.408..965S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/35050087](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35050087). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11140681](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11140681). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4307980](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4307980).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sakurai85_92-0)** Sakurai, K. (1985). "An attelabid weevil (*Euops splendida*) cultivates fungi". *Journal of Ethology*. **3** (2): 151–156. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1985JEtho...3..151S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985JEtho...3..151S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/BF02350306](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02350306). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [30261494](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30261494).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Anderson61_93-0)** Anderson, J. D. (1961). "The courtship behaviour of *Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum*". *Copeia*. **1961** (2): 132–139. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1439987](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1439987). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1439987](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1439987).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** ["Behavioral Ecology"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110410105207/http://www.behavecol.com/pages/society/welcome.html). International Society for Behavioral Ecology. Archived from [the original](http://www.behavecol.com/pages/society/welcome.html) on 10 April 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gould82_95-0)** Gould, Stephen J.; Vrba, Elizabeth S. (1982). "Exaptation – a missing term in the science of form". *Paleobiology*. **8** (1): 4–15. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1982Pbio....8....4G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982Pbio....8....4G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0094837300004310](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0094837300004310). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [86436132](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86436132).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wilson00_96-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wilson00_96-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Wilson00_96-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Wilson00_96-3) Wilson, Edward. O. (2000). [*Sociobiology: The New Synthesis*](https://books.google.com/books?id=v7lV9tz8fXAC) (25th anniversary ed.). President and Fellows of Harvard College. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-674-00089-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00089-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318141730/http://books.google.com/books?id=v7lV9tz8fXAC) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Palacios_97-0)** Adrian G Palacios, [Francisco Bozinovic](/source/Francisco_Bozinovic); Bozinovic (2003). ["An "enactive" approach to integrative and comparative biology: Thoughts on the table"](https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0716-97602003000100008). *Biology Research*. **36** (1): 95–99. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4067/S0716-97602003000100008](https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0716-97602003000100008). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10533/174736](https://hdl.handle.net/10533%2F174736). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12795209](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12795209).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dukas_98-0)** Reuven Dukas (1998). ["§1.3 Why study cognitive ecology?"](https://books.google.com/books?id=nNRXQM7_R0UC&pg=PA4). In Reuven Dukas (ed.). *Cognitive Ecology: The Evolutionary Ecology of Information Processing and Decision Making*. University of Chicago Press. p. 4. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-16932-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16932-3). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318140450/http://books.google.com/books?id=nNRXQM7_R0UC&pg=PA4) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dukas2_99-0)** Reuven Dukas; John M. Ratcliffe (2009). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=TAiAcZ0Q9LQC&pg=PA1). In Reuven Dukas; John M. Ratcliffe (eds.). *Cognitive Ecology II*. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1 *ff*. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-16937-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16937-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318133553/http://books.google.com/books?id=TAiAcZ0Q9LQC&pg=PA1) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015. Cognitive ecology focuses on the ecology and evolution of "cognition" defined as the neuronal processes concerned with the acquisition, retention, and use of information....we ought to rely on ecological and evolutionary knowledge for studying cognition.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sherman95_100-0)** Sherman, P. W.; Lacey, E. A.; Reeve, H. K.; Keller, L. (1995). ["The eusociality continuum"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110719182303/http://www.nbb.cornell.edu/neurobio/BioNB427/READINGS/ShermanEtAl1995.pdf) (PDF). *Behavioral Ecology*. **6** (1): 102–108. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/beheco/6.1.102](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbeheco%2F6.1.102). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21237927](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21237927). Archived from [the original](https://www.nbb.cornell.edu/neurobio/BioNB427/READINGS/ShermanEtAl1995.pdf) (PDF) on 19 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wilson07_101-0)** Wilson, D. S.; Wilson, E. O. (2007). "Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology". *The Quarterly Review of Biology*. **82** (4): 327–348. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/522809](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F522809). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18217526](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18217526). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [37774648](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37774648).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Page91_102-0)** Page, R. D. M. (1991). "Clocks, clades, and cospeciation: Comparing rates of evolution and timing of cospeciation events in host-parasite assemblages". *Systematic Zoology*. **40** (2): 188–198. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2992256](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2992256). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2992256](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2992256).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Herre99_103-0)** Herre, E. A.; Knowlton, N.; Mueller, U. G.; Rehner, S. A. (1999). ["The evolution of mutualisms: exploring the paths between conflict and cooperation"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090920093119/http://www.biology.lsu.edu/webfac/kharms/HerreEA_etal_1999_TREE.pdf) (PDF). *Trends in Ecology and Evolution*. **14** (2): 49–53. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01529-8](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2898%2901529-8). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10234251](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10234251). Archived from [the original](http://www.biology.lsu.edu/webfac/kharms/HerreEA_etal_1999_TREE.pdf) (PDF) on 20 September 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gilbert90_104-0)** Gilbert, F. S. (1990). [*Insect life cycles: Genetics, evolution, and co-ordination*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2jIgAQAAMAAJ). New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 258. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-387-19550-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-19550-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801074017/https://books.google.com/books?id=2jIgAQAAMAAJ) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kiers06_105-0)** Kiers, E. T.; van der Heijden, M. G. A. (2006). ["Mutualistic stability in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: Exploring hypotheses of evolutionary cooperation"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091016034526/http://people.umass.edu/lsadler/adlersite/kiers/Kiers_Ecology_2006.pdf) (PDF). *Ecology*. **87** (7): 1627–1636. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87\[1627:MSITAM\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9658%282006%2987%5B1627%3AMSITAM%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0012-9658](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16922314](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16922314). Archived from [the original](http://people.umass.edu/lsadler/adlersite/kiers/Kiers_Ecology_2006.pdf) (PDF) on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 31 December 2009.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Parenti90_106-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Parenti90_106-1) Parenti, L. R.; Ebach, M. C. (2009). [*Comparative Biogeography: Discovering and Classifying Biogeographical Patterns of a Dynamic Earth*](https://books.google.com/books?id=K1GU_1I6bG4C). London: University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-25945-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25945-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150911132303/https://books.google.com/books?id=K1GU_1I6bG4C) from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-JBiog_107-0)** ["Journal of Biogeography – Overview"](http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2699/homepage/ProductInformation.html). Wiley. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2699](https://doi.org/10.1111%2F%28ISSN%291365-2699). Retrieved 16 March 2018.{{[cite web](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web)}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_deprecated_archival_service))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MacArthur67_108-0)** MacArthur, R.; Wilson, E. O. (1967). *The Theory of Island Biogeography*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wiens04_109-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wiens04_109-1) Wiens, J. J.; Donoghue, M. J. (2004). ["Historical biogeography, ecology and species richness"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100601214300/http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2004/144_Wiens_TREE04.pdf) (PDF). *Trends in Ecology and Evolution*. **19** (12): 639–644. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.tree.2004.09.011](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2004.09.011). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16701326](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701326). Archived from the original on 1 June 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Morrone95_110-0)** Morrone, J. J.; Crisci, J. V. (1995). "Historical biogeography: Introduction to methods". *Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics*. **26** (1): 373–401. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1995AnRES..26..373M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AnRES..26..373M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.es.26.110195.002105](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.26.110195.002105). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [55258511](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55258511).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Svennin08_111-0)** Svenning, Jens-Christian; Condi, R. (2008). "Biodiversity in a warmer world". *Science*. **322** (5899): 206–207. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008Sci...322..206S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...322..206S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1164542](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1164542). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18845738](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18845738). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [27131917](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27131917).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Landhäusser09_112-0)** Landhäusser, Simon M.; Deshaies, D.; Lieffers, V. J. (2009). "Disturbance facilitates rapid range expansion of aspen into higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains under a warming climate". *Journal of Biogeography*. **37** (1): 68–76. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02182.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2699.2009.02182.x). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [82859453](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:82859453).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Reznick02_113-0)** Reznick, D.; Bryant, M. J.; Bashey, F. (2002). ["r- and K-selection revisited: The role of population regulation in life-history evolution"](https://web.archive.org/web/20101230233401/http://www2.hawaii.edu/~taylor/z652/Reznicketal.pdf) (PDF). *Ecology*. **83** (6): 1509–1520. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083\[1509:RAKSRT\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9658%282002%29083%5B1509%3ARAKSRT%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0012-9658](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658). Archived from [the original](http://www2.hawaii.edu/~taylor/z652/Reznicketal.pdf) (PDF) on 30 December 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MolEcol_114-0)** Rieseberg, L. (ed.). "Molecular Ecology". *Molecular Ecology*. Wiley. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/(ISSN)1365-294X](https://doi.org/10.1111%2F%28ISSN%291365-294X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Avise94_115-0)** Avise, J. (1994). [*Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2zYnQfnXNr8C). Kluwer Academic Publishers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-412-03771-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-03771-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318151507/http://books.google.com/books?id=2zYnQfnXNr8C) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Carson_116-0)** Rachel Carson (1962). [""Silent Spring" (excerpt)"](http://core.ecu.edu/soci/juskaa/SOCI3222/carson.html). Houghton Mifflin. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121014113101/http://core.ecu.edu/soci/juskaa/SOCI3222/carson.html) from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Young74_117-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Young74_117-1) Young, G. L. (1974). "Human ecology as an interdisciplinary concept: A critical inquiry". *Advances in Ecological Research Volume 8*. Vol. 8. pp. 1–105. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60277-9](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0065-2504%2808%2960277-9). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-013908-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-013908-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gross04_118-0)** [Gross, M.](/source/Matthias_Gross) (2004). ["Human geography and ecological sociology: the unfolding of human ecology, 1890 to 1930 – and beyond"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/social-science-history/article/abs/human-geography-and-ecological-sociology/5FF0BFDFCDB2F29D82307E9C1747970C). *Social Science History*. **28** (4): 575–605. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0145553200012852](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0145553200012852). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [233365777](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233365777).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Grumbine94_119-0)** Grumbine, R. E. (1994). ["What is ecosystem management?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130502051519/http://www.pelagicos.net/MARS6920_spring2010/readings/Grumbine_1994.pdf) (PDF). *Conservation Biology*. **8** (1): 27–38. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1994ConBi...8...27G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ConBi...8...27G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010027.x](https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1994.08010027.x). Archived from [the original](http://www.pelagicos.net/MARS6920_spring2010/readings/Grumbine_1994.pdf) (PDF) on 2 May 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wilson92_120-0)** Wilson, E. O. (1992). [*The Diversity of Life*](https://archive.org/details/diversityoflife000wils). Harvard University Press. p. [440](https://archive.org/details/diversityoflife000wils/page/n448). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-674-05817-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05817-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mason57_121-0)** Mason, H. L.; Langenheim, J. H. (1957). "Language analysis and the concept "environment"". *Ecology*. **38** (2): 325–340. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1957Ecol...38..325M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957Ecol...38..325M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1931693](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1931693). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1931693](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1931693).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kleese01_122-0)** Kleese, D. A. (2001). "Nature and nature in Psychology". *Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology*. **21**: 61–79. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/h0091199](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0091199).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Campbell06_123-0)** Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006). [*Biology: Exploring Life*](http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html). Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-13-250882-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-250882-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html) from the original on 2 November 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hughes10_124-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hughes10_124-1) Hughes, A. R. ["Disturbance and diversity: an ecological chicken and egg problem"](http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/disturbance-and-diversity-an-ecological-chicken-and-13256228). *Nature Education Knowledge*. **1** (8): 26. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20101205231219/http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/disturbance-and-diversity-an-ecological-chicken-and-13256228) from the original on 5 December 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Levin92_125-0)** Levin, S. A. (1992). ["The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: The Robert H. MacArthur Award"](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1941447). *Ecology*. **73** (6): 1943–1967. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1941447](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1941447). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1941447](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1941447).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Holling73_126-0)** Holling, C. S. (1973). ["Resilience and stability of ecological systems"](http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/26/1/RP-73-003.pdf) (PDF). *Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics*. **4** (1): 1–23. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1973AnRES...4....1H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973AnRES...4....1H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.04.110173.000245). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2096802](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096802). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [53309505](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53309505). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200317083102/http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/26/1/RP-73-003.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Folke04_127-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Folke04_127-1) Folke, C.; Carpenter, S.; Walker, B.; Scheffer, M.; Elmqvist, T.; Gunderson, L.; Holling, C.S. (2004). ["Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121018074852/http://www.colorado.edu/AmStudies/lewis/ecology/ecobiodiver.pdf) (PDF). *Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics*. **35**: 557–581. [CiteSeerX](/source/CiteSeerX_(identifier)) [10.1.1.489.8717](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.489.8717). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2096802](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096802). Archived from [the original](http://www.colorado.edu/AmStudies/lewis/ecology/ecobiodiver.pdf) (PDF) on 18 October 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ernest03_128-0)** Morgan Ernest, S. K.; Enquist, Brian J.; Brown, James H.; Charnov, Eric L.; Gillooly, James F.; Savage, Van M.; White, Ethan P.; Smith, Felisa A.; Hadly, Elizabeth A.; Haskell, John P.; Lyons, S. Kathleen; Maurer, Brian A.; Niklas, Karl J.; Tiffney, Bruce (2003). ["Thermodynamic and metabolic effects on the scaling of production and population energy use"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110608064515/https://www.msu.edu/~maurerb/Ernest_etal_2003.pdf) (PDF). *Ecology Letters*. **6** (11): 990–995. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003EcolL...6..990E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003EcolL...6..990E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00526.x](https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1461-0248.2003.00526.x). Archived from [the original](https://www.msu.edu/~maurerb/Ernest_etal_2003.pdf) (PDF) on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 6 September 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Allègre95_129-0)** Allègre, Claude J.; Manhès, Gérard; Göpel, Christa (1995). "The age of the Earth". *Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta*. **59** (8): 1455–1456. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1995GeCoA..59.1445A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995GeCoA..59.1445A). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0016-7037(95)00054-4](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7037%2895%2900054-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wills01_130-0)** Wills, C.; Bada, J. (2001). [*The Spark of Life: Darwin and the Primeval Soup*](https://archive.org/details/sparkoflifedarwi00will). Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7382-0493-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0493-2).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Goldblatt06_131-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Goldblatt06_131-1) Goldblatt, Colin; Lenton, Timothy M.; Watson, Andrew J. (2006). ["Bistability of atmospheric oxygen and the Great Oxidation"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110820005408/http://lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk/ajw/Reprints/goldblatt_et_al_2006.pdf) (PDF). *Nature*. **443** (7112): 683–686. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2006Natur.443..683G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.443..683G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/nature05169](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05169). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17036001](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17036001). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4425486](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4425486). Archived from [the original](http://lgmacweb.env.uea.ac.uk/ajw/Reprints/goldblatt_et_al_2006.pdf) (PDF) on 20 August 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Catling05_132-0)** Catling, D. C.; Claire, M. W. (2005). ["How Earth's atmosphere evolved to an oxic state: A status report"](https://web.archive.org/web/20081010145128/http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~davidc/papers_mine/Catling2005-EPSL.pdf) (PDF). *Earth and Planetary Science Letters*. **237** (1–2): 1–20. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2005E&PSL.237....1C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005E&PSL.237....1C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.epsl.2005.06.013](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2005.06.013). Archived from [the original](http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~davidc/papers_mine/Catling2005-EPSL.pdf) (PDF) on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 6 September 2009.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kormondy95_133-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kormondy95_133-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Kormondy95_133-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Kormondy95_133-3) Kormondy, E. E. (1995). *Concepts of Ecology* (4th ed.). Benjamin Cummings. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-13-478116-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-478116-3).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Cronk01_134-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Cronk01_134-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Cronk01_134-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Cronk01_134-3) Cronk, J. K.; Fennessy, M. S. (2001). [*Wetland Plants: Biology and Ecology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FNI1GFbH2eQC). Washington, D.C.: Lewis Publishers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-56670-372-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56670-372-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318183910/http://books.google.com/books?id=FNI1GFbH2eQC) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Evans99_135-0)** Evans, D. H.; Piermarini, P. M.; Potts, W. T. W. (1999). ["Ionic transport in the fish gill epithelium"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100626020505/http://people.biology.ufl.edu/devans/DHEJEZ.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of Experimental Zoology*. **283** (7): 641–652. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1999JEZ...283..641E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JEZ...283..641E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990601)283:7<641::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-W](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-010X%2819990601%29283%3A7%3C641%3A%3AAID-JEZ3%3E3.0.CO%3B2-W). Archived from [the original](http://people.biology.ufl.edu/devans/DHEJEZ.pdf) (PDF) on 26 June 2010. Retrieved 9 December 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Swenson08_136-0)** Swenson, N. G.; Enquist, B. J. (2008). "The relationship between stem and branch wood specific gravity and the ability of each measure to predict leaf area". *American Journal of Botany*. **95** (4): 516–519. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008AmJB...95..516S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AmJB...95..516S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3732/ajb.95.4.516](https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.95.4.516). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21632377](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21632377). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [429191](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:429191).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Garnter10_137-0)** Gartner, Gabriel E.A.; Hicks, James W.; Manzani, Paulo R.; et al. (2010). ["Phylogeny, ecology, and heart position in snakes"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110716163330/http://www.naherpetology.org/pdf_files/1407.pdf) (PDF). *Physiological and Biochemical Zoology*. **83** (1): 43–54. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2010PhyBZ..83...43G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhyBZ..83...43G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/648509](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F648509). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11449/21150](https://hdl.handle.net/11449%2F21150). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19968564](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19968564). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [16332609](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16332609). Archived from the original on 16 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Neri_138-0)** Neri Salvadori; Pasquale Commendatore; Massimo Tamberi (14 May 2014). *Geography, structural Change and Economic Development: Theory and Empirics*. Edward Elgar Publishing.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Jacobsen08_139-0)** Jacobsen, D. (2008). "Low oxygen pressure as a driving factor for the altitudinal decline in taxon richness of stream macroinvertebrates". *Oecologia*. **154** (4): 795–807. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008Oecol.154..795J](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Oecol.154..795J). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00442-007-0877-x](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00442-007-0877-x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17960424](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17960424). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [484645](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:484645).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Strook08_140-0)** Wheeler, T. D.; Stroock, A. D. (2008). "The transpiration of water at negative pressures in a synthetic tree". *Nature*. **455** (7210): 208–212. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008Natur.455..208W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.455..208W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/nature07226](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07226). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18784721](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18784721). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4404849](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4404849).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pockman95_141-0)** Pockman, W. T.; Sperry, J. S.; O'Leary, J. W. (1995). "Sustained and significant negative water pressure in xylem". *Nature*. **378** (6558): 715–716. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1995Natur.378..715P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Natur.378..715P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/378715a0](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F378715a0). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [31357329](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31357329).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Zimmermann02_142-0)** Zimmermann, U.; Schneider, H.; Wegner, L. H.; Wagner, M.; Szimtenings, A.; Haase, F.; Bentrup, F. W. (2002). "What are the driving forces for water lifting in the xylem conduit?". *Physiologia Plantarum*. **114** (3): 327–335. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2002PPlan.114..327Z](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PPlan.114..327Z). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1034/j.1399-3054.2002.1140301.x](https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1399-3054.2002.1140301.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12060254](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12060254).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kastak98_143-0)** Kastak, D.; Schusterman, R. J. (1998). "Low-frequency amphibious hearing in pinnipeds: Methods, measurements, noise, and ecology". *Journal of the Acoustical Society of America*. **103** (4): 2216–2228. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1998ASAJ..103.2216K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ASAJ..103.2216K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1121/1.421367](https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.421367). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [9566340](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9566340). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [19008897](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19008897).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Friedman04_144-0)** Friedman, J.; Harder, L. D. (2004). ["Inflorescence architecture and wind pollination in six grass species"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110706210905/http://www.bio.ucalgary.ca/contact/faculty/pdf/FriedmanHarder2004.pdf) (PDF). *Functional Ecology*. **18** (6): 851–860. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2004FuEco..18..851F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004FuEco..18..851F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.0269-8463.2004.00921.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0269-8463.2004.00921.x). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [20160390](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20160390). Archived from [the original](http://www.bio.ucalgary.ca/contact/faculty/pdf/FriedmanHarder2004.pdf) (PDF) on 6 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Harder09_145-0)** Harder, L. D.; Johnson, S. D. (2009). ["Darwin's beautiful contrivances: evolutionary and functional evidence for floral adaptation"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2009.02914.x). *New Phytologist*. **183** (3): 530–545. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009NewPh.183..530H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009NewPh.183..530H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02914.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2009.02914.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19552694](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19552694).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Shimeta95_146-0)** Shimeta, J.; Jumars, P. A.; Lessard, E. J. (1995). ["Influences of turbulence on suspension feeding by planktonic protozoa; experiments in laminar shear fields"](https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.1995.40.5.0845). *Limnology and Oceanography*. **40** (5): 845–859. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1995LimOc..40..845S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995LimOc..40..845S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4319/lo.1995.40.5.0845](https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.1995.40.5.0845).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Etemad01_147-0)** Etemad-Shahidi, A.; Imberger, J. (2001). ["Anatomy of turbulence in thermally stratified lakes"](https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.2001.46.5.1158). *Limnology and Oceanography*. **46** (5): 1158–1170. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2001LimOc..46.1158E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001LimOc..46.1158E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1158](https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.2001.46.5.1158). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10072/426332](https://hdl.handle.net/10072%2F426332).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wolf96_148-0)** Wolf, B. O.; Walsberg, G. E. (2006). "Thermal effects of radiation and wind on a small bird and implications for microsite selection". *Ecology*. **77** (7): 2228–2236. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2265716](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2265716). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2265716](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2265716).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Daubenmire75_149-0)** Daubenmire, R. (1975). "Floristic plant geography of eastern Washington and northern Idaho". *Journal of Biogeography*. **2** (1): 1–18. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1975JBiog...2....1D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975JBiog...2....1D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3038197](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3038197). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3038197](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3038197).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Steele05_150-0)** Steele, C. A.; Carstens, B. C.; Storfer, A.; Sullivan, J. (2005). ["Testing hypotheses of speciation timing in *Dicamptodon copei* and *Dicamptodon aterrimus* (Caudata: Dicamptodontidae)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100814012502/http://www.lsu.edu/faculty/carstens/pdfs/Steele.etal.2005.pdf) (PDF). *Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution*. **36** (1): 90–100. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2005MolPE..36...90S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MolPE..36...90S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.001](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2004.12.001). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [15904859](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15904859). Archived from [the original](http://www.lsu.edu/faculty/carstens/pdfs/Steele.etal.2005.pdf) (PDF) on 14 August 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lenton00_151-0)** Lenton, T. M.; Watson, A. (2000). ["Redfield revisited. 2. What regulates the oxygen content of the atmosphere"](https://doi.org/10.1029%2F1999GB900076). *Global Biogeochemical Cycles*. **14** (1): 249–268. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2000GBioC..14..249L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000GBioC..14..249L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1029/1999GB900076](https://doi.org/10.1029%2F1999GB900076).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lobert93_152-0)** Lobert, J. M.; Warnatz, J. (1993). ["Emissions from the combustion process in vegetation"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090106160042/http://www.jurgenlobert.org/papers_data/Lobert.Warnatz.Wiley.1993.pdf) (PDF). In Crutzen, P. J.; Goldammer, J. G. (eds.). *Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires*. Wiley. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-471-93604-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-93604-6). Archived from [the original](http://jurgenlobert.org/papers_data/Lobert.Warnatz.Wiley.1993.pdf) (PDF) on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Garren43_153-0)** Garren, K. H. (1943). "Effects of fire on vegetation of the southeastern United States". *Botanical Review*. **9** (9): 617–654. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1943BotRv...9..617G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1943BotRv...9..617G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/BF02872506](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02872506). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [31619796](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31619796).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cooper60_154-0)** Cooper, C. F. (1960). "Changes in vegetation, structure, and growth of southwestern pine forests since white settlement". *Ecological Monographs*. **30** (2): 130–164. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1960EcoM...30..129C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1960EcoM...30..129C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1948549](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1948549). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1948549](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1948549).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cooper61_155-0)** Cooper, C. F. (1961). "The ecology of fire". *Scientific American*. **204** (4): 150–160. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1961SciAm.204d.150C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961SciAm.204d.150C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/scientificamerican0461-150](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0461-150).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Coleman04_156-0)** Coleman, D. C.; Corssley, D. A.; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). [*Fundamentals of Soil Ecology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pKKDJwu_OlkC) (2nd ed.). Academic Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-12-179726-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-179726-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150318165456/http://books.google.com/books?id=pKKDJwu_OlkC) from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wilkinson09_157-0)** Wilkinson, M. T.; Richards, P. J.; Humphreys, G. S. (2009). ["Breaking ground: Pedological, geological, and ecological implications of soil bioturbation"](https://www.uky.edu/AS/Geography/People/Faculty/Wilkinson/Wilkinson.ESR.pdf) (PDF). *Earth-Science Reviews*. **97** (1–4): 257–272. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009ESRv...97..257W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ESRv...97..257W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.09.005](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2009.09.005). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200413101738/https://geography.as.uky.edu/faculty) from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Phillips09_158-0)** Phillips, J. D. (2009). "Soils as extended composite phenotypes". *Geoderma*. **149** (1–2): 143–151. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009Geode.149..143P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Geode.149..143P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.11.028](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geoderma.2008.11.028).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Reinhard10_159-0)** Reinhardt, L.; Jerolmack, D.; Cardinale, B. J.; Vanacker, V.; Wright, J. (2010). ["Dynamic interactions of life and its landscape: Feedbacks at the interface of geomorphology and ecology"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150317140954/http://snre.umich.edu/cardinale/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/reinhardt_earthsur_2010.pdf) (PDF). *Earth Surface Processes and Landforms*. **35** (1): 78–101. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2010ESPL...35...78R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ESPL...35...78R). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/esp.1912](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fesp.1912). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [14924423](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14924423). Archived from [the original](http://snre.umich.edu/cardinale/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/reinhardt_earthsur_2010.pdf) (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Falkowoski08_160-0)** Falkowski, P. G.; Fenchel, T.; Delong, E. F. (2008). ["The microbial engines that drive Earth's biogeochemical cycles"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200413101733/https://eebweb.arizona.edu/faculty/saleska/Ecol596V/Readings/Falkowski.2008_Microbes.biogeochemistry_Science.pdf) (PDF). *Science*. **320** (5879): 1034–1039. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008Sci...320.1034F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...320.1034F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1153213](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1153213). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18497287](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18497287). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [2844984](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2844984). Archived from [the original](https://eebweb.arizona.edu/faculty/saleska/Ecol596V/Readings/Falkowski.2008_Microbes.biogeochemistry_Science.pdf) (PDF) on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Stauffer57_161-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Stauffer57_161-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Stauffer57_161-2) Stauffer, R. C. (1957). "Haeckel, Darwin and ecology". *The Quarterly Review of Biology*. **32** (2): 138–144. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/401754](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F401754). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [84079279](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84079279).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Egerton01_162-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Egerton01_162-1) Egerton, F. N. (2001). ["A history of the ecological sciences: early Greek origins"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120817014234/http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history_part1.pdf) (PDF). *Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America*. **82** (1): 93–97. Archived from [the original](http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history_part1.pdf) (PDF) on 17 August 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Benson00_163-0)** Benson, Keith R. (2000). "The emergence of ecology from natural history". *Endeavour*. **24** (2): 59–62. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0160-9327(99)01260-0](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0160-9327%2899%2901260-0). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10969480](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10969480).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sober80_164-0)** Sober, E. (1980). "Evolution, population thinking, and essentialism". *Philosophy of Science*. **47** (3): 350–383. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/288942](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F288942). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [186950](https://www.jstor.org/stable/186950). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [170129617](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170129617).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hughes85_165-0)** Hughes, J. D. (1985). "Theophrastus as ecologist". *Environmental Review*. **9** (4): 296–306. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3984460](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3984460). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3984460](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3984460). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [155638387](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155638387).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hughes75_166-0)** Hughes, J. D. (1975). "Ecology in ancient Greece". *Inquiry*. **18** (2): 115–125. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00201747508601756](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00201747508601756).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Forbes1887_167-0)** Forbes, S. (1887). ["The lake as a microcosm"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110927181252/http://www.uam.es/personal_pdi/ciencias/scasado/documentos/Forbes.PDF) (PDF). *Bulletin of the Scientific Association*. Peoria, IL: 77–87. Archived from [the original](http://www.uam.es/personal_pdi/ciencias/scasado/documentos/Forbes.PDF) (PDF) on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2009.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kingsland04_168-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kingsland04_168-1) Kingsland, S. (2004). ["Conveying the intellectual challenge of ecology: An historical perspective"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110810052252/http://www.isa.utl.pt/dbeb/ensino/txtapoio/HistEcology.pdf) (PDF). *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*. **2** (7): 367–374. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002\[0367:CTICOE\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1540-9295%282004%29002%5B0367%3ACTICOE%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1540-9295](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1540-9295). Archived from [the original](http://www.isa.utl.pt/dbeb/ensino/txtapoio/HistEcology.pdf) (PDF) on 10 August 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rosenzweig03_169-0)** Rosenzweig, M. L. (2003). ["Reconciliation ecology and the future of species diversity"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0030605303000371). *Oryx*. **37** (2): 194–205. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/s0030605303000371](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0030605303000371). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [37891678](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37891678).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hawkins01_170-0)** Hawkins, B. A. (2001). "Ecology's oldest pattern". *Endeavor*. **25** (3): 133–134. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2001Endvr..25..133H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Endvr..25..133H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0160-9327(00)01369-7](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0160-9327%2800%2901369-7). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11725309](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11725309).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-McIntosh85_171-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-McIntosh85_171-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-McIntosh85_171-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-McIntosh85_171-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-McIntosh85_171-4) McIntosh, R. P. (1985). [*The Background of Ecology: Concept and Theory*](https://archive.org/details/backgroundofecol0000mcin). Cambridge University Press. p. 400. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-521-27087-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27087-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-172)** Haeckel, Ernst (1866). [*Generelle Morphologie der Organismen*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52177#page/454/mode/1up) [*The General Morphology of Organisms*] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin, (Germany): Georg Reimer. p. 286. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190618151420/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52177#page/454/mode/1up) from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Friederichs58_173-0)** Friederichs, K. (1958). "A definition of ecology and some thoughts about basic concepts". *Ecology*. **39** (1): 154–159. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1958Ecol...39..154F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958Ecol...39..154F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1929981](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1929981). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1929981](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1929981).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Egerton07_174-0)** Egerton, F. N. (2007). ["A history of the ecological sciences, part 23: Linnaeus and the economy of nature"](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9623%282007%2988%5B72%3AAHOTES%5D2.0.CO%3B2). *Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America*. **88** (1): 72–88. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88\[72:AHOTES\]2.0.CO;2](https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9623%282007%2988%5B72%3AAHOTES%5D2.0.CO%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0012-9623](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9623).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kormandy78_175-0)** Kormandy, E. J.; Wooster, Donald (1978). "Review: Ecology/economy of nature – synonyms?". *Ecology*. **59** (6): 1292–1294. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1938247](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1938247). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1938247](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1938247).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hector02_176-0)** Hector, A.; Hooper, R. (2002). "Darwin and the first ecological experiment". *Science*. **295** (5555): 639–640. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2002Sci...295..639H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...295..639H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1064815](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1064815). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11809960](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11809960). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [82975886](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:82975886).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sinclair26_177-0)** Sinclair, G. (1826). ["On cultivating a collection of grasses in pleasure-grounds or flower-gardens, and on the utility of studying the Gramineae"](https://books.google.com/books?id=fF0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA230). *London Gardener's Magazine*. Vol. 1. New-Street-Square: A. & R. Spottiswoode. p. 115. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220407062944/https://books.google.com/books?id=fF0CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA230) from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hunt_178-0)** Hunt, Caroline Louisa (1912). [*The life of Ellen H. Richards*](https://archive.org/details/lifeofellenhrich00huntrich). Boston: [Whitcomb & Barrows](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Whitcomb_%26_Barrows&action=edit&redlink=1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-179)** Jones, Madison (8 August 2021). ["A Counterhistory of Rhetorical Ecologies"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02773945.2021.1947517). *Rhetoric Society Quarterly*. **51** (4): 336–352. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/02773945.2021.1947517](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02773945.2021.1947517). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0277-3945](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0277-3945). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [238358762](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238358762).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Clements05_180-0)** Clements, F. E. (1905). [*Research methods in ecology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vRy-VJctJjcC). Lincoln, Neb.: University Pub. Comp. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-405-10381-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-405-10381-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801074030/https://books.google.com/books?id=vRy-VJctJjcC) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gleason26_181-0)** Gleason, H. A. (1926). ["The individualistic concept of the plant association"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110722230444/http://www.ecologia.unam.mx/laboratorios/comunidades/pdf/pdf%20curso%20posgrado%20Elena/Tema%201/gleason1926.pdf) (PDF). *Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club*. **53** (1): 7–26. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2479933](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2479933). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2479933](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2479933). Archived from [the original](http://www.ecologia.unam.mx/laboratorios/comunidades/pdf/pdf%20curso%20posgrado%20Elena/Tema%201/gleason1926.pdf) (PDF) on 22 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cook77_182-0)** Cook, R. E. (1977). ["Raymond Lindeman and the trophic-dynamic concept in ecology"](http://www.esf.edu/efb/schulz/Seminars/Cook.pdf) (PDF). *Science*. **198** (4312): 22–26. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1977Sci...198...22C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977Sci...198...22C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.198.4312.22](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.198.4312.22). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17741875](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17741875). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [30340899](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30340899). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121005002320/http://www.esf.edu/efb/schulz/Seminars/Cook.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Odum68_183-0)** Odum, E. P. (1968). ["Energy flow in ecosystems: A historical review"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F8.1.11). *American Zoologist*. **8** (1): 11–18. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/icb/8.1.11](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F8.1.11). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3881528](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3881528).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Carson62_184-0)** Carson, R. (2002). [*Silent Spring*](https://archive.org/details/silentspring00cars_0). Houghton Mifflin Company. p. [348](https://archive.org/details/silentspring00cars_0/page/348). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-618-24906-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-24906-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Palamar08_185-0)** Palamar, C. R. (2008). ["The justice of ecological restoration: Environmental history, health, ecology, and justice in the United States"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110726161950/http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her151/palamar.pdf) (PDF). *Human Ecology Review*. **15** (1): 82–94. Archived from [the original](http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her151/palamar.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Krebs99_186-0)** Krebs, J. R.; Wilson, J. D.; Bradbury, R. B.; Siriwardena, G. M. (1999). ["The second Silent Spring"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130331100623/http://www.hillnet.com/silent_spring.pdf) (PDF). *Nature*. **400** (6745): 611–612. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1999Natur.400..611K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.400..611K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/23127](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F23127). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [9929695](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9929695). Archived from [the original](http://www.hillnet.com/silent_spring.pdf) (PDF) on 31 March 2013.

## External links

**Ecology**  at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects)

- [Definitions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ecology) from Wiktionary
- [Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ecology) from Commons
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ecology) from Wikiquote
- [Texts](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ecology) from Wikisource
- [Textbooks](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ecology) from Wikibooks
- [Resources](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ecology) from Wikiversity

- [/ "Ecology "](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ecology) entry by Alkistis Elliott-Graves in the *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/source/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy)*

- [The Nature Education Knowledge Project: Ecology](https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/ecology-102)

v t e Elements of nature Universe Space Time Energy Matter chemical elements particles Change Earth Earth science History geological Structure Geology Plate tectonics Oceans Gaia hypothesis Future Weather Meteorology Atmosphere (Earth) Climate Clouds Moonlight Rain Snow Sunlight Tides Wind tornado tropical cyclone Natural environment Ecology Ecosystem Field Radiation Wilderness Wildfires Life Origin (abiogenesis) Evolutionary history Biosphere Hierarchy Biology astrobiology Biodiversity Organism Eukaryota fauna animals flora plants fungi protista Prokaryotes archaea bacteria Viruses See also Nature-based solutions

v t e Branches of biology Abiogenesis Aerobiology Agronomy Agrostology Anatomy Anthropogeny Anthropology Astrobiology Bacteriology Biochemistry Biogeography Biogeology Bioinformatics Biological engineering Biomathematics Biomechanics Biophysics Biosemiotics Biostatistics Biotechnology Botany Cell biology Cellular microbiology Chemical biology Chronobiology Cognitive biology Comparative biology Computational biology Conservation biology Cryobiology Cytogenetics Dendrology Developmental biology Ecological genetics Ecology Embryology Epidemiology Epigenetics Evolutionary biology Freshwater biology Generative biology Genetics Genomics Geobiology Gerontology Herpetology Histology Human biology Ichthyology Immunology Lipidology Mammalogy Marine biology Microbiology Molecular biology Mycology Neontology Neuroscience Nutrition Ornithology Osteology Paleontology Parasitology Pathology Pharmacology Photobiology Phycology Phylogenetics Physiology Pomology Primatology Proteomics Protistology Quantum biology Relational biology Reproductive biology Sociobiology Spatial biology Structural biology Synthetic biology Systematics Systems biology Taxonomy Teratology Toxicology Virology Virophysics Welfare biology Xenobiology Zoology See also History of biology Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Timeline of biology and organic chemistry

v t e Biology Introduction (Genetics, Evolution) Outline History Timeline Index Overview Science Life Properties (Adaptation, Energy processing, Growth, Order, Regulation, Reproduction (Self-replication), Response to environment) Hierarchy of life (Atom > Molecule > Organelle > Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ system > Organism > Population > Community > Ecosystem > Biosphere) Reductionist Emergent property Mechanist Scientific method Taxonomic rank Theory Law Peer review Biology journals Common name Chemical basis Atoms Amino acids Carbohydrates Chemical bond Chemical element Lipids Matter Quantum Molecules Monomer Nucleic acids Organic compounds pH Polymer Proteins Water Cells ATP Cell cycle Cell theory Cell signaling Cellular respiration Energy transformation Enzyme Eukaryote Fermentation Metabolism Meiosis Mitosis Photosynthesis Prokaryote Genetics DNA Epigenetics Evolutionary developmental biology Gene expression Gene regulation Genomes Mendelian inheritance Post-transcriptional modification Evolution Adaptation Earliest known life forms Function Genetic drift Gene flow History of life Macroevolution Microevolution Mutation Natural selection Phylogenetics Speciation Taxonomy Diversity Archaea Bacteria Eukaryote Alga Animal Fungus Plant Protist Virus Plant form, function Epidermis (botany) Flower Ground tissue Leaf Phloem Plant stem Root Shoot Vascular plant Vascular tissue Xylem Animal form, function Breathing Circulatory system Endocrine system Digestive system Homeostasis Immune system Internal environment Muscular system Nervous system Reproductive system Respiratory system Ecology Biogeochemical cycle Biological interaction Biomass Biomes Biosphere Climate Climate change Community Conservation Ecosystem Habitat niche Microbiome Population dynamics Resources Biology portal Commons WikiProject Category

v t e Earth Outline History Atmosphere Atmosphere of Earth Prebiotic atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Weather Climate Climate system Energy balance Climate change Climate variability and change Climatology Paleoclimatology Continents Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Culture and society List of sovereign states dependent territories In culture Earth Day Flag Gaia hypothesis Spaceship Earth Symbol World economy Etymology World history Time zones World Environment Biome Biosphere Biogeochemical cycles Ecology Ecosystem Human impact on the environment Evolutionary history of life Nature Geodesy Cartography Computer cartography Earth's orbit Geodetic astronomy Geomatics Gravity Navigation Remote Sensing Geopositioning Virtual globe Geophysics Earth structure Fluid dynamics Geomagnetism Magnetosphere Mineral physics Seismology Plate tectonics Signal processing Tomography Geology Age of Earth Earth science Extremes on Earth Future Geological history Geologic time scale Geologic record History of Earth Oceans Antarctic/Southern Ocean Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Oceanography Planetary science The Moon Evolution of the Solar System Geology of solar terrestrial planets Location in the Universe Solar System Category

v t e Environmental science Main fields Atmospheric science Biogeochemistry Ecology Environmental chemistry Geosciences Hydrology Limnology Oceanography Soil science Related fields Biology Chemistry green Ecological economics Environmental design Environmental economics Environmental engineering Environmental health epidemiology Environmental studies Environmental humanities Environmental statistics Environmental toxicology Geodesy Physics Radioecology Sustainability science Systems ecology Urban ecology Applications Energy conservation Environmental technology Natural resource management Pollution control Public transport encouragement Recycling Remediation Renewable energy Road ecology Sewage treatment Urban metabolism Water purification Waste management Lists Degrees Journals Research institutes Glossary Environment by year See also Human impact on the environment Sustainability Technogaianism Category scientists Commons Environment portal WikiProject

v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Trophic components General Abiotic component Abiotic stress Behaviour Biogeochemical cycle Biomass Biotic component Biotic stress Carrying capacity Competition Ecosystem Ecosystem ecology Ecosystem model Green world hypothesis Keystone species List of feeding behaviours Metabolic theory of ecology Productivity Resource Restoration Producers Autotrophs Chemosynthesis Chemotrophs Foundation species Kinetotrophs Mixotrophs Myco-heterotrophy Mycotroph Organotrophs Photoheterotrophs Photosynthesis Photosynthetic efficiency Phototrophs Primary nutritional groups Primary production Consumers Apex predator Bacterivore Carnivores Chemoorganotroph Foraging Generalist and specialist species Intraguild predation Herbivores Heterotroph Heterotrophic nutrition Insectivore Mesopredators Mesopredator release hypothesis Omnivores Optimal foraging theory Planktivore Predation Prey switching Decomposers Chemoorganoheterotrophy Decomposition Detritivores Detritus Microorganisms Archaea Bacteriophage Lithoautotroph Lithotrophy Marine Microbial cooperation Microbial ecology Microbial food web Microbial intelligence Microbial loop Mycoloop Microbial mat Microbial metabolism Phage ecology Food webs Biomagnification Ecological efficiency Ecological pyramid Energy flow Food chain Trophic level Example webs Lakes Rivers Soil Tritrophic interactions in plant defense Marine food webs cold seeps hydrothermal vents intertidal kelp forests North Pacific Gyre San Francisco Estuary tide pool Processes Ascendency Bioaccumulation Cascade effect Climax community Competitive exclusion principle Consumer–resource interactions Copiotrophs Dominance Ecological network Ecological succession Energy quality Energy systems language f-ratio Feed conversion ratio Feeding frenzy Mesotrophic soil Nutrient cycle Oligotroph Paradox of the plankton Trophic cascade Trophic mutualism Trophic state index Defense, counter Animal coloration Anti-predator adaptations Camouflage Deimatic behaviour Herbivore adaptations to plant defense Mimicry Plant defense against herbivory Predator avoidance in schooling fish

v t e Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components Population ecology Abundance Allee effect Consumer-resource model Depensation Ecological yield Effective population size Intraspecific competition Logistic function Malthusian growth model Maximum sustainable yield Overpopulation Overexploitation Population cycle Population dynamics Population modeling Population size Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations Recruitment Small population size Stability Resilience Resistance Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model Species Biodiversity Density-dependent inhibition Ecological effects of biodiversity Ecological extinction Endemic species Flagship species Gradient analysis Indicator species Introduced species Invasive species / Native species Latitudinal gradients in species diversity Minimum viable population Neutral theory Occupancy–abundance relationship Population viability analysis Priority effect Rapoport's rule Relative abundance distribution Relative species abundance Species diversity Species homogeneity Species richness Species distribution Species–area curve Umbrella species Species interaction Antibiosis Biological interaction Commensalism Community ecology Ecological facilitation Interspecific competition Mutualism Parasitism Storage effect Symbiosis Spatial ecology Biogeography Cross-boundary subsidy Ecocline Ecotone Ecotype Disturbance Edge effects Foster's rule Habitat fragmentation Ideal free distribution Intermediate disturbance hypothesis Insular biogeography Land change modeling Landscape ecology Landscape epidemiology Landscape limnology Metapopulation Patch dynamics r/K selection theory Resource selection function Source–sink dynamics Niche Ecological trap Ecosystem engineer Environmental niche modelling Guild Habitat Marine Semiaquatic Terrestrial Limiting similarity Niche apportionment models Niche construction Niche differentiation Ontogenetic niche shift Other networks Assembly rules Bateman's principle Bioluminescence Ecological collapse Ecological debt Ecological deficit Ecological energetics Ecological indicator Ecological threshold Ecosystem diversity Emergence Extinction debt Kleiber's law Liebig's law of the minimum Marginal value theorem Thorson's rule Xerosere Other Allometry Alternative stable state Balance of nature Biological data visualization Ecological economics Ecological footprint Ecological forecasting Ecological humanities Ecological stoichiometry Ecopath Ecosystem based fisheries Endolith Evolutionary ecology Functional ecology Industrial ecology Macroecology Microecosystem Natural environment Regime shift Sexecology Systems ecology Urban ecology Theoretical ecology Outline of ecology

v t e Branches of ecology Methodology Field ecology Quantitative ecology Theoretical ecology Spatial scale Microecology Macroecology Organisation or scope Autecology Synecology Population ecology Community ecology Ecosystem ecology Taxonomy or taxon Microbial ecology Plant ecology Insect ecology Human ecology Biome or biogeographical Polar ecology Arctic ecology Desert ecology Forest ecology Soil ecology Tropical ecology Urban ecology Ecological phenomena Behavioral ecology Chemical ecology Disease ecology Ecophysiology Ecotoxicology Evolutionary ecology Fire ecology Functional ecology Genetic ecology Landscape ecology Molecular ecology Paleoecology Social ecology Spatial ecology Thermal ecology Interdisciplinarity Agroecology Ecological anthropology Ecological economics Ecological engineering Political ecology Systems ecology Other History of ecology Glossary of ecology Applied ecology Restoration ecology Ecosophy Natural history Biogeography

[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals):
- [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Environment)
- [Ecology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Ecology)

**Ecology** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects):

- [**Definitions**](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ecology) from Wiktionary
- [**Media**](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ecology) from Commons
- [**Quotations**](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ecology) from Wikiquote
- [**Textbooks**](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ecology) from Wikibooks
- [**Resources**](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ecology) from Wikiversity

Authority control databases International GND National United States 2 France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Latvia Israel Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Ecology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.