# Dysphoria

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For the moth genus, see [*Dysphoria* (moth)](/source/Hyposmocoma). For the game, see [*Dys4ia*](/source/Dys4ia).

Not to be confused with [Diaphoresis](/source/Perspiration#Definitions) or [Dysmorphia](/source/Body_dysmorphic_disorder) or [Diaspora](/source/Diaspora).

**Dysphoria** (Ancient Greek **δύσφορος* ()* 'grievous'; **δυσ-* ()* 'bad, difficult') is a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction. It is the [semantic opposite](/source/Opposite_(semantics)) of [euphoria](/source/Euphoria). In a psychiatric context, dysphoria may accompany [depression](/source/Depression_(mood)), [anxiety](/source/Anxiety), or agitation.[1]

## In psychiatry

Intense states of distress and unease increase the risk of [suicide](/source/Suicide), as well as being unpleasant in themselves. Relieving dysphoria is therefore a priority of psychiatric treatment. One may treat underlying causes such as [depression](/source/Depression_(mood)) (especially [dysthymia](/source/Dysthymia) or [major depressive disorder](/source/Major_depressive_disorder)) or [bipolar disorder](/source/Bipolar_disorder) as well as the dysphoric symptoms themselves.[citation needed]

### ICD-11

Dysphoria () was included as a separate diagnosis in the [ICD-11](/source/ICD-11), which came into force in 2022. It can be found under the category "Mental or behavioural symptoms, signs or clinical findings". It is defined as follows:[2]

*An unpleasant mood state, which can include feelings of depression, anxiety, discontent, irritability, and unhappiness.*

### Possible manifestations

Dysphoria is a key component of several health conditions that can have an intense negative impact on a person's quality of life.

#### Borderline personality disorder (BPD)

Main article: [Borderline personality disorder](/source/Borderline_personality_disorder)

Extreme [mood swings](/source/Mood_swing), chronic feelings of [emptiness](/source/Emptiness) and rapid [irritability](/source/Irritability) are typical.[3] Between intense [fear of abandonment](/source/Fear_of_abandonment) and [impulsive behaviour](/source/Impulsive_behaviour), sufferers experience a lasting dysphoria that can manifest itself in outbursts of anger, [self-harm](/source/Self-harm) or relationship dysfunction.[4]

#### Drug-induced dysphoria (dysphoriants)

Some [drugs](/source/Drug) can produce dysphoria, including [κ-opioid receptor](/source/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor) [agonists](/source/Agonist) like [salvinorin A](/source/Salvinorin_A) (the active constituent of the [hallucinogenic](/source/Hallucinogen) plant *[Salvia divinorum](/source/Salvia_divinorum)*), [butorphanol](/source/Butorphanol) and [pentazocine](/source/Pentazocine),[5] [μ-opioid receptor](/source/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor) [antagonists](/source/Receptor_antagonist) such as [naltrexone](/source/Naltrexone) and [nalmefene](/source/Nalmefene),[6] and [antipsychotics](/source/Antipsychotic) like [haloperidol](/source/Haloperidol) and [chlorpromazine](/source/Chlorpromazine) (via blockade of [dopamine receptors](/source/Dopamine_receptor)),[7] among others. [Depressogenic](/source/Depressogenic) and/or [anxiogenic](/source/Anxiogenic) drugs may also be associated with dysphoria.

[Intoxication](/source/Intoxications) or [withdrawal syndromes](/source/Withdrawal_syndromes) (e.g. [alcohol](/source/Alcohol_withdrawal_syndrome) or [opiate withdrawal](/source/Opiate_withdrawal)) often result in severe, persistent dysphoria.[8] Those affected feel restless, irritable and [dissatisfied](/source/Dissatisfied) - a main driver for [relapses](/source/Relapse), as short-term relief from further substance intake is expected.[9]

#### Gender dysphoria (GD)

Main article: [Gender dysphoria](/source/Gender_dysphoria)

[Gender dysphoria](/source/Gender_dysphoria) is discomfort, unhappiness, or distress due to the [primary](/source/Primary_sex_characteristics) and [secondary sex characteristics](/source/Secondary_sex_characteristics) of one's [sex assigned at birth](/source/Assigned_sex). The current edition of the *[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders](/source/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders)*, [DSM-5](/source/DSM-5), uses the term "gender dysphoria" where it previously referred to "gender identity disorder."

#### Mixed affective state (dysphoric mania)

Main article: [Mixed affective state](/source/Mixed_affective_state)

In [bipolar disorders](/source/Bipolar_disorder), an episode can occur in which symptoms of [mania](/source/Mania) (e.g. racing thoughts, pressurised speech) and features of dysphoria (e.g. irritability, anger, dissatisfaction) occur simultaneously. The coexistence of high energy and low mood makes this form particularly [agonising](/source/Suffering) and risky (increased [suicidal](/source/Suicide) tendencies).[10]

#### Organic dysphoria

In the context of [neurological](/source/Neurological_disorder) or internal illnesses (e.g. [traumatic brain injury](/source/Traumatic_brain_injury), [dementia](/source/Dementia), [metabolic disorders](/source/Metabolic_disorder)), dysphoria can occur primarily for organic reasons. For example: The damage or dysfunction in certain areas of the [brain](/source/Brain) leads to chronic bad mood and [irritability](/source/Irritability) without there being an underlying primary mental illness ([Organic brain syndrome](/source/Organic_brain_syndrome)).[11]

#### Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)

Main article: [Premenstrual dysphoric disorder](/source/Premenstrual_dysphoric_disorder)

Those affected experience pronounced [mood swings](/source/Mood_swing) with [irritability](/source/Irritability), [sadness](/source/Sadness) and inner restlessness during the [luteal phase](/source/Luteal_phase) (one to two weeks before the onset of menstruation). The symptoms are so severe that they put a significant strain on everyday life and interpersonal relationships - typical of a dysphoric mood disorder that is closely linked to the hormonal cycle.[12]

#### Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Main article: [Post-traumatic stress disorder](/source/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder)

A central feature is the persistent experience of [fear](/source/Fear), [anger](/source/Anger), [inner restlessness](/source/Psychomotor_agitation) and [irritability](/source/Irritability). These dysphoric states are caused by the re-experiencing of the [traumatic event](/source/Traumatic_event_(psychological)) and the associated emotional overexcitement, which severely restricts everyday life.[13]

#### Other related conditions

The following conditions may also include dysphoria as a symptom:

- [Major depressive disorder](/source/Major_depressive_disorder) (unipolar) and [dysthymia](/source/Dysthymia)
- [Bipolar disorder](/source/Bipolar_disorder)[14] and [cyclothymia](/source/Cyclothymia)
- [Premenstrual syndrome](/source/Premenstrual_syndrome)
- [Dysphoric milk ejection reflex](/source/Dysphoric_milk_ejection_reflex)
- [Stress](/source/Stress_(biology))
- [Adjustment disorder](/source/Adjustment_disorder) with depressed mood
- [Anxiety disorders](/source/Anxiety_disorder)
- Dysphoric [rumination](/source/Rumination_(psychology))[15]
- [Dissociative disorders](/source/Dissociative_disorder) such as [dissociative identity disorder](/source/Dissociative_identity_disorder), [dissociative amnesia](/source/Dissociative_amnesia) and [depersonalization-derealization disorder](/source/Depersonalization-derealization_disorder).
- [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder](/source/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder)
- [Mixed anxiety-depressive disorder](/source/Mixed_anxiety-depressive_disorder)
- [Personality disorders](/source/Personality_disorder) such as [dependent personality disorder](/source/Dependent_personality_disorder), [histrionic personality disorder](/source/Histrionic_personality_disorder), and [antisocial personality disorder](/source/Antisocial_personality_disorder)
- [Body dysmorphic disorder](/source/Body_dysmorphic_disorder)
- [Akathisia](/source/Akathisia)
- [Schizophrenia](/source/Schizophrenia)
- [Sexual dysfunction](/source/Sexual_dysfunction)
- [Body integrity dysphoria](/source/Body_integrity_dysphoria)
- [Insomnia](/source/Insomnia)[16]
- [Chronic pain](/source/Chronic_pain)[17]
- [Disease](/source/Disease)

## References

1. ["Dysphoria definition | Psychology Glossary"](https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysphoria). *Alleydog.com*. Retrieved 21 December 2023.

1. ["ICD-11 – MB24.7 Dysphoria"](https://icd.who.int/browse/2026-01/mms/en#1979628747). *icd.who.int*. [World Health Organization](/source/World_Health_Organization) (WHO). January 2026.

1. *Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5*. 5th ed. Washington: American psychiatric association. 2013. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1.

1. ["Borderline Personality Disorder - National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)"](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder). *www.nimh.nih.gov*. Retrieved 2025-07-07.

1. Lemke, Thomas L. & Williams, David A. (24 January 2012). [*Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd6ot9ul-bUC&pg=PA682). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 682–683. ISBN 978-1-60913-345-0.

1. Lowinson, Joyce H. (2005). [*Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook*](https://books.google.com/books?id=HtGb2wNsgn4C&pg=PA648). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 648–. ISBN 978-0-7817-3474-5.

1. Wu, Hanjing Emily & Okusaga, Olaoluwa O. (2014). "Antipsychotic Medication-Induced Dysphoria: Its Meaning, Association with Typical vs. Atypical Medications and Impact on Adherence". *Psychiatric Quarterly*. **86** (2): 199–205. [doi:10.1007/s11126-014-9319-1](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-014-9319-1). [ISSN 0033-2720](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0033-2720). [PMID 25164199](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25164199). [S2CID 6831656](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6831656)

1. Volkow, Nora D. & Morales, Marisela (August 2015). ["The Brain on Drugs: From Reward to Addiction"](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867415009629). *Cell*. **162** (4): 712–725. [doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.07.046](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.07.046). [PMID 26276628](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26276628)

1. Handelsman, Leonard; Aronson, Marvin J.; Ness, Robert; Cochrane, Kenneth J.; Kanof, Philip D. (January 1992). ["The Dysphoria of Heroin Addiction"](http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/00952999209026067). *The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse*. **18** (3): 275–287. [doi:10.3109/00952999209026067](https://doi.org/10.3109/00952999209026067). [ISSN 0095-2990](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0095-2990). [PMID 1329491](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1329491)

1. Swann, Alan C. (August 2013). ["Activated Depression: Mixed Bipolar Disorder or Agitated Unipolar Depression?"](http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11920-013-0376-1). *Current Psychiatry Reports*. **15** (8). [doi:10.1007/s11920-013-0376-1](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-013-0376-1). [ISSN 1523-3812](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1523-3812). [PMID 23881708](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23881708)

1. Patel, Beejal M.; Ghosh, Sanjukta S; Vora, Vaishal N.; Lakdawala, Bhaveshkumar M. (October 2023). "Organic Brain Disorders Manifesting as Psychiatric Symptoms". *Annals of Indian Psychiatry*. **7** (4): 375–377. [doi:10.4103/aip.aip_182_22](https://doi.org/10.4103/aip.aip_182_22). [ISSN 2588-8366](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2588-8366)

1. Sundström-Poromaa, Inger & Comasco, Erika (May 2023). "New Pharmacological Approaches to the Management of Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder". *CNS Drugs*. **37** (5): 371–379. [doi:10.1007/s40263-023-01004-9](https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-023-01004-9). [ISSN 1172-7047](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1172-7047). [PMC 10212816](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10212816). [PMID 37171547](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37171547)

1. *Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5*. 5th ed. Washington: American psychiatric association. 2013. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1.

1. Abbess, John F. ["Glossary of terms in the field of psychiatry and neurology"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070718050542/http://www.abess.com/glossary.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.abess.com/glossary.html) on 2007-07-18. Retrieved 2006-11-18.

1. Lyubomirsky, S.; Kasri, F.; Zehm, K. (2003). "Dysphoric rumination impairs concentration on academic tasks". *Cognitive Therapy and Research*. **27** (3): 309–330. [doi:10.1023/A:1023918517378](https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023918517378). [S2CID 14204781](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14204781)

1. Rosa RR, Bonnet MH (2000). "Reported chronic insomnia is independent of poor sleep as measured by electroencephalography". *Psychosom Med*. **62** (4): 474–82. [doi:10.1097/00006842-200007000-00004](https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200007000-00004). [PMID 10949091](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10949091). [S2CID 24557015](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24557015)

1. Chapman CR, Gavrin J (June 1999). "Suffering: the contributions of persistent pain". *Lancet*. **353** (9171): 2233–7. [doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01308-2](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01308-2). [PMID 10393002](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10393002). [S2CID 32348469](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32348469)

## External links

- Read, Kimberly (2006). ["What is dysphoria?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110927023840/http://bipolar.about.com/cs/faqs/f/faq_dysphoria.htm). *Your Guide to Bipolar Disorder*. About.com. Archived from [the original](http://bipolar.about.com/cs/faqs/f/faq_dysphoria.htm) on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2006-11-19.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Dysphoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphoria) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphoria?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.