# Dynasty

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Sequence of rulers considered members of the same family

This article is about the general concept of a line of rulers. For other uses, see [Dynasty (disambiguation)](/source/Dynasty_(disambiguation)).

Not to be confused with [Political dynasty](/source/Political_dynasty).

"Ruling family" redirects here. For other uses, see [Royal family](/source/Royal_family).

"Royal house" redirects here. For royal residences and headquarters, see [Palace](/source/Palace) and [Royal household](/source/Royal_household).

Family photograph of the [Imperial House of Japan](/source/Imperial_House_of_Japan), the world's oldest continuous royal dynasty since at least the [5th century](/source/5th_century), with three generations (from left): [Empress Michiko](/source/Empress_Michiko), [Emperor Akihito](/source/Emperor_Akihito), their son [Emperor Naruhito](/source/Emperor_Naruhito) and his consort [Empress Masako](/source/Empress_Masako), [Crown Prince Akishino](/source/Crown_Prince_Akishino) and [Crown Princess Akishino](/source/Crown_Princess_Akishino), and behind them their children (2021)

A **dynasty** is a sequence of rulers from the same family,[1] usually in the context of a [monarchical](/source/Monarchy) system, but sometimes also appearing in [republics](/source/Republic). A "**house**" is an imperial, royal or noble family, not always ruling. Historians [periodize](/source/Periodization) the histories of many states and [civilizations](/source/Civilization), such as the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire) (27 BC – AD 1453), [Imperial Iran](/source/History_of_Iran) (678 BC – AD 1979), [Ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) (3100–30 BC), and [Ancient and Imperial China](/source/History_of_China#Ancient_China) (2070 BC – AD 1912), using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the term "dynasty" may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned.

Before the 18th century, most dynasties throughout the world were traditionally reckoned [patrilineally](/source/Patrilineality), such as those that followed the [Frankish](/source/Franks) [Salic law](/source/Salic_law). In polities where it was permitted, succession through a daughter usually established a new dynasty in her husband's family name. This has changed in all of Europe's remaining monarchies, where [succession law](/source/Order_of_succession) and conventions have maintained dynastic names *de jure* through a female.

## Terminology

The word "dynasty" (from the [Greek](/source/Greek_language): δυναστεία, *dynasteía* "power", "lordship", from *dynástes* "ruler")[2] is sometimes used informally for people who are not rulers but are, for example, members of a family with influence and power in other areas, such as a series of successive owners of a major company, or any family with a legacy, such as a dynasty of poets or actors. It is also extended to unrelated people, such as major poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team.[3]

The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a "noble house",[4] which may be [styled](/source/Style_(form_of_address)) as "[imperial](/source/Emperor)", "[royal](/source/King)", "[princely](/source/Prince)", "[ducal](/source/Duke)", "[comital](/source/Count)" or "[baronial](/source/Baron)", depending upon the chief or present [title](/source/Imperial%2C_royal_and_noble_ranks) borne by its members, but it is more often referred by adding the name afterwards, as in "[House of Habsburg](/source/House_of_Habsburg)".

### Dynast

The [Spanish royal family](/source/Spanish_royal_family) of the [House of Bourbon](/source/House_of_Bourbon) dates its roots to the [Capetian dynasty](/source/Capetian_dynasty) of the 9th century, thus making it the oldest still reigning dynasty in Europe (photograph of King Felipe VI, Queen Letizia, the Princess of Asturias and her younger sister Infanta Sofía, in 2019)

A ruler from a dynasty is sometimes referred to as a "dynast", but this term is also used to describe any member of a reigning family who retains a [right to succeed](/source/Order_of_succession) to a [throne](/source/Throne). For example, [King Edward VIII](/source/Edward_VIII) ceased to be a dynast of the [House of Windsor](/source/House_of_Windsor) following his abdication.

In historical and [monarchist](/source/Monarchism) references to formerly reigning families, a "dynast" is a family member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchy's rules still in force. For example, after the 1914 assassinations of [Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria](/source/Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria) and his [morganatic](/source/Morganatic_marriage) wife, their son [Maximilian, Duke of Hohenberg](/source/Maximilian%2C_Duke_of_Hohenberg), was bypassed for the Austro-Hungarian throne because he was not a [Habsburg](/source/House_of_Habsburg) dynast. Even after the [abolition](/source/Abolition_of_monarchy) of the Austrian monarchy, Duke Maximilian and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position.

The term "dynast" is sometimes used only to refer to [agnatic](/source/Patrilineality#Agnatic_succession) descendants of a [realm](/source/Realm)'s monarchs, and sometimes to include those who hold succession rights through [cognatic](/source/Matrilineality) royal descent. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people. For example, [David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon](/source/David_Armstrong-Jones%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Snowdon), a nephew of [Queen Elizabeth II](/source/Elizabeth_II), is in the [line of succession to the British crown](/source/Succession_to_the_British_throne), making him a British dynast. On the other hand, since he is not a patrilineal member of the British royal family, he is not a dynast of the House of Windsor.

Comparatively, the German aristocrat [Prince Ernst August of Hanover](/source/Prince_Ernst_August_of_Hanover_(born_1954)), a male-line descendant of [King George III](/source/George_III), possesses no legal British name, titles or styles (although he is entitled to reclaim the former [royal dukedom](/source/Duke#Royal_dukes) of [Cumberland](/source/Duke_of_Cumberland)). He was born in the line of succession to the British throne and was bound by Britain's [Royal Marriages Act 1772](/source/Royal_Marriages_Act_1772) until it was repealed when the [Succession to the Crown Act 2013](/source/Succession_to_the_Crown_Act_2013) took effect on 26 March 2015.[5] Thus, he requested and obtained formal permission from Queen Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic [Princess Caroline of Monaco](/source/Caroline%2C_Princess_of_Hanover) in 1999. Yet, a clause of the English [Act of Settlement 1701](/source/Act_of_Settlement_1701) remained in effect at that time, stipulating that dynasts who marry Roman Catholics are considered "dead" for succession to the British throne.[6] That exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts before triggering it by marriage to a Roman Catholic.[5]

### Dynastic marriage

Family portrait of Empress [Maria Theresa](/source/Maria_Theresa) of the [Habsburg dynasty](/source/Habsburg_dynasty), surrounded by her children who were married into various European dynasties. Marriage policy amongst dynasties led to the *[Pax Austriaca](/source/Pax_Austriaca)*.

A "dynastic marriage" is one that complies with monarchical [house law](/source/House_law) restrictions, so that the descendants are eligible to inherit the throne or other royal privileges.[7] For example, the marriage of [King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands](/source/Willem-Alexander_of_the_Netherlands) to [Máxima Zorreguieta](/source/Queen_M%C3%A1xima_of_the_Netherlands) in 2002 was dynastic, making their eldest child, [Princess Catharina-Amalia](/source/Catharina-Amalia%2C_Princess_of_Orange), the [heir apparent](/source/Heir_apparent) to the Crown of the Netherlands. The marriage of his younger brother, [Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau](/source/Prince_Friso_of_Orange-Nassau), in 2003 lacked government support and parliamentary approval. Thus, Prince Friso forfeited his place in the [order of succession to the Dutch throne](/source/Succession_to_the_Dutch_throne), and consequently lost his title as a "Prince of the Netherlands", and left his children without dynastic rights.

The [Pragmatic Sanction of 1713](/source/Pragmatic_Sanction_of_1713) was an edict issued by Holy Roman [Emperor Charles VI](/source/Emperor_Charles_VI) on 19 April 1713 to ensure that the [Habsburg monarchy](/source/Habsburg_monarchy) could be inherited by his daughter undivided (→ [agnatic-cognatic primogeniture](/source/Primogeniture#Agnatic-cognatic_primogeniture)).[8] In 1736, [Francis Stephen](/source/Francis_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) of Lorraine married Archduchess [Maria Theresa of Austria](/source/Maria_Theresa_of_Austria), the sole heir of Emperor Charles VI. With the marriage of Maria Theresa, the only offspring of the House of [Austria](/source/History_of_Austria#Charles_III:_Succession_and_the_Pragmatic_Sanction_(1713–1740)), she became together with her husband the founder of the new dynasty of the House of [Habsburg-Lorraine](/source/Habsburg-Lorraine). Since 1740 he was her co-regent in the [Habsburg hereditary lands](/source/Habsburg_hereditary_lands) and from 1745 he was Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I, but was hardly involved in government affairs.[9] Francis was as [Duke of Lorraine](/source/Duke_of_Lorraine) the last non-[Habsburg](/source/Habsburg) monarch of the Holy Roman Empire. The couple were the founders of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, which ruled until 1918. Empress [Maria Theresa](/source/Maria_Theresa) of the [Habsburg dynasty](/source/Habsburg_dynasty) had her children married into various European dynasties. Habsburg marriage policy amongst European dynasties led to the *[Pax Austriaca](/source/Pax_Austriaca)*.[10][11]

## History

Historians [periodize](/source/Periodization) the histories of many states and [civilizations](/source/Civilization), such as [Ancient Iran](/source/History_of_Iran) (3200 BC – 1979 AD), [Ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt) (3100–30 BC) and [Ancient and Imperial China](/source/History_of_China#Ancient_China) (2070 BC – AD 1912), using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the term "dynasty" may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, and also to describe events, trends and artefacts of that period (e.g., "a [Ming dynasty](/source/Ming_dynasty) vase"). Until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty: that is, to expand the wealth and power of his family members.[12]

Before the 18th century, most dynasties throughout the world had traditionally been reckoned [patrilineally](/source/Patrilineality), such as those that followed the [Frankish](/source/Franks) [Salic law](/source/Salic_law). In polities where it was permitted, succession through a daughter usually established a new dynasty in her husband's family name. This has changed in all of Europe's remaining monarchies, where [succession law](/source/Order_of_succession) and conventions have maintained dynastic names *de jure* through a female. For instance, the [House of Windsor](/source/House_of_Windsor) is maintained through the children of [Queen Elizabeth II](/source/Elizabeth_II), as it did with the [monarchy of the Netherlands](/source/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands), whose dynasty remained the [House of Orange-Nassau](/source/House_of_Orange-Nassau) through three successive [queens regnant](/source/Queen_regnant). The earliest such example among major European monarchies was in the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire) in the 18th century, where the name of the [House of Romanov](/source/House_of_Romanov) was maintained through [Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna](/source/Grand_Duchess_Anna_Petrovna_of_Russia). This also happened in the case of [Queen Maria II of Portugal](/source/Maria_II_of_Portugal), who married [Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry](/source/Ferdinand_II_of_Portugal), but whose descendants remained members of the [House of Braganza](/source/House_of_Braganza), per Portuguese law;, since the 1800s, the only female monarch in Europe who had children belonging to a different house was [Queen Victoria](/source/Queen_Victoria) and that was due to disagreements over how to choose a non German house. In [Limpopo Province](/source/Limpopo) of [South Africa](/source/South_Africa), [Balobedu](/source/Rain_Queen) determined descent [matrilineally](/source/Matrilineal_succession), while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mother's dynasty when coming into her inheritance. Less frequently, a monarchy has alternated or been rotated, in a multi-dynastic (or polydynastic) system—that is, the most senior living members of parallel dynasties, at any point in time, constitute the line of succession.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Longevity

King [Tupou VI](/source/Tupou_VI) of Tonga and Queen [Nanasipau'u](/source/Nanasipau%CA%BBu_Tuku%CA%BBaho), head of one of the oldest still ruling royal dynasties in the world, dating back to c. 950 CE of the [Tuʻi Tonga Empire](/source/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire)

Dynasties lasting at least 200 years include the following.

Dynasty Years Ruled Corrected Length of Rule Notes Pandya c. 400 BCE – 1618 CE ~2018 years Non-continuous. Disappeared from historical record during Kalabhra dynasty rule from around 361-560 CE. Excluding the Kalabhra interlude, the Pandyas ruled for ~1819 years [13][14] Imperial House of Japan c. 500 CE – present ~1,500+ years Continuous, mostly ceremonial since 12th century; pre-500 CE emperors semi-legendary, exact start uncertain.[15][16][a] Wessex/England/Britain c. 520 CE – present ~1,500 years Non-continuous; was deposed in 1066 but survived through marriages and cadet branches.[b] Guhila / Sisodia c. 525 CE – 1971 CE ~1,500 years Agnatic dynasty of the Kingdom of Mewar; ceremonial after 1949.[19][20] Chera c. 200 BCE – 1100 CE ~1,300 years Estimation; fragmented early records, gaps likely.[21][22] Velir c.50 CE– 1300CE 1400CE–1751CE 1803CE–1948CE ~1,250 years Non-continuous; independently ruling Malyaman branch ended in 1300CE, cadets survived till 1751CE under Nayaka suzerainty, surviving descendant Princely Pari family[23], ceremonial zamins from 1803CE-1948CE under British paramountcy.[24][25] (dynasty in power for 1,746 years)[26][27] Tonga c. 950 CE – present ~1,075 years Estimation; title changed in 1865, constitutional now.[28][29] Capetian 987 CE – present 1,038 years Continuous through cadet branches (e.g., Bourbon); active in Spain.[30] Bagrationi 780 CE – 1801 CE ~1,021 years Georgian royal house; ended with Russian annexation.[31] Silla 57 BCE – 935 CE 992 years Korean kingdom; estimation for early start.[32] Adaside c. 1700 BCE – 722 BCE 978 years Neo-Assyrian period; estimation.[33] Eastern Ganga 498 CE – 1434 CE ~936 years Odisha rulers; diminished after 1434.[34][35] Baduspanids 665 CE – 1598 CE 933 years Tabaristan rulers.[36] Chola c. 300 BCE – 200 CE, 848–1279 CE ~929 years Non-continuous; interregnum ~200–848 CE; early period semi-legendary.[37][38] Zhou 1046 BCE – 256 BCE 790 years Nominal rule in later Warring States period; traditional dates.[39] Abbasid 750–1258 CE, 1261–1517 CE 764 years Non-continuous; caliphal rule, ceremonial after 1258.[40] Rurikid 862 CE – 1598 CE 736 years Kievan Rus to Tsardom of Russia.[41] Sayfawa c. 1085 CE – 1846 CE ~761 years Kanem–Bornu Empire; estimation.[42] Grimaldi 1297 CE 729 years Reigning Princes of Monaco Goguryeo 37 BCE – 668 CE 705 years Korean kingdom; well-documented.[43] Solomon 1270 CE – 1975 CE 705 years Ethiopian emperors; restored in 1270.[44] Bavand dynasty 651 CE – 1349 CE 698 years Tabaristan rulers.[45] Kachhwaha 1128 CE – 1818 CE 690 years Jaipur rajputs; effective rule ended with British control.[46][47] Bolkiah c. 1360 CE – present ~665 years Brunei sultans; estimation for early start.[48] Ottoman 1299 CE – 1922 CE 623 years Sultans of Ottoman Empire.[49] Vijaya 543 BCE – 66 CE 609 years Sri Lankan kings; traditional dates.[50] Ahom 1228 CE – 1826 CE 598 years Assam kingdom.[51] Oldenburg 1448 CE – present 577 years Danish/Norwegian royals; active in Denmark.[52] Rathore 1243 CE – 1818 CE 575 years Marwar/Jodhpur rajputs; ended with British control.[53][54] Bohkti c. 1330 CE – 1855 CE ~525 years Kurdish principality; adjusted start date.[55] Joseon and Korean Empire 1392 CE – 1910 CE 518 years Korean rulers.[56] Habsburg 1278 CE – 1780 CE 502 years Line Agnatic: All are extinct (after death of Maria Theresa). Shang 1600 BCE – 1046 BCE 496 years Chinese royal rulers[57] Goryeo 918 CE – 1392 CE 474 years Korean kingdom.[58] Arsacid 247 BCE – 224 CE 471 years Parthian Empire.[59] Nabhani 1154 CE – 1624 CE 470 years Oman imams.[60] Han and Shu Han 202 BCE – 9 CE, 25–220 CE 448 years Non-continuous; Chinese emperors.[61] Árpád 858 CE – 1301 CE 443 years Hungarian kings.[62] Mataram 1586 CE – present ~439 years Indonesian sultans; estimation for continuity.[63] Přemyslid 870 CE - 1306 CE ~436 years Czech dukes and kings of Bohemia. Sassanian 224 CE – 651 CE 427 years Persian Empire.[64] Davidic c. 1010 BCE – 586 BCE ~424 years Kingdom of Judah; traditional dates.[65] Jafnid 220 CE – 638 CE 418 years Arab kingdom.[66] Piast 960 CE – 1370 CE 410 years Polish dukes/kings.[67] Argead c. 700 BCE – 309 BCE ~391 years Macedonian kings; adjusted start.[68] Copán 426 CE – 810 CE 384 years Maya city-state.[69] Siri Sanga Bo 1220 CE – 1597 CE 377 years Kandy kingdom, Sri Lanka.[70] Umayyad 661–750 CE, 756–1031 CE 364 years Non-continuous; caliphs.[71] Yuan and Northern Yuan 1271 CE – 1635 CE 364 years Mongol China.[72] Komnenos 1057–1059 CE, 1081–1185 CE, 1204–1461 CE 363 years Byzantine emperors; non-continuous.[73] Later Lê (Primitive and Revival Lê) 1428–1527 CE, 1533–1789 CE 355 years Vietnamese emperors; non-continuous.[74] Estridsen 1047–1375 CE, 1387–1412 CE 353 years Danish kings; non-continuous.[75] Aryacakravarti 1277 CE – 1619 CE 342 years Jaffna kingdom.[76] Lakhmid c. 268 CE – 602 CE ~334 years Arab kingdom.[77] Stuart 1371–1651, 1660–1714 334 years Scottish/British royals; non-continuous.[78] Mughal 1526 CE – 1857 CE 331 years Mughal Empire; cadet branch of Timurid dynasty.[79][80] Plantagenet 1154 CE – 1485 CE 331 years English kings.[81] Jiménez 905 CE – 1234 CE 329 years Navarre/Aragon.[82] Bendahara 1699 CE – present ~326 years Pahang/Malaysia sultans; estimation.[83] Song 960 CE – 1279 CE 319 years Chinese emperors.[84] Romanov 1613 CE – 1917 CE 304 years Russian tsars.[85] Liao and Western Liao 916 CE – 1218 CE 302 years Khitan rulers.[86] Later Jin and Qing 1616 CE – 1912 CE 296 years Manchu China.[87] Ming and Southern Ming 1368 CE – 1662 CE 294 years Chinese emperors.[88] Babenberg 962 CE – 1246 CE 284 years Austrian dukes.[89] Ptolemaic 305 BCE – 30 BCE 275 years Hellenistic Egypt.[90] Tang 618–690 CE, 705–907 CE 274 years Chinese emperors; non-continuous.[91] Fatimid 909 CE – 1171 CE 262 years Caliphs.[92] Nasrid 1230 CE – 1492 CE 262 years Granada emirate.[93] Rajasa 1222 CE -1478 CE 256 years Javanese rulers[94] Thutmosid c. 1550 BCE – c. 1295 BCE ~255 years Egyptian pharaohs.[95] Dunkeld 1034 CE – 1286 CE 252 years Scottish kings.[96] Bubastite c. 945 BCE – c. 715 BCE ~230 years Egyptian pharaohs.[95] Achaemenid 550 BCE – 330 BCE 220 years Persian Empire; adjusted start.[97][98] Bernadotte 1818 CE – present 208 years Swedish monarchs; Norwegian monarchs from 1818 – 1905[99]

## Extant sovereign dynasties

For non-sovereign dynasties currently ruling subnational monarchies, see [Non-sovereign monarchy](/source/Non-sovereign_monarchy) and [List of current constituent monarchs](/source/List_of_current_constituent_monarchs).

There are [43 sovereign states](/source/List_of_current_monarchies) with a [monarch](/source/Monarch) as [head of state](/source/Head_of_state), of which 41 are ruled by dynasties.[c] There are currently 26 sovereign dynasties.

Dynasty Realm Reigning monarch Dynastic founder[d] Dynastic place of origin[e] Windsor[f][g] Antigua and Barbuda King Charles III King-Emperor George V[h] Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany) Commonwealth of Australia[i] Bahamas Belize Canada Grenada Jamaica New Zealand[j] Papua New Guinea Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Solomon Islands Tuvalu United Kingdom[k] Khalifa Bahrain King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Sheikh Khalifa bin Mohammed Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) Belgium[l] Belgium King Philippe King Albert I[m] Thuringia and Bavaria (in modern Germany) Wangchuck Bhutan Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck Trongsa, Bhutan Bolkiah Brunei Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Sultan Muhammad Shah Tarim in Hadhramaut[n] (in modern Yemen) Norodom[o] Cambodia King Norodom Sihamoni King Norodom Prohmbarirak Cambodia Glücksburg[p] Denmark[q] King Frederik X Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg Glücksburg (in modern Germany) Norway[r] King Harald V Dlamini Eswatini King Mswati III Chief Dlamini I East Africa Yamato[s] Japan Emperor Naruhito Emperor Jimmu[t] Nara (in modern Japan) Hashim[u] Jordan King Abdullah II King Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi Hejaz (in modern Saudi Arabia) Sabah Kuwait Emir Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Sheikh Sabah I bin Jaber Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) Moshesh Lesotho King Letsie III Paramount Chief Moshoeshoe I Lesotho Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Prince Hans-Adam II Prince Karl I Lower Austria (in modern Austria) Luxembourg-Nassau[v] Luxembourg Grand Duke Guillaume V Grand Duke Adolphe Nassau (in modern Germany) Temenggong[w] Malaysia[x] Sultan Ibrahim III Sultan Abu Bakar Johor (in modern Malaysia) Grimaldi Monaco Prince Albert II François Grimaldi Genoa (in modern Italy) Alawi Morocco King Mohammed VI Sultan Abul Amlak Sidi Muhammad as-Sharif ibn 'Ali Tafilalt (in modern Morocco) Orange-Nassau[y] Netherlands[z] King Willem-Alexander Prince William I Nassau (in modern Germany) Busaid Oman Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Sultan Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi Oman Thani Qatar Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani Sheikh Thani bin Mohammed Najd (in modern Saudi Arabia) Saud Saudi Arabia King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Emir Saud I Diriyah (in modern Saudi Arabia) Bourbon-Anjou[aa] Spain King Felipe VI King Philip V Bourbon-l'Archambault (in modern France) Bernadotte Sweden King Carl XVI Gustaf King Charles XIV John Pau (in modern France) Chakri Thailand King Vajiralongkorn King Rama I Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (in modern Thailand) Tupou Tonga King Tupou VI King George Tupou I Tonga Nahyan[ab] United Arab Emirates[ac] President Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan Sheikh Dhiyab bin Isa Al Nahyan Liwa Oasis (in modern United Arab Emirates)

## Political families

Main articles: [Political family](/source/Political_family) and [List of political families](/source/List_of_political_families)

Though in [elected](/source/Election) [governments](/source/Government), rule does not pass automatically by inheritance, political power often accrues to generations of related individuals in the elected positions of [republics](/source/Republic) and [constitutional monarchies](/source/Constitutional_monarchy). Eminence, [influence](/source/Social_influence), [tradition](/source/Tradition), [genetics](/source/Genetics), and [nepotism](/source/Nepotism) may contribute to the phenomenon.

### Hereditary dictatorship

See also: [Personalist dictatorship](/source/Personalist_dictatorship) and [Absolute monarchy](/source/Absolute_monarchy)

[Iranian supreme leaders](/source/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran) [Ali Khamenei](/source/Ali_Khamenei) (left) and [Mojtaba Khamenei](/source/Mojtaba_Khamenei) (right), are members of the [Khamenei family](/source/Khamenei_family), which has ruled [Iran](/source/Iran) since 1989

Hereditary dictatorships are characterized by the dictator keeping political power within their family due to personal choice.[100] The successor may be groomed during their lifetime, as was the case for [Bashar al-Assad](/source/Bashar_al-Assad) and his brother [Bassel](/source/Bassel_al-Assad),[101] or a member of their family may manoeuvre to take control of the dictatorship after the dictator's death, similar to the case of [Ramfis Trujillo](/source/Ramfis_Trujillo)[102] or [Mojtaba Khamenei](/source/Mojtaba_Khamenei).

Current hereditary dictatorships Dynasty Regime Dynastic founder Current leader Year founded[ad] Length of rule Kim family[103][104] North Korea Kim Il Sung Kim Jong Un 1946 80 years, 144 days Gnassingbé family[105] Togo Gnassingbé Eyadéma Faure Gnassingbé 1967 59 years, 79 days Nguema family[106][107] Equatorial Guinea Francisco Macías Nguema Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo 1968 57 years, 263 days Guelleh family[106] Djibouti Hassan Gouled Aptidon Ismaïl Omar Guelleh 1977 49 years, 5 days Hun family[108][109][110] Cambodia Hun Sen Hun Manet 1985 41 years, 169 days Khamenei family[111] Iran Ali Khamenei Mojtaba Khamenei 1989 37 years, 28 days Déby family[112] Chad Idriss Déby Mahamat Déby 1991 35 years, 124 days Aliyev family[113] Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev Ilham Aliyev 1993 33 years, 8 days Berdimuhamedow family[114] Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow Serdar Berdimuhamedow 2006 19 years, 193 days

Former hereditary dictatorships Dynasty Regime Dynastic founder Last leader Year founded Year ended Length of rule Cromwell family Great Britain Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell 1653 1659 5 years, 150 days López family[115] Paraguay Carlos Antonio López Francisco Solano López 1844 1870 25 years, 293 days Rana family Nepal Jung Bahadur Rana Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana 1846 1951 105 years, 58 days Chiang family[ae] Taiwan[af] Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Ching-kuo 1928 1988 59 years, 95 days Trujillo family Dominican Republic Rafael Trujillo Ramfis Trujillo 1930 1961 31 years, 93 days Somoza family[116] Nicaragua Anastasio Somoza García Anastasio Somoza Debayle 1936 1979 43 years, 39 days Duvalier family Haiti François Duvalier Jean-Claude Duvalier 1957 1986 28 years, 108 days Castro family Cuba Fidel Castro Raul Castro 1959 2021 62 years, 62 days Assad family[117][118] Syria Hafez al-Assad Bashar al-Assad 1971 2024 53 years, 269 days Kabila family DR Congo Laurent-Désiré Kabila Joseph Kabila 1997 2019 21 years, 252 days Bongo family [ag] Gabon Omar Bongo Ali Bongo 1967 2023 56 years

## Influential wealthy families

Main article: [List of wealthiest families](/source/List_of_wealthiest_families)

## See also

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Main article: [Lists of dynasties](/source/Lists_of_dynasties)

Look up ***[dynasty](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/dynasty)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [Cadet branch](/source/Cadet_branch)

- [Commonwealth realm](/source/Commonwealth_realm)

- [Conquest dynasty](/source/Conquest_dynasty)

- [Dynastic cycle](/source/Dynastic_cycle)

- [Dynastic order](/source/Dynastic_order)

- [Dynastic union](/source/Dynastic_union)

- [Elective monarchy](/source/Elective_monarchy)

- [Family seat](/source/Family_seat)

- [Genealogy](/source/Genealogy)

- [Heads of former ruling families](/source/Heads_of_former_ruling_families)

- [Hereditary monarchy](/source/Hereditary_monarchy)

- [Iranian Intermezzo](/source/Iranian_Intermezzo)

- [List of current constituent monarchs](/source/List_of_current_constituent_monarchs)

- [List of current monarchies](/source/List_of_current_monarchies)

- [List of current monarchs of sovereign states](/source/List_of_current_monarchs_of_sovereign_states)

- [List of dynasties](/source/List_of_dynasties)

- [List of empires](/source/List_of_empires)

- [List of family trees](/source/List_of_family_trees)

- [List of kingdoms and royal dynasties](/source/List_of_kingdoms_and_royal_dynasties)

- [List of largest empires](/source/List_of_largest_empires)

- [List of monarchies](/source/List_of_monarchies)

- [List of noble houses](/source/List_of_noble_houses)

- [Non-sovereign monarchy](/source/Non-sovereign_monarchy)

- [Royal family](/source/Royal_family)

- [Royal household](/source/Royal_household)

- [Royal intermarriage](/source/Royal_intermarriage)

- [Self-proclaimed monarchy](/source/Self-proclaimed_monarchy)

- [Political family](/source/Political_family)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** [Emperor Jimmu](/source/Emperor_Jimmu) is said to have founded the kingdom of Yamato in the year 660 BCE, but this is a much later tradition. In fact, the first Japanese written records date to the 8th century CE, over a thousand years later (see *[Kojiki](/source/Kojiki)* and *[Nihon Shoki](/source/Nihon_Shoki)*). The first attested emperor is [Yūryaku](/source/Emperor_Y%C5%ABryaku), who lived c. 500 CE. He is attested in the [Inariyama](/source/Inariyama_Sword) and [Eta Funayama Swords](/source/Eta_Funayama_Sword), both made during reign of "the Great king Waka Takiru" (*Wakatakeru*). The first sword is dated to the "Year of the Metal Pig", which could mean 471 or 534.[17]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** [Cerdic of Wessex](/source/Cerdic_of_Wessex) is ultimately the ancestor of all [English](/source/Kingdom_of_England) and [British monarchs](/source/British_monarchs), since [Henry I](/source/Henry_I_of_England)'s wife, [Margaret](/source/Margaret_of_Wessex), was a granddaughter of [Edward the Exile](/source/Edward_the_Exile) (see [Family tree of English monarchs](/source/Family_tree_of_English_monarchs)).[18]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Non-dynastic_102-0)** Existing sovereign entities ruled by non-dynastic monarchs include: - [Principality of Andorra](/source/Andorra) - [Holy See](/source/Holy_See) (ruling the [Vatican City State](/source/Vatican_City)) - [Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and Malta](/source/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Founder_103-0)** The founder of a dynasty need not necessarily equate to the first monarch of a particular realm. For example, while [William I](/source/William_the_Silent) was the dynastic founder of the [House of Orange-Nassau](/source/House_of_Orange-Nassau), which currently rules over the [Kingdom of the Netherlands](/source/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands), he was never a monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Origin_104-0)** Not to be confused with [dynastic seat](/source/Family_seat).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Windsor_105-0)** The [House of Windsor](/source/House_of_Windsor) is descended from the [House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha](/source/House_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha), which is a branch of the [House of Wettin](/source/House_of_Wettin). The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Windsor" in AD 1917.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Commonwealth_106-0)** A sovereign state with [Charles III](/source/Charles_III) as its monarch and head of state is known as a [Commonwealth realm](/source/Commonwealth_realm).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-GeorgeVI_107-0)** [George V](/source/George_V) was formerly a member of the [House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha](/source/House_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha) before 1917.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Australia_108-0)** Including: - [Australian Antarctic Territory](/source/Australian_Antarctic_Territory) - [Coral Sea Islands Territory](/source/Coral_Sea_Islands) - [Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands](/source/Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands) - [Christmas Island](/source/Christmas_Island) - [Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands](/source/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands) - [Territory of Heard and McDonald Islands](/source/Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands) - [Norfolk Island](/source/Norfolk_Island)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NewZealand_109-0)** The [Realm of New Zealand](/source/Realm_of_New_Zealand) consists of: - [Cook Islands](/source/Cook_Islands) - [New Zealand](/source/New_Zealand) - [Niue](/source/Niue) - [Ross Dependency](/source/Ross_Dependency) - [Tokelau](/source/Tokelau)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-United_Kingdom_110-0)** Including: - [Anguilla](/source/Anguilla) - [Bailiwick of Guernsey](/source/Guernsey) ([Crown dependency](/source/Crown_dependencies)) - [Bailiwick of Jersey](/source/Jersey) (Crown dependency) - [Bermuda](/source/Bermuda) - [British Antarctic Territory](/source/British_Antarctic_Territory) - [British Indian Ocean Territory](/source/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory) - [Cayman Islands](/source/Cayman_Islands) - [Falkland Islands](/source/Falkland_Islands) - [Gibraltar](/source/Gibraltar) - [Isle of Man](/source/Isle_of_Man) (Crown dependency) - [Montserrat](/source/Montserrat) - [Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands](/source/Pitcairn_Islands) - [Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha](/source/Saint_Helena%2C_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha) - [South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands](/source/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands) - [Akrotiri and Dhekelia](/source/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia) - [Turks and Caicos Islands](/source/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands) - [British Virgin Islands](/source/British_Virgin_Islands) The crown dependencies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey, and the Isle of Man are neither part of the United Kingdom nor [British overseas territories](/source/British_Overseas_Territories).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Belgium_111-0)** The [House of Belgium](/source/House_of_Belgium) is descended from the [House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha](/source/House_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha), which is a branch of the [House of Wettin](/source/House_of_Wettin). The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Belgium" in AD 1920.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-AlbertI_112-0)** [Albert I](/source/Albert_I_of_Belgium) was formerly a member of the [House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha](/source/House_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha) before AD 1920.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bolkiah_113-0)** Claimed by the royal house, but the historicity is questionable.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Norodom_114-0)** The [House of Norodom](/source/House_of_Norodom) is a branch of the Varman dynasty.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Glücksburg_115-0)** The [House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg](/source/House_of_Gl%C3%BCcksburg) is a branch of the [House of Oldenburg](/source/House_of_Oldenburg).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Denmark_116-0)** The [Danish Realm](/source/Danish_Realm) consists of: - [Denmark](/source/Denmark) - [Faroe Islands](/source/Faroe_Islands) - [Greenland](/source/Greenland)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Norway_117-0)** Including: - [Bouvet Island](/source/Bouvet_Island) - [Jan Mayen](/source/Jan_Mayen) - [Peter I Island](/source/Peter_I_Island) - [Queen Maud Land](/source/Queen_Maud_Land) - [Svalbard](/source/Svalbard)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kōshitsu_118-0)** The [Imperial House of Japan](/source/Imperial_House_of_Japan), or *Kōshitsu* (皇室), is the world's oldest continuous dynasty. The dynasty has produced an unbroken succession of Japanese monarchs since the legendary founding year of 660 BC.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Jimmu_119-0)** Most historians regard Emperor Jimmu to have been a mythical ruler. [Emperor Ōjin](/source/Emperor_%C5%8Cjin), traditionally considered the 15th emperor, is the first who is generally thought to have existed, while [Emperor Kinmei](/source/Emperor_Kinmei), the 29th emperor according to traditional historiography, is the first monarch for whom verifiable regnal dates can be assigned.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hashim_120-0)** The [House of Hashim](/source/Hashemites) is descended from [Banu Qatada](/source/Banu_Qatada), which was a branch of the [House of Ali](/source/Alids).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Luxembourg-Nassau_121-0)** The [House of Luxembourg-Nassau](/source/Grand_Ducal_Family_of_Luxembourg) is descended from the [House of Nassau-Weilburg](/source/House_of_Nassau-Weilburg), which is a branch of the [House of Nassau](/source/House_of_Nassau) and the [House of Bourbon-Parma](/source/House_of_Bourbon-Parma).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Temenggong_122-0)** The [Temenggong dynasty](/source/Temenggong_dynasty) is the ruling dynasty of [Johor](/source/Johor) and a cadet branch of the [Bendahara dynasty](/source/Bendahara_dynasty). The [Sultan of Johor](/source/Sultan_of_Johor) is the reigning [Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia](/source/King_of_Malaysia).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Malaysia_123-0)** The throne of Malaysia rotates among the nine [constituent monarchies of Malaysia](/source/Monarchies_of_Malaysia), each ruled by a dynasty. The [Yang di-Pertuan Agong](/source/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong) is elected by the [Conference of Rulers](/source/Conference_of_Rulers).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Orange-Nassau_124-0)** The [House of Orange-Nassau](/source/House_of_Orange-Nassau) is a branch of the [House of Nassau](/source/House_of_Nassau). Additionally, [Willem-Alexander](/source/Willem-Alexander_of_the_Netherlands) is also linked to the [House of Lippe](/source/House_of_Lippe) through [Beatrix of the Netherlands](/source/Beatrix_of_the_Netherlands).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Netherlands_125-0)** The [Kingdom of the Netherlands](/source/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands) consists of: - [Aruba](/source/Aruba) - [Curaçao](/source/Cura%C3%A7ao) - [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) - [Sint Maarten](/source/Sint_Maarten)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bourbon-Anjou_126-0)** The [House of Bourbon-Anjou](/source/House_of_Bourbon-Anjou) is a branch of the [House of Bourbon](/source/House_of_Bourbon).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Nahyan_127-0)** The [House of Nahyan](/source/Al_Nahyan_family) is the ruling dynasty of the [Emirate of Abu Dhabi](/source/Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi). The Emir of Abu Dhabi is the incumbent [President of the United Arab Emirates](/source/President_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-UAE_128-0)** The [President of the United Arab Emirates](/source/President_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates) is elected by the [Federal Supreme Council](/source/Federal_Supreme_Council). The office has been held by the Emir of [Abu Dhabi](/source/Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi) since the formation of the United Arab Emirates in 1971.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-132)** Year authoritarian system began

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** Chiang Kai-shek position was briefly occupied by [Li Zongren](/source/Li_Zongren) between 1949 and 1950, his son, Chiang Ching-kuo served as his premier in 1972 until his death in 1975, Chiang Ching-kuo would later took the presidency of [Yen Chia-kan](/source/Yen_Chia-kan) after both finished serving their terms as President and Premier

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** Taiwan between 1949 and 1988.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** [Bongo family](/source/Bongo_family) still rule [Gabon](/source/Gabon), but [Gabon](/source/Gabon) does not longer is a [hereditary dictatorship](/source/Hereditary_dictatorship) after [2023 Gabonese coup d'état](/source/2023_Gabonese_coup_d'%C3%A9tat)

## Further reading

- James Loxton. 2026. "[Why We Elect Former Dictators and Their Children](https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/986028)." *Journal of Democracy*.

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** *English Dictionary*, 1st ed. "dynasty, *n*." [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press) (Oxford), 1897.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Harper, Douglas. ["dynasty"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/dynasty). *[Online Etymology Dictionary](/source/Etymonline)*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-OED_3-0)** *Oxford English Dictionary*, 1st ed. "dynasty, *n*." [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press) (Oxford), 1897.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-OED2_4-0)** *Oxford English Dictionary*, 3rd ed. "house, *n.1* and *int*, 10. b." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2011.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-inforce_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-inforce_5-1) [Statement by Nick Clegg MP, UK parliament website](http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answers-statements/written-statement/Commons/2015-03-26/HCWS490/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160705020637/http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answers-statements/written-statement/Commons/2015-03-26/HCWS490/) 5 July 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), 26 March 2015 (retrieved on same date).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-bbc_6-0)** ["Monaco royal taken seriously ill"](http://wayback.vefsafn.is/wayback/20100312144516/http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4426171.stm). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. London. 8 April 2005. Archived from [the original](http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4426171.stm) on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["The Dynastic Marriage"](http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-networks/dynastic-networks/heinz-duchhardt-the-dynastic-marriage). *ieg-ego.eu* (in German). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230228212538/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-networks/dynastic-networks/heinz-duchhardt-the-dynastic-marriage) from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473697/Pragmatic-Sanction-of-Emperor-Charles-VI). [Encyclopedia Britannica](/source/Encyclopedia_Britannica). Retrieved 21 September 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Martin Mutschlechner. ["Franz Stephan as the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty"](https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/franz-stephan-founder-habsburg-lorraine-dynasty). The World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 21 September 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Mutschlechner, Martin. ["Maria Theresa as wife and mother"](https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/maria-theresa-wife-and-mother). The World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 2 November 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Mitchell, A. Wess (2019). [*The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-ciXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228). Princeton University Press. p. 228. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-19644-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-19644-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:0_12-0)** Thomson, David (1961). "The Institutions of Monarchy". [*Europe Since Napoleon*](https://archive.org/details/europesincenapol00thom). New York: Knopf. pp. [79–80](https://archive.org/details/europesincenapol00thom/page/79). The basic idea of monarchy was the idea that hereditary right gave the best title to political power...The dangers of disputed succession were best avoided by hereditary succession: ruling families had a natural interest in passing on to their descendants enhanced power and prestige...Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Maria Theresa of Austria were alike infatuated with the idea of strengthening their power, centralizing government in their own hands as against local and feudal privileges, and so acquiring more absolute authority in the state. Moreover, the very dynastic rivalries and conflicts between these eighteenth-century monarchs drove them to look for ever more efficient methods of government

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Harman, William P. (1992). *The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess*. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 30–36. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0810-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0810-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Iyer, Sathyanatha (1924). *History of the Nayaks of Madura*. pp. 130–140.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Brown, Delmer M. (1993). *The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 1: Ancient Japan*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–145. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521223522](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521223522).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Ponsonby-Fane, Richard (1915). *The Imperial House of Japan*. Ponsonby Memorial Society. pp. 10–20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Seeley, Christopher (1991). [*A History of Writing in Japan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KCZ2ya6cg88C&pg=PA19). [Brill Academic Publishers](/source/Brill_Academic_Publishers). pp. 19–23. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-09081-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09081-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** McCalman, Archibald Hamilton (1883). [*A Compact History of England from the Time of the Ancient Britons to the Reign of Queen Victoria (1880): With a Synopsis of England in the Nineteenth Century, Its Government, Institutions, Etc*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pDtGAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA669). R. Wrothington. p. 669.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Somani, Ram Vallabh (1976). [*History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D.*](https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.14106/mode/2up) C.L. Ranka, Jaipur. p. 34.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["The Constitution (26 Amendment) Act, 1971"](http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend26.htm), *indiacode.nic.in*, Government of India, 1971, retrieved 9 November 2011

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). *A History of India*. Routledge. pp. 100–120. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1138961159](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138961159).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Narayanan, M.G.S. (2013). *Perumals of Kerala*. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. pp. 50–60. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8188765072](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8188765072).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** ["Prince de Durgam des Trois Couronnes"](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139619551). *www.wikidata.org*. Retrieved 3 May 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Lydia Graham Astor (2011). [*Zamins Of South India.pdf*](http://archive.org/details/zamins-of-south-india.pdf) (PDF).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Iqbal, B (March 1987). ["Successful tourism management by P.N. Eth Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 338 pages, 1985"](https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(87)90046-x). *Tourism Management*. **8** (1): 68–69. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0261-5177(87)90046-x](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0261-5177%2887%2990046-x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0261-5177](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-5177).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** ["Publications information"](https://doi.org/10.1049/iipi.1978.0023). *IEE-IERE Proceedings - India*. **16** (2): 83. 1978. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1049/iipi.1978.0023](https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fiipi.1978.0023). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0018-9146](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9146).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** FlaviusGrosnoverHemapopulous (2006), [*English: Photograph of the former Palace built mid 19th centuary by the Zamin Pari family in Nungambakkm Village, Thiruvallur (destroyed by fire in late 1980s-90s)*](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nungambakkam_Village_(Thiruvallur_district)_Zamindari_Palace.png), retrieved 3 May 2026

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Campbell, I.C. (2001). *Island Kingdom: Tonga Ancient and Modern*. Canterbury University Press. pp. 20–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0908812141](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0908812141).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Wood, A.H. (1932). *History of the Kingdom of Tonga*. Methodist Mission Press. pp. 15–25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Shennan, J.H. (2007). *The Bourbons: The History of a Dynasty*. Hambledon Continuum. pp. 1–10. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1852855239](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1852855239).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Rayfield, Donald (2012). *Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia*. Reaktion Books. pp. 50–70. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1780230306](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1780230306).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Lee, Ki-baik (1984). *A New History of Korea*. Harvard University Press. pp. 30–40. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0674615762](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674615762).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Grayson, A.K. (1991). *The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Assyrian Periods*. University of Toronto Press. pp. 10–20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0802059659](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802059659).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). *A History of India*. Routledge. pp. 120–130. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1138961159](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138961159).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). *A History of South India*. Oxford University Press. pp. 180–190.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Madelung, Wilferd (1975). *The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–200. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521200936](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521200936).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). *A History of India*. Routledge. pp. 100–120. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1138961159](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138961159).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). *A History of South India*. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–160.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Li, Feng (2013). *Early China: A Social and Cultural History*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 120–130. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521895521](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521895521).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Kennedy, Hugh (2016). *The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates*. Routledge. pp. 150–170. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1138787612](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138787612).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Martin, Janet (2007). *Medieval Russia, 980–1584*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521859165](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521859165).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:02_44-0)** Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2012) [1996]. [*The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual*](https://www.google.com/books/edition/New_Islamic_Dynasties/maQxEAAAQBAJ). Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–129. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7486-2137-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-2137-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Byington, Mark E. (2016). *The Ancient State of Goguryeo*. Korea Institute, Harvard University. pp. 40–60. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0674737198](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674737198).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Marcus, Harold G. (2002). *A History of Ethiopia*. University of California Press. pp. 20–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0520224797](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520224797).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Madelung, Wilferd (1975). *The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–200. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521200936](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521200936).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). *A History of India*. Routledge. pp. 200–210. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1138961159](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138961159).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1955). *A History of South India*. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–210.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Saunders, Graham (2002). *A History of Brunei*. Routledge. pp. 30–40. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0700716982](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0700716982).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Finkel, Caroline (2005). *Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire*. Basic Books. pp. 20–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0465023967](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465023967).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Geiger, Wilhelm (1912). *Mahavamsa: The Great Chronicle of Ceylon*. Pali Text Society. pp. 50–60. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [635511441](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/635511441).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). *A History of India*. Routledge. pp. 180–190. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1138961159](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138961159).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Oakley, Stewart (1972). *Scandinavian History, 1520–1970*. University of Chicago Press. pp. 40–50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0226613789](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226613789).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** van Bruinessen, Martin (1992). *Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan*. Zed Books. pp. 50–60. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1856490184](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1856490184).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Lee, Ki-baik (1984). *A New History of Korea*. Harvard University Press. pp. 200–220. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0674615762](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674615762).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** ["商朝"](https://www.ccc-paris.org/zh/%E5%8F%91%E7%8E%B0%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/%E5%95%86%E6%9C%9D/). *巴黎中国文化中心* (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 19 February 2026.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Brosius, Maria (2006). *The Persians: An Introduction*. Routledge. pp. 90–100. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415320894](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415320894).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Ricklefs, M.C. (2008). *A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1200*. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 40–50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0230546868](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230546868).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** Daryaee, Touraj (2009). *Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire*. I.B. Tauris. pp. 10–20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1850438984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850438984).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Finkelstein, Israel (2001). *The Bible Unearthed*. Free Press. pp. 200–210. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0684869131](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684869131).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Davies, Norman (2005). *God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 1*. Columbia University Press. pp. 30–40. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0231128179](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231128179).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** Martin, Simon (2020). *Ancient Maya Politics*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–110. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1108483889](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1108483889).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** Geiger, Wilhelm (1912). *Mahavamsa: The Great Chronicle of Ceylon*. Pali Text Society. pp. 200–210. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [635511441](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/635511441).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Kennedy, Hugh (2016). *The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates*. Routledge. pp. 80–100. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1138787612](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138787612).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Oakley, Stewart (1972). *Scandinavian History, 1520–1970*. University of Chicago Press. pp. 20–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0226613789](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226613789).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Geiger, Wilhelm (1912). *Mahavamsa: The Great Chronicle of Ceylon*. Pali Text Society. pp. 220–230. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [635511441](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/635511441).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** Fisher, Greg (2011). *Between Empires: Arabs, Romans, and Sasanians*. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–70. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0199599271](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199599271).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Wormald, Jenny (1981). *Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625*. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 20–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0748602766](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0748602766).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Twitchett, Denis (1994). *The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 6*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521235419](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521235419).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Rowe, William T. (2009). *China's Last Empire: The Great Qing*. Harvard University Press. pp. 20–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0674036123](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674036123).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** Mote, Frederick W. (1999). *Imperial China, 900–1800*. Harvard University Press. pp. 600–610. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0674012127](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674012127).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-91)** Lechner, Karl (1976). *Die Babenberger: Markgrafen und Herzoge von Österreich*. Böhlau Verlag. pp. 50–60. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3205085089](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3205085089).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** Halm, Heinz (1997). *The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning*. I.B. Tauris. pp. 20–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1860643132](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1860643132).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_97-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_97-1) Shaw, Ian (2000). [*The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt*](https://archive.org/details/TheOxfordHistoryOfAncient/page/n509/mode/2up). Oxford University Press. pp. 485–486. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0192804587](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192804587).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** Pope Atkins, G. (January 1998). [*The Dominican Republic and the United States: From Imperialism to Transnationalism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MkBlfCf8I-YC&q=paris&pg=PA120). University of Georgia Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8203-1931-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-1931-5).

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Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Israel Other Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.