# Djaru language > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Djaru_language > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Djaru_language.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djaru_language > Source revision: 1351852091 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) Australian Aboriginal language Not to be confused with [Yarú language](/source/Yar%C3%BA_language). Djaru Native to Western Australia Region southeast Kimberley Ethnicity Djaru people Native speakers 217 (2016 census)[1] Language family Pama–Nyungan Ngumpin–Yapa Ngumpin Djaru Dialects Djaru (Tjaru) Wawarl Njininj (Nyininy) Language codes ISO 639-3 ddj Glottolog jaru1254 AIATSIS[2] K12 ELP Jaru **Djaru** (Tjaru) is a [Pama–Nyungan language](/source/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages) spoken in the south-eastern [Kimberley](/source/Kimberley_(Western_Australia)) region of [Western Australia](/source/Western_Australia). As with most Pama-Nyungan languages, Djaru includes single, dual and plural pronoun numbers. Djaru also includes sign-language elements in its lexicon (a common trait of Aboriginal Australian languages generally). Nouns in Djaru do not include gender classes, and apart from inflections, words are formed through roots, compounding or reduplication. Word order in Djaru is relatively free (again a common trait of Aboriginal Australian languages) and has the ability to split up noun phrases.[3][4] The Djaru language has a relatively small number of verbs, as compared to most languages, and thus utilizes a system of '[preverbs](/source/Preverb)' and complex verbs to compensate. Djaru also has an [avoidance language](/source/Avoidance_language). Avoidance languages, sometimes known as 'mother-in-law languages', are special registers within a language that are spoken between certain family members (typically a married man and his mother-in-law) – such registers are common throughout native Australian languages.[3] The population of Djaru speakers has greatly diminished since the late 19th century when white settlers entered the Djaru region and massacred its inhabitants. The Djaru people have since adopted certain aspects of western living (working and living on farmsteads and in towns) and have moved away from the daily practice of certain traditional ways of living. As a result, the Djaru language faces the combined pressures of a decrease in speaker population, an increased reliance of English among its speakers, as well as a white Australian government that has traditionally stood against the use or education of any original Australian languages.[3][4] ## Phonology Word-initial phonemes in Djaru may be any consonant or semi-vowel with the exception of alveolar taps /ɾ/ or the palatal laterals /ʎ/. A word can end with any phoneme except for a semi-vowel. Stress occurs on the initial syllable of a word, and on the initial syllable of a second morpheme. A stressed syllable tends to also be the highest in pitch, but stress in Djaru, as with pitch, is phonologically irrelevant. That is, stress and pitch have no essential bearing on a word's meaning.[4] Djaru does not contain any of the fricatives (e.g. [f], [v], [ʃ], [ð]) or affricates (e.g. [pf], [ts]); these sound types are rarely found in any Australian Aboriginal languages.[5] ### Consonants Phonemes labial alveolar retroflex palatal velar stops b d ɖ ɟ ɡ nasals m n ɳ ɲ ŋ lateral l ɭ ʎ tap/flap ɾ ɽ semivowels j w Djaru consonants form clusters of no more than two phonemes. /ɽ/ can be heard as a flap [ɽ] or a glide [ɻ]. ### Vowels Vowels Front Back High i u Low a, aː Djaru, like most Australian languages, has only three vowel sounds (a high-front vowel, high-back vowel, and low vowel), each vowel varies considerably according to its immediate phonetic environment.[3][4] ## Word classes Djaru includes the following word classes: noun, free pronoun, adverb, preverb, verb, particle, interjection.[4] ### Nouns Nouns in Djaru are modified if they are instrumental, locative, recipients, or in ergative position. The term 'ergative' refers to a category within [ergative-absolutive](/source/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_alignment) declension wherein objects of transitive sentences and subjects of intransitive sentences are *not* morphologically equivalent to subjects of intransitive sentences. That is, in an ergative-absolutive language, if a noun in intransitive subject position (or transitive object position) is *X*, then it will be *Y* in a transitive subject position. Examples of the ergative-absolutive system for nouns in Djaru can be found in Tsunoda 1981:[6] mawun man-ABS jan-an go-PRES mawun jan-an man-ABS go-PRES 'a man goes' mawun-du man-ERG ɟaɟi kangaroo-ABS lan-an spear-PRES mawun-du ɟaɟi lan-an man-ERG kangaroo-ABS spear-PRES 'a man spears a kangaroo' (Free pronouns also display an ergative-absolutive case system) The possible ways to modify a noun into ergative case are with the following suffixes: *-ŋgu*, *-gu*, *-lu*, *-gulu*, *-du*, *-u*. The use of each morpheme depends, of course, on the immediately preceding phonological environment.[4] For Pama-Nyungan languages generally it is common that they will take an ergative-absolutive case marking for nouns, and a nominative-accusative case marking for pronouns.[5] ### Verbs There are very few verbs in Djaru (around forty). Bound pronouns can attach to Djaru verbs and they display a nominative-accusative declension (Djaru thus displays split ergativity, as its nouns and free pronouns follow an ergative-absolutive pattern). Verbs conjugate according to the following aspects: past, continuative past, past narrative, present, continuative present, purposive, continuative purposive, hortative, continuative hortative, imperative, continuative imperative, verbid. In the vast majority of cases verbs are modified with suffixes, and all conjugated verbs involve the root + suffix (i.e. there are no conjugations that represent the verb root on its own).[4] ### Pronouns As is suggested in Blake 1987, the ergative pronoun markings in Djaru may be a relatively new feature of the language, since the system bears few of the irregularities that are present in most languages (compare the following table's ergative variations to the English pronouns, *they*, *them*, *she*, *her*, etc.).[7] Pronouns Absolutive Ergative SG 1 ngatyu ngatyu-ngku SG 2 nyuntu nyuntu-ku SG 3 nyantu nyantu-ku Dual 1 inc. ngali ngali-ngku Dual 1 exc. Ngatyarra ngatyarra-lu ### Preverbs Djaru includes a unique word class (absent in most languages) known as the *preverb* class. Preverbs have two uses in Djaru: firstly they may be used similarly to adjectives in that they modify verbs but in doing so create new semantic units, secondly they may be used like nouns when attached with nominal suffixes.[4] Some examples of preverbs: *jud* ('sitting'), *dirib* ('camping out'), *wuɽug* ('finishing'). When combined with verbs, the above preverbs come out with the following meanings: 1) jud sitting + wandiɲ fall = jud wandiɲ sit down jud + wandiɲ = {jud wandiɲ} sitting {} fall {} {sit down} 2) dirib camping out + ɲin(aŋ) sit = dirib ɲin(aŋ) camp out dirib + ɲin(aŋ) = {dirib ɲin(aŋ)} {camping out} {} sit {} {camp out} 3) wuɽug finishing + wandiɲ fall = wuɽug wandiɲ the ceasing of rain [4] wuɽug + wandiɲ = {wuɽug wandiɲ} finishing {} fall {} {the ceasing of rain} ## Syntax ### Word order Simple Djaru sentences typically display a [subject–object–verb word order](/source/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order); however, this is not a strict grammatical rule. The verb and object are often swapped around, and in some cases, verbs are not required at all.[4] The following example of a verb-less sentence is from Tasaku Tsunoda, 1981. ŋaɟu 1SG-ABS ŋa-ɳa-ŋgu C-1SG-NOM-2SG-DAT babaji older.brother-ABS ɲunuŋa 2SG-DAT ŋaɟu ŋa-ɳa-ŋgu babaji ɲunuŋa 1SG-ABS C-1SG-NOM-2SG-DAT older.brother-ABS 2SG-DAT 'I am an older brother to you'[4] ### Sentence length It has been noted that typical Djaru clauses are significantly shorter than many other languages, and as a result the speaking style usually involves many conjunctions.[4] ### Noun phrases [Jalu-ŋgu That-ERG mawun-du man-ERG jambi-gu] big-ERG ɟaɟi kangaroo lan-i spear-PAST [Jalu-ŋgu mawun-du jambi-gu] ɟaɟi lan-i That-ERG man-ERG big-ERG kangaroo spear-PAST 'That big man speared a kangaroo' However the noun phrase may be broken up and the same sentences may be expressed as: Jalu-ŋgu lani-i mawun-du ɟaɟi jambi-gu Jalu-ŋgu lani-i mawun-du ɟaɟi jambi-gu 'That big man speared a kangaroo'[4] (Verb phrases containing a preverb may also have other words placed in their midst, i.e. words that are not part of the verb phrase that occur between the preverb and verb)[4] ### Possessives The Djaru language utilises the syntactic phenomenon of apposition in the case of inalienable object (i.e. body parts or personal attributes). Ngatyu-ngku 1SG-ERG nga-rna Clitic-1SG:NOM mawun man-ABS langka head-ABS pung-an hit-PRES Ngatyu-ngku nga-rna mawun langka pung-an 1SG-ERG Clitic-1SG:NOM man-ABS head-ABS hit-PRES 'I hit the man’s head' Note that no morphological modifications are used to indicate that the head belongs to the man, such a relationship between 'man' and 'head' is expressed purely by syntactic positioning. However, nouns attach a genitive suffix when they are possessors of *alienable* objects (e.g. tables, chairs, clothing, family members etc.). But importantly, the genitive suffix can usually only be used when the possessed object is in the close vicinity of the possessor.[8] Nyila That ngaringka woman-ABS yamparra-yaru long.hair.having-ABS Nyila ngaringka yamparra-yaru That woman-ABS long.hair.having-ABS 'That woman is long-haired' ## Metaphors Usually, when sensory verbs (*see*, *taste*, *hear* etc.) are used metaphorically – as in, "I see what you mean" or, "I see how this works" – languages almost exclusively use the word for vision in order to express *knowledge*. But as Evans & Wilkins explain, the Djaru language (along with many Aboriginal Australian languages) go against this trend and use terms for *hearing* to express knowledge: for example, *pina yungan* (literally 'ear put') translates as 'to learn'.[9] ## Avoidance language [Avoidance languages](/source/Avoidance_speech) are a rare phenomenon in human language yet quite common among the original Australian languages. The vocabulary for the Djaru avoidance language is extremely limited as it only consists of one verb, *luwaɳ*. The verb is semantically neutral and must be inserted into the verb phrase of whatever sentence is spoken in the avoidance language.[4] ## Sign language The Djaru language includes a set of sign-language items in its lexicon. Commonly occurring actions, and commonly sighted animals and objects are represented by finger and hand gestures for the purposes of hunting. Direction can also be expressed by the pointing of lips.[4] ## History The Djaru language of the western Kimberley region is still alive, yet the speakers of Djaru and their culture have not remained unscathed by the destructive advance of colonialism. It has been estimated that as many as 160 Australian languages have died since the European invasion of Australia. This has been largely due to both the sheer number of deaths among the Aboriginal people at the hands of European settlers, and harsh white-government policy banning Aboriginal languages in public places and schools.[10] As of 2006 only around 60 Australian languages are reportedly in use.[3] Towards the end of the 19th century the Djaru region became the target of white settlers. The region was carved up for gold mining and cattle farming, and the original inhabitants became the victims of several massacres. It is estimated that the Djaru population has decreased since then by as much as 50%. The existence of white settlements and farms in the region has had a significant effect on the way of life of the Djaru people. The use of traditional Australian-style tools, housing, and food ([bush tucker](/source/Bush_tucker)) has mostly been replaced by modern western equivalents. Also, the use of the avoidance language has drastically diminished, and the traditional method of arranging marriages is not always observed.[4] ## References 1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["K12: Jaru"](https://collection.aiatsis.gov.au/austlang/language/K12). 26 July 2019. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-AIATSIS_2-0)** [K12](https://collection.aiatsis.gov.au/austlang/language/K12) Djaru at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, [Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies](/source/Australian_Institute_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Studies) 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:0_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:0_3-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:0_3-4) Blake, B.J. (2006). *Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics*. Elsevier. pp. 585–593. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_4-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:1_4-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:1_4-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:1_4-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-:1_4-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-:1_4-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-:1_4-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-:1_4-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-:1_4-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-:1_4-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-:1_4-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-:1_4-13) [***o***](#cite_ref-:1_4-14) [***p***](#cite_ref-:1_4-15) [***q***](#cite_ref-:1_4-16) Tsunoda, Tasaku (1981). *Djaru Language of Kimberley, Western Australia*. Australian National University. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0858832526](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0858832526). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_5-1) Austin, P.K. (2006). *Encyclopedia of Australian Languages & Linguistics*. Elsevier. pp. 580–585. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Tsunoda, Tasaku (1981). *The Djaru Language of Kimberley, Western Australia*. Australian National University. p. 57. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0858832526](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0858832526). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Blake, B.J. (1987). "The Grammatical Development of Australian Languages". *Lingua*. **71** (1–4): 179–201. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0024-3841(87)90071-4](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0024-3841%2887%2990071-4). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Tsunoda, Tasaku (1996). *Possession Cline In Japanese & Other Languages - The Grammar Of Inalienability*. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 565. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** N. Evans & D. Wilkins (2000). "In The Mind's Ear". *Language*. **76**: 546–592. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/417135](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F417135). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [417135](https://www.jstor.org/stable/417135). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** M. Walsh & C. Wallop (1993). *Language & Culture In Aboriginal Australia*. Aboriginal Studies Press. ## Further reading - Tsunoda, T. (1980) *The Djaru language of Kimberley, Western Australia*, *Pacific Linguistics* B-98, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. v t e Pama–Nyungan languages Paman languages North Adithinngithigh Andjingith Anguthimri Alngith Linnithigh Mpakwithi Ndra'ngith Arritinngithigh Awngthim Luthigh Mpalitjanh Mbiywom Ndrangith Ndwa'ngith Ngkoth Unjadi Uradhi Atampaya Yinwum Wudhadhi Yadhaykenu Angkamuthi Northeast Umpila Wik Ayabadhu Kugu-Muminh Pakanha Wik-Me'nh Wik-Mungkan Wik-Ngathan Wik-Ompom Lamalamic Lamalama Morrobolam Yalanjic Barrow Point Gugu Yalandyi Kuku Nyungkal Guugu Yimidhirr Southwest Koko-Bera Kok Thawa Kunjen Ogh-Undjan Kuuk Thaayorre Kuuk Yak Yir-Yoront Norman Kurtjar Kuthant Thaypan Alungul Angkula Aghu Tharrnggala Ikarranggal Takalak Thaypan Southern Mbara-Yanga Mbabaram Walangama Wamin Other Djabugay Flinders Island Gugadj Kok Narr Mbariman-Gudhinma Umbindhamu Eastern Pama–Nyungan Dyirbalic Dyirbal Nyawaygi Warrgamay Wulguru Yuru Maric Badjiri Bidjara Biri Biri proper Kingkel Bayali Darumbal Warrongo Yanda–Guwa ? Yirandhali ? Waka–Kabic Barunggam Gabi-Gabi Gureng Gureng Tulua Wakawaka Wuliwuli Durubalic Guwar–Pimpama Janday Nunukul Turrbal Gumbaynggiric Kumbainggar Yaygir Wiradhuric Gamilaraay Ngiyambaa Wiradjuri Yuin–Kuric Darkinjung Dharug Dhanggati Ngarigo Ngunnawal–Gundungurra Tharawal Dharawal Dhurga Dyirringany Thawa Yugambal? Marbal Worimi Awabakal Gathang Gippsland Dhudhuroa Gunaikurnai Bidhawal Pallanganmiddang Yugambeh–Bandjalang Waalubal Yugambeh Githabul Bundjalung Other Anewan Kalaw Lagaw Ya Yidiny Bigambul Guyambal Lower Burdekin Bindal Southern Pama–Nyungan Yotayotic Yabula-Yabula Yorta Yorta Kulinic Kolakngat Kulin Dja Dja Wurrung Wathaurong Western Victoria Wemba Wemba Barababaraba Ledji-Ledji Madhi-Madhi Nari-Nari Wadi-Wadi Wergaia Woiwurrung–Taungurung–Bunurong Bindjali Drual Bungandidj Dhauwurd Wurrung Kuurn Kopan Noot Lower Murray Keramin Ngayawung Yaralde Yitha-Yitha Yuyu Thura-Yura Adnyamathanha Barngarla Kaurna Kuyani Narungga Nauo Ngadjuri Nukunu Wirangu Mirniny Mirning Ngadjunmaya Nyungic Galaagu Kalaamaya Natingero Nyungar Western Pama–Nyungan Kartu Badimaya Malgana Thaagurda Nhanda–Nhanhagardi Wajarri Yinggarda Kanyara–Mantharta Kanyara Burduna–Bayungu Thalanyji–Pinikura Mantharta Tharrgari Warriyangka Thiin Jiwarli Ngayarta Jurruru Kurrama Martuthunira Ngarla Ngarluma-Kariyarra Nhuwala Nyamal Nyiyaparli Panyjima Yindjibarndi Yinhawangka Marrngu Karajarri Mangala Nyangumarta Northern Pama–Nyungan Ngumpin–Yapa Ngarrga Warlmanpa Warlpiri Ngumpin Walmajarri Djaru Gurindji Bilinarra Mudburra Warumungu Warumungu Warluwaric Wagaya Bularnu Yindjilandji Warluwarra Yanyuwa Kalkatungic Kalkatungu Yalarnnga Mayi Mayi-Kulan Mayi-Kutuna Ngawun Yolŋu Dhaŋu Dhuwal Djaŋu Djinba Djinaŋ Ritharrŋu Nhaŋu Central Pama–Nyungan Wati Ngardi Wanman Western Desert Arandic Arrernte Kaytetye Lower Arrernte Pertame Karnic Arabana Diyari Pirlatapa Mithaka Ngamini Yarluyandi Ngura Pitta Pitta Wanggamala Wangka-Yutjurru Wilson River Bundhamara new Wangkumara/Garlali Yandruwandha Other Baagandji Bulloo River old Wangkumara/Garlali Muruwari Barranbinja Yarli Macro-Pama–Nyungan? Macro-Gunwinyguan Maningrida Burarra Ndjébbana Gurr-goni Nakkara Mangarrayi-Marran Alawa Mangarrayi Marra Warndarrang Yugul Gunwinyguan Anindilyakwa Dalabon Gunbarlang Jawoyn Kunwinjku Ngalakgan Ngandi Nunggubuyu Rembarrnga Uwinymil Waray Other Gaagudju Kungarakany Wardaman Wagiman Tangkic Kayardild Lardil Minkin Gangalidda (Yukulta) Yangkaal Garrwan Garrwa Gunindiri Waanyi Italics indicate extinct languages Authority control databases: National Israel --- Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Djaru language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djaru_language) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djaru_language?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.