# Crimean Khanate

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1441–1783 Crimean Tatar state

Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak Taht-i Qırım ve Deşt-i Qıpçaq تخت قريم و دشت قپچاق (Crimean Tatar) 1441–1783 Flag Coat of arms (17th–18th century)[1] The limit of expansion of the Crimean Khanate (Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak) on the lands of the Ulus of Jochi as of 1523.[2] Status Khanate[a] Capital Orda-i muazzam Kirkyir[5] Eski Qırım Bağçasaray Common languages Kipchak dialects (Crimean Tatar) Ottoman Turkish Language of literature — Chagatai language[6] Religion Sunni Islam Demonym Crimean Government Elective monarchy Khan • 1441–1466 Hacı I Giray (first) • 1777–1783 Şahin Giray (last) History • Established 1441 • Annexation by the Russian Empire 1783 Currency Akçe,[7] Denga,[8] Manghir,[7] Para,[7] Polushka,[8] Kopeck,[8] Kyrmis[9] Preceded by Succeeded by Golden Horde Principality of Theodoro Russian Empire Today part of Moldova Russia Ukraine

Part of a series on the History of Crimea Timeline Greek Crimea 7th–6th century BC Bosporan Kingdom (Roman) 428 BC–527 Byzantine Cherson 830s–1204 Empire of Trebizond 1204–1461 Principality of Theodoro & Genoese Gazaria 1300s–1475 Crimean Khanate 1441–1783 Russian Empire (Annexation) 1783–1917 Russian Civil War 1917–1922 Soviet rule (Transfer) 1922–1991 Independent Ukraine 1991–2014 Russian control (Annexation) 2014–present Lists v t e

The **Crimean Khanate**,[b] self-defined as the **Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak**,[10][c] and in old European historiography and geography known as **Little Tartary**,[d] was a [Crimean Tatar](/source/Crimean_Tatars) state existing from 1441 to 1783. Established by [Hacı I Giray](/source/Hac%C4%B1_I_Giray) in 1441.

In 1783, violating the 1774 [Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca](/source/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca) (which had guaranteed non-interference of both Russia and the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) in the affairs of the Crimean Khanate), the [Russian Empire annexed the khanate](/source/1783_Russian_annexation_of_Crimea). Among the European powers, only France came out with an open protest against this act, due to the longstanding [Franco-Ottoman alliance](/source/Franco-Ottoman_alliance).[11]

## Naming and geography

The map of the Crimean Khanate by [Pieter van der Aa](/source/Pieter_van_der_Aa), 1707

The Crimean Khans, considering their state as the heir and legal successor of the Golden Horde and [Desht-i Kipchak](/source/Desht-i_Kipchak), called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the Khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of the blessed and highest Lord, the great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" ([Crimean Tatar](/source/Crimean_Tatar_language): *Tañrı Tebareke ve Ta'alânıñ rahimi ve inayeti milen Uluğ Orda ve Uluğ Yurtnıñ ve taht-ı Qırım ve barça Noğaynıñ ve tağ ara Çerkaçnıñ ve Tat imilen Tavğaçnıñ ve Deşt-i Qıpçaqnıñ ve barça Tatarnıñ uluğ padişahı*, تنڭرى تبرك و تعالينيڭ رحمى و عنايتى ميلان اولوغ اوردا و اولوغ يورتنيڭ و تخت قريم و بارچا نوغاينيڭ و طاغ ارا چركاچنيڭ و تاد يميلان طوغاچنيڭ و دشت قپچاقنيڭ و بارچا تاتارنيڭ اولوغ پادشاهى).[12][13]

According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country".[14][15]

English-speaking writers during the 18th and early 19th centuries often called the territory of the Crimean Khanate and of the [Lesser Nogai Horde](/source/Lesser_Nogai_Horde) *Little Tartary* (or subdivided it as *Crim Tartary* (also *Krim Tartary*) and *Kuban Tartary*).[16] The name "Little Tartary" distinguished the area from (Great) [Tartary](/source/Tartary) – those areas of central and northern Asia inhabited by [Turkic peoples](/source/Turkic_peoples) or [Tatars](/source/Tatars).

The Khanate included the [Crimean peninsula](/source/Crimean_peninsula) and the adjacent steppes, mostly corresponding to parts of [South Ukraine](/source/South_Ukraine) between the [Dnieper](/source/Dnieper) and the [Donets](/source/Donets) rivers (i.e. including most of present-day [Zaporizhzhia Oblast](/source/Zaporizhzhia_Oblast), left-Dnipro parts of [Kherson Oblast](/source/Kherson_Oblast), besides minor parts of southeastern [Dnipropetrovsk Oblast](/source/Dnipropetrovsk_Oblast) and western [Donetsk Oblast](/source/Donetsk_Oblast)). The territory controlled by the Crimean Khanate shifted throughout its existence due to the constant incursions by the [Cossacks](/source/Cossacks), who had lived [along the Don](/source/Don_Cossacks) since the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century. The London-based cartographer [Herman Moll](/source/Herman_Moll) in a map of c. 1729 shows "Little Tartary" as including the Crimean peninsula and the steppe between Dnieper and [Mius River](/source/Mius_River) as far north as the Dnieper bend and the upper [Tor River](/source/Sloviansk) (a tributary of the [Donets](/source/Donets)).[17]

## History

See also: [History of Crimea](/source/History_of_Crimea)

### Pre-history

The [Pontic steppes](/source/Pontic_steppe), c. 1015

The first known [Turkic peoples](/source/Turkic_peoples) appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea by the [Göktürk Empire](/source/Western_Turkic_Khaganate).[18][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] In the 11th century, [Cumans](/source/Cumans) (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea; they later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate.[19] In the middle of the 13th century, the northern steppe lands of the Crimea, inhabited mainly by [Turkic peoples](/source/Turkic_peoples) ([Cumans](/source/Cumans)), became the possession of Ulus [Juchi](/source/Juchi), known as the [Golden Horde](/source/Golden_Horde) or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased.[20] Around this time, the local Kipchaks took the name of [Tatars](/source/Tatars) (*tatarlar*).[21][22][23][24]

In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors – [Emirs](/source/Emir) – exercised direct control. The first formally recognized ruler in the Crimea is considered [Aran-Timur](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aran-Timur&action=edit&redlink=1), the nephew of [Batu Khan](/source/Batu_Khan) of the Golden Horde, who received this area from [Mengu-Timur](/source/Mengu-Timur), and the first center of the Crimea was the ancient city [Qırım](/source/Old_Crimea) (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to [Qırq Yer](/source/Chufut-Kale) and [Bağçasaray](/source/Bakhchysarai).

[Uzbek Khan Mosque](/source/Uzbek_Khan_Mosque) in [Eski Qırım](/source/Old_Crimea) (Solhat), built in the Golden Horde period

The multi-ethnic population of Crimea then consisted mainly of those who lived in the steppe and foothills of the Peninsula: [Kipchaks](/source/Cumans) (Cumans), [Crimean Greeks](/source/Crimean_Greeks), [Crimean Goths](/source/Crimean_Goths), [Alans](/source/Alans), and [Armenians](/source/Armenians), who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of both Kipchak and Horden origin.[25][26]

Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula was, in general, painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in the Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. An example is the well-known campaign of the [Nogai Khan](/source/Nogai_Khan) in 1299, which resulted in a number of Crimean cities suffering. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to manifest themselves in Crimea.

In 1303, in Crimea, the most famous written monument of the Kypchak or Cuman language was created (named in [Kypchak](/source/Kipchak_language) "tatar tili") – "[Codex Cumanicus](/source/Codex_Cumanicus)", which is the oldest memorial in the [Crimean Tatar language](/source/Crimean_Tatar_language) and of great importance for the history of Kypchak and Oghuz dialects – as directly related to the Kipchaks of the [Black Sea](/source/Black_Sea) steppes and [Crimea](/source/Crimea).[27][23]

[Dürbe](/source/T%C3%BCrbe) of [Canike Hanım](/source/Canike_Han%C4%B1m)

There are legends that, in the 14th century, the Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of the [Grand Duchy of Lithuania](/source/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania). [Grand Duke of Lithuania](/source/Grand_Duke_of_Lithuania) [Algirdas](/source/Algirdas) broke the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then invaded the Crimea, devastated [Chersonesos](/source/Chersonesos) and seized valuable church objects there. There is a similar legend about his successor [Vytautas](/source/Vytautas), who in 1397 went on a Crimean campaign to [Caffa](/source/Caffa) and again destroyed Chersonesos. Vytautas is also known in Crimean history for giving refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in [Lithuania](/source/Lithuania) and [Belarus](/source/Belarus). In 1399 Vytautas, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan [Tokhtamysh](/source/Tokhtamysh), was defeated on the banks of [the Vorskla River](/source/Vorskla_River) by Tokhtamysh's rival [Timur-Kutluk](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timur-Kutluk&action=edit&redlink=1), on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by the Emir [Edigei](/source/Edigei), and made peace.[28]

During the reign of Canike Hanım, Tokhtamysh's daughter, in Qırq-Or, she supported [Hacı I Giray](/source/Hac%C4%B1_I_Giray) in the struggle against the descendants of [Tokhtamysh](/source/Tokhtamysh), [Kichi-Muhammada](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kichi-Muhammad&action=edit&redlink=1) and [Sayid Ahmad](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sayid-Ahmad_I&action=edit&redlink=1), who as well as Hacı Giray claimed full power in the Crimea[29] and probably saw him as her heir to the Crimean throne.[30] In the sources of the 16th–18th centuries, the opinion according to which the separation of the Crimean Tatar state was raised to Tokhtamysh, and Canike was the most important figure in this process, completely prevailed.[31]

### Establishment

Further information: [Giray dynasty](/source/Giray_dynasty)

The Crimean Khanate originated in the early 15th century when certain clans of the [Golden Horde](/source/Golden_Horde) Empire ceased their nomadic life in the [Desht-i Kipchak](/source/Desht-i_Kipchak) (Kypchak [Steppes](/source/Steppe) of today's [Ukraine](/source/Ukraine) and southern Russia) and decided to make Crimea their *yurt* (homeland). At that time, the Golden Horde of the [Mongol Empire](/source/Mongol_Empire) had governed the Crimean peninsula as an [ulus](/source/Orda_(organization)) since 1239, with its capital at Qirim ([Staryi Krym](/source/Staryi_Krym)). The local separatists invited a [Genghisid](/source/Genghisid) contender for the Golden Horde throne, [Hacı Giray](/source/Hac%C4%B1_I_Giray), to become their [khan](/source/Khan_(title)). Hacı Giray accepted their invitation and travelled from exile in [Lithuania](/source/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania). He warred for independence against the Horde from 1420 to 1441, in the end achieving success. But Hacı Giray then had to fight off internal rivals before he could ascend the throne of the khanate in 1449, after which he moved its capital to *Qırq Yer* (today part of [Bahçeseray](/source/Bakhchisaray)).[32] The khanate included the [Crimean Peninsula](/source/Crimean_Peninsula) (except the south and southwest coast and ports, controlled by the [Republic of Genoa](/source/Republic_of_Genoa) & [Trebizond Empire](/source/Perateia)) as well as the adjacent steppe.

### Ottoman protectorate

Crimean Khanate commander [Adil Giray](/source/Adil_Giray_(Kalga)) on horse, and Crimean Khanate soldiers at camp, in 1578. *[Şeca'atname](/source/%C5%9Eeca'atname)* (1586)

[İslâm II Giray](/source/%C4%B0sl%C3%A2m_II_Giray) Khan ("اسلام گيرای خان") enthroned (ruled 1584-88). *[Secaatname](/source/Secaatname)* (1586)

The sons of Hacı I Giray contended against each other to succeed him. The [Ottomans](/source/Ottoman_Empire) intervened and installed one of the sons, [Meñli I Giray](/source/Me%C3%B1li_I_Giray), on the throne. Menli I Giray, took the imperial title "Sovereign of Two Continents and Khan of Khans of Two Seas."[33]

In 1475 the Ottoman forces, under the command of [Gedik Ahmet Pasha](/source/Gedik_Ahmet_Pasha), conquered the Greek [Principality of Theodoro](/source/Principality_of_Theodoro) and the Genoese colonies at [Cembalo](/source/Balaklava), [Soldaia](/source/Sudak), and [Caffa](/source/Feodosiya) (modern Feodosiya). Thenceforth the khanate was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan enjoyed veto power over the selection of new Crimean khans. The Empire annexed the Crimean coast but recognized the legitimacy of the khanate rule of the steppes, as the khans were descendants of [Genghis Khan](/source/Genghis_Khan).

In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting the invasion. After returning from captivity in [Constantinople](/source/Constantinople), he accepted the [suzerainty](/source/Suzerainty) of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects.[34] The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of Little Tartary. The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns.[35] Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor, [Mehmed I Giray](/source/Mehmed_I_Giray). He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan.[36] The alliance of the Crimean Tatars and the Ottomans was comparable to the [Polish–Lithuanian union](/source/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union) in its importance and durability.[*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*] The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against [Poland](/source/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth), [Hungary](/source/Kingdom_of_Hungary), and [Persia](/source/Safavid_Iran).[37]

### Victory over the Golden Horde

Map of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire

In 1502, [Meñli I Giray](/source/Me%C3%B1li_I_Giray) defeated the last khan of the [Great Horde](/source/Great_Horde), which put an end to the Horde's claims on Crimea. The Khanate initially chose as its capital Salaçıq near the Qırq Yer fortress. Later, the capital was moved a short distance to [Bahçeseray](/source/Bakhchysarai), founded in 1532 by [Sahib I Giray](/source/Sahib_I_Giray). Both Salaçıq and the Qırq Yer fortress today are part of the expanded city of Bahçeseray.

### Slave trade

Further information: [Crimean slave trade](/source/Crimean_slave_trade) and [Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe](/source/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe)

The slave trade was the backbone of the economy of the Crimean Khanate.[38][39]

The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the [Danubian principalities](/source/Danubian_principalities), [Poland–Lithuania](/source/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth), and [Muscovy](/source/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow) to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either *sefers* ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, or *çapuls* ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers.

For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive [slave trade](/source/Crimean_slave_trade) with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700, mainly into the Ottoman Empire.[40] [Caffa](/source/Caffa), an Ottoman city on the Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the khanate), was one of the best known significant trading ports and slave markets.[41][42] In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.[43]

Author and historian [Brian Glyn Williams](/source/Brian_Glyn_Williams) writes:

Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery.[44]

Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids:

It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean *vizir* (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who became [galley](/source/Galley)-slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainian *dumas* (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes.[43]

### Alliances and conflicts with Poland and Zaporozhian Cossacks

See also: [Cossack raids](/source/Cossack_raids) and [Khmelnytsky Uprising](/source/Khmelnytsky_Uprising)

Tatars fighting [Zaporozhian Cossacks](/source/Zaporozhian_Cossacks), by [Józef Brandt](/source/J%C3%B3zef_Brandt)

The Crimeans had a complex relationship with [Zaporozhian Cossacks](/source/Zaporozhian_Cossacks) who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/source/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth) and the [Zaporizhian Sich](/source/Zaporizhian_Sich). The assistance of [İslâm III Giray](/source/%C4%B0sl%C3%A2m_III_Giray) during the [Khmelnytsky Uprising](/source/Khmelnytsky_Uprising) in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks.[45] The relationship with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also exclusive, as it was the home dynasty of the Girays, who sought sanctuary in Lithuania in the 15th century before establishing themselves on the Crimean peninsula.[46]

### Struggle with Muscovy

See also: [Russo-Crimean Wars](/source/Russo-Crimean_Wars)

The Crimean Khanate in about 1600. Note that the areas marked Poland and Muscovy were claimed rather than administered and were thinly populated.

In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted a claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly the [Kazan Khanate](/source/Kazan_Khanate) and [Astrakhan Khanate](/source/Astrakhan_Khanate). This claim pitted it against [Muscovy](/source/Tsardom_of_Russia) for dominance in the region. A successful campaign by [Devlet I Giray](/source/Devlet_I_Giray) upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in the [burning of Moscow](/source/Fire_of_Moscow_(1571)), and he thereby gained the sobriquet, That Alğan (seizer of the throne).[47] The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in the [Battle of Molodi](/source/Battle_of_Molodi).

[Don Cossacks](/source/Don_Cossacks) reached lower Don, [Donets](/source/Donets) and [Azov](/source/Azov) by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected the southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses.[48][49]

### Relationship with Nogais

At the beginning of the 17th century, the ancestors of the [Kalmyks](/source/Kalmyks), the [Oirat Mongols](/source/Oirats), migrated from the steppes of Central Asia to the Lower Volga region. They reached the Volga about 1630. That land, however, was not uncontested pasture, but rather the homeland of the [Nogai Horde](/source/Nogai_Horde). Large groups of Nogais fled southeast to the northern Caucasian plain and west to the Black Sea steppe, lands claimed by the Crimean Khanate.

The [Nogais](/source/Nogais) north of the Black Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khanate. They were divided into the following groups: [Budjak](/source/Budjak) (from the [Danube](/source/Danube) to the [Dniester](/source/Dniester)), [Yedisan](/source/Yedisan) (from the Dniester to the [Bug](/source/Southern_Bug)), Jamboyluk (Bug to [Crimea](/source/Crimea)), Yedickul (north of Crimea) and [Kuban](/source/Kuban).[50]

### Relationship with Circassians

See also: [Crimean-Circassian Wars](/source/Crimean-Circassian_Wars)

Under the influence of the [Crimean Tatars](/source/Crimean_Tatars) and of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire), large numbers of [Circassians](/source/Circassians) converted to [Islam](/source/Islam_in_Russia). Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in the art of warfare.[51] Several conflicts occurred between Circassians and Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, with the former defeating an army of Khan [Kaplan Giray](/source/Qaplan_I_Giray) and Ottoman auxiliaries in the [battle of Kanzhal](/source/Battle_of_Kanzhal).[52]

### Decline

Main article: [Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire](/source/Annexation_of_the_Crimean_Khanate_by_the_Russian_Empire)

This section needs more citations. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The [Turkish](/source/Turkish_people) traveler writer [Evliya Çelebi](/source/Evliya_%C3%87elebi) mentions the impact of [Cossack](/source/Cossack) raids from [Azak](/source/Azak) upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate. These raids ruined trade routes and severely depopulated many important regions. By the time Evliya Çelebi had arrived almost all the towns he visited were affected by the Cossack raids. In fact, the only place Evliya Çelebi considered safe from the Cossacks was the [Ottoman](/source/Ottoman_Empire) fortress at [Arabat](/source/Arabat_Fortress).[53]

Map of the sparsely populated [Wild Fields](/source/Wild_Fields) in the 17th century

The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in Eastern Europe's balance of power favouring its neighbours. Crimean Tatars often returned from Ottoman campaigns without loot, and Ottoman subsidies were less likely for unsuccessful campaigns. Without sufficient guns, the Tatar cavalry suffered a significant loss against European and Russian armies with modern equipment. By the late 17th century, [Russia](/source/Tsardom_of_Russia) became too strong for Crimean Khan to pillage and the [Treaty of Karlowitz](/source/Treaty_of_Karlowitz) (1699) outlawed further raids. The era of great slave raids in Russia and Ukraine was over, although brigands and Nogay raiders continued their attacks, and consequently Russian hatred of the Crimean Khanate did not decrease. These politico-economic losses led in turn to erosion of the khan's support among noble clans, and internal conflicts for power ensued. The Nogays, who provided a significant portion of the Crimean military forces, also took back their support from the khans towards the end of the empire.

Skirmish with Tatars, by [Maksymilian Gierymski](/source/Maksymilian_Gierymski)

In the first half of the 17th century, [Kalmyks](/source/Kalmyks) formed the [Kalmyk Khanate](/source/Kalmyk_Khanate) in the Lower Volga and under [Ayuka Khan](/source/Ayuka_Khan) conducted many military expeditions against the Crimean Khanate and [Nogays](/source/Nogays). By becoming an important ally and later part of the Russian Empire and taking an oath to protect its southeastern borders, the Kalmyk Khanate took an active part in all Russian war campaigns in the 17th and 18th centuries, providing up to 40,000 fully equipped horsemen.

Little Tartary (Crimean Khanate) borders in 1715 (Herman Moll)

The united Russian and Ukrainian forces attacked the Crimean Khanate during the [Chigirin Campaigns](/source/Chigirin_Campaigns) and the [Crimean Campaigns](/source/Crimean_campaigns_of_1687_and_1689). It was during the [Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)](/source/Russo-Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)) that the Russians, under the command of [Field-Marshal Münnich](/source/Burkhard_Christoph_von_M%C3%BCnnich), penetrated the Crimean Peninsula itself, burning and destroying everything in it.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

More warfare ensued during the reign of [Catherine II](/source/Catherine_II_of_Russia). The [Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)](/source/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)) resulted in the [Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji](/source/Treaty_of_Kuchuk-Kainarji), which made the Crimean Khanate independent from the Ottoman Empire and aligned it with the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire).

The rule of the last Crimean khan [Şahin Giray](/source/%C5%9Eahin_Giray) was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in the civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the [Taurida Oblast](/source/Taurida_Oblast). In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on [Rhodes](/source/Rhodes), by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal.[54] The royal [Giray](/source/Giray_dynasty) family survives to this day.

Through the 1792 [Treaty of Jassy](/source/Treaty_of_Jassy) (Iaşi), the Russian frontier was extended to the [Dniester River](/source/Dniester_River) and the takeover of Yedisan was complete. The 1812 [Treaty of Bucharest](/source/Treaty_of_Bucharest%2C_1812) transferred [Bessarabia](/source/Bessarabia) to [Russian](/source/Russian_Empire) control.

## Government

See also: [List of Crimean khans](/source/List_of_Crimean_khans)

At the Southern Border of Moscva state by [Sergey Vasilievich Ivanov](/source/Sergey_Vasilievich_Ivanov)

All Khans were from the [Giray](/source/Giray_dynasty) clan, which traced its right to rule to its descent from [Genghis Khan](/source/Genghis_Khan). According to the tradition of the steppes, the ruler was legitimate only if he was of Genghisid royal descent (i.e. "ak süyek"). Although the Giray dynasty was the symbol of government, the khan actually governed with the participation of [Qaraçı](/source/Qarachi) [Beys](/source/Bey), the leaders of the noble clans such as Şirin, Barın, Arğın, Qıpçaq, and in the later period, Mansuroğlu and Sicavut. After the collapse of the [Astrakhan Khanate](/source/Astrakhan_Khanate) in 1556, an important element of the Crimean Khanate were the [Nogays](/source/Nogays), most of whom transferred their allegiance from Astrakhan to Crimea. [Circassians](/source/Circassians) (Atteghei) and [Cossacks](/source/Cossacks) also occasionally played roles in Crimean politics, alternating their allegiance between the khan and the beys. The [Nogay](/source/Nogais) pastoral nomads north of the [Black Sea](/source/Black_Sea) were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan. They were divided into the following groups: [Budjak](/source/Budjak) (from the Danube to the Dniester), [Yedisan](/source/Yedisan) (from the Dniester to the Bug), [Cemboylıq](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cemboyl%C4%B1q&action=edit&redlink=1) [[crh](https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemboyl%C4%B1q)] (Bug to Crimea), Yedickul (north of Crimea) and [Kuban](/source/Kuban).

### Internal affairs

Khan Qirim Girai, is known to have authorized the construction of many landmarks in [Bakhchysarai](/source/Bakhchysarai) and the Crimean Khanate.

Internally, the khanate territory was divided among the beys, and beneath the beys were [mirzas](/source/Mirza_(noble)) from noble families. The relationship of peasants or herdsmen to their mirzas was not [feudal](/source/Feudal). They were free and the [Islamic law](/source/Sharia) protected them from losing their rights. Apportioned by village, the land was worked in common and taxes were assigned to the whole village. The tax was one tenth of an agricultural product, one twentieth of a herd animal, and a variable amount of unpaid labor. During the reforms by the last khan [Şahin Giray](/source/%C5%9Eahin_Giray), the internal structure was changed following the Turkish pattern: the nobles' landholdings were proclaimed the domain of the khan and reorganized into *qadılıqs* (provinces governed by representatives of the khan).

### Crimean law

[Meñli I Giray](/source/Me%C3%B1li_I_Giray) at the court of Ottoman sultan [Bayezid II](/source/Bayezid_II). *[Hünername](/source/H%C3%BCnername)*

Crimean law was based on Tatar law, Islamic law, and, in limited matters, [Ottoman law](/source/Ottoman_Law). The leader of the Muslim establishment was the [mufti](/source/Mufti), who was selected from among the local Muslim clergy. His major duty was neither judicial nor theological, but financial. The mufti's administration controlled all of the [vakif](/source/Vakif) lands and their enormous revenues. Another Muslim official, appointed not by the clergy but the Ottoman sultan, was the [kadıasker](/source/Kad%C4%B1asker), the overseer of the khanate's judicial districts, each under jurisdiction of a [kadi](/source/Kad%C4%B1). In theory, kadis answered to the [kadiaskers](/source/Kazasker), but in practice they answered to the clan leaders and the khan. The kadis determined the day to day legal behavior of Muslims in the khanate.

### Non-Muslim minorities

"Crimean Tatars travelling on the plains" by [Carlo Bossoli](/source/Carlo_Bossoli)

Substantial non-Muslim minorities – [Greeks](/source/Greeks), [Armenians](/source/Armenians), [Crimean Goths](/source/Crimean_Goths), Adyghe (Circassians), [Venetians](/source/Venice), [Genoese](/source/Genoa), [Crimean Karaites](/source/Crimean_Karaites) and [Qırımçaq Jews](/source/Krymchaks) – lived principally in the cities, mostly in separate districts or suburbs. Under the *[millet](/source/Millet_system)* system, they had their own religious and judicial institutions. They were subject to extra taxes in exchange for exemption from military service, living like Crimean Tatars and speaking dialects of Crimean Tatar.[55] [Mikhail Kizilov](/source/Mikhail_Kizilov) writes: "According to Marcin Broniewski (1578), the Tatars seldom cultivated the soil themselves, with most of their land tilled by the Polish, Ruthenian, Russian, and Walachian (Moldavian) slaves."[43]

The Jewish population was concentrated in [Çufut Kale](/source/Chufut-Kale) ('Jewish Fortress'), a separate town near Bahçeseray that was the Khan's original capital. As with other minorities, they spoke a Turkic language. Crimean law granted them special financial and political rights as a reward, according to local folklore, for historic services rendered to an *uluhane* (first wife of a Khan). The capitation tax on Jews in Crimea was levied by the office of the uluhane in Bahçeseray.[56] Much like the Christian population of Crimea, the Jews were actively involved in the slave trade. Both Christians and Jews also often redeemed Christian and Jewish captives of Tatar raids in Eastern Europe.[43]

## Economy

The [nomadic](/source/Nomad) part of the Crimean Tatars and all the Nogays were cattle breeders. Crimea had important trading ports where the goods arrived via the [Silk Road](/source/Silk_Road) were exported to the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Crimean Khanate had many large cities such as the capital Bahçeseray, [Kezlev](/source/Kezlev) (Yevpatoria), [Qarasu Bazar](/source/Bilohirsk) (Market on black water) and [Aqmescit](/source/Simferopol) (White-mosque) having numerous *hans* ([caravansarais](/source/Caravansarai) and merchant quarters), tanners, and mills. Many monuments constructed under the Crimean Khanate were destroyed or left in ruins after the Russian invasion.[57] Mosques, in particular were demolished or remade into Orthodox churches.[57] The settled Crimean Tatars were engaged in trade, agriculture, and artisanry. Crimea was a center of wine, tobacco, and fruit cultivation. Bahçeseray [kilims](/source/Kilim) ([oriental rugs](/source/Oriental_rug)) were exported to [Poland](/source/Poland), and knives made by Crimean Tatar artisans were deemed the best by the Caucasian tribes. Crimea was also renowned for manufacture of silk and honey.

The [slave trade](/source/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe) (15th–17th century) of captured Ukrainians and Russians was one of the major sources of income for Crimean Tartar and Nogai nobility. In this process, known as *harvesting the steppe*, raiding parties would go out and capture, and then enslave the local Christian peasants living in the countryside.[58] In spite of the dangers, Polish and Russian [serfs](/source/Serfs) were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes of [Ukraine](/source/Ukraine). The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and many *[dumy](/source/Duma_(epic))* were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and [Cossacks](/source/Cossacks), in both directions.[59] The last recorded major [Crimean raid](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crimean_raid&action=edit&redlink=1), before those in the [Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)](/source/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)) took place during the reign of [Peter I](/source/Peter_the_Great) (1682–1725).[59]

Crimean [akçes](/source/Ak%C3%A7e)

## Crimean art and architecture

See also: [Crimean Tatar literature](/source/Crimean_Tatar_literature)

### Selim II Giray fountain

The [Selim II Giray](/source/Selim_II_Giray) fountain, built in 1747, is considered one of the masterpieces of Crimean Khanate's hydraulic engineering designs and is still marveled in modern times. It consists of small [ceramic](/source/Ceramic) pipes, boxed in an underground stone tunnel, stretching back to the spring source more than 20 metres (66 feet) away. It was one of the finest sources of water in [Bakhchisaray](/source/Bakhchisaray).

### Bakhchisaray Fountain

The [Crimean Khan's Palace](/source/Bakhchysarai_Palace) in [Bakhchysarai](/source/Bakhchysarai), by [Carlo Bossoli](/source/Carlo_Bossoli)

One of the notable constructors of Crimean art and architecture was [Qırım Giray](/source/Q%C4%B1r%C4%B1m_Giray), who in 1764 commissioned the fountain master Omer the Persian to construct the Bakhchisaray Fountain. The Bakhchisaray Fountain or *Fountain of Tears* is a real case of life imitating art. The fountain is known as the embodiment of love of one of the last Crimean Khans, Khan Qırım Giray for his young wife, and his grief after her early death. The Khan was said to have fallen in love with a [Polish](/source/Polish_people) girl in his [harem](/source/Harem). Despite his battle-hardened harshness, he was grievous and wept when she died, astonishing all those who knew him. He commissioned a marble fountain to be made, so that the rock would weep, like him, forever.[60]

		- Fountain of [Selim II Giray](/source/Selim_II_Giray)

		- The Bakhchisaray Fountain

## Regions and administration

[Vassal and tributary states](/source/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire) of the Ottoman Empire, including the [Lesser Nogai Horde](/source/Lesser_Nogai_Horde), [Ochakov Horde](/source/Yedisan), and Budjak Horde

The nine regions outside of *Qirim yurt* (the peninsula) were:

- Kaztsiv ulus (located in [Kuban](/source/Kuban))

- Yedychkul Horde

- [Cemboylıq Horde](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cemboyl%C4%B1q_Horde&action=edit&redlink=1) [[crh](https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemboyl%C4%B1q)]

- [Yedisan Horde](/source/Yedisan)

- [Budjak Horde](/source/Budjak_Horde)

- Prohnoinsk Palanka (possibly leased to the Zaporizhian Host) (located on the Kinburn peninsula)

- [Silistra Province, Ottoman Empire](/source/Silistra_Province%2C_Ottoman_Empire) for sometime governed by [Bakhchisaray](/source/Bakhchisaray)

The peninsula itself was divided by the khan's family and several *beys*. An estate controlled by a bey was called a *beylik*. Beys in the khanate were as important as the Polish *[Magnats](/source/Magnat)*. Directly to the khan belonged [Cufut-Qale](/source/Cufut-Qale), [Bakhchisaray](/source/Bakhchisaray), and [Staryi Krym](/source/Staryi_Krym) (Eski Qirim). The khan also possessed all the salt lakes and the villages around them, as well as the woods around the rivers [Alma](/source/Alma_River_(Ukraine)), Kacha, and [Salgir](/source/Salhir_River). Part of his own estate included the wastelands with their newly created settlements.

Part of the main khan's estates were the lands of the *[Kalga](/source/Kalga_(title))* who was next in the line of succession of the khan's family. He usually administered the eastern portion of the peninsula. The Kalga was also Chief Commander of the Crimean Army in the absence of the Khan. The next administrative position, called *Nureddin,* was also assigned to the khan's family. He administered the western region of the peninsula. There also was a specifically assigned position for the khan's mother or sister — *Ana-beim* — which was similar to the Ottomans' [valide sultan](/source/Valide_sultan). The senior wife of the Khan carried a rank of *Ulu-beim* and was next in importance to the Nureddin.

By the end of the khanate regional offices of the *kaimakans*, who administered smaller regions of the Crimean Khanate, were created.

- [Or Qapı](/source/Perekop) (Perekop) had special status. The fortress was controlled either directly by the khan's family or by the family of Shirin.

### Ottoman Empire territories

- [Kefe Eyalet](/source/Kefe_Eyalet), a seat of Ottomans in Crimea until 1774

- [Silistra Eyalet](/source/Silistra_Eyalet), the western coast of Black Sea, later [Danube Vilayet](/source/Danube_Vilayet)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** *[De facto](/source/De_facto)* [independent](/source/Independence), *[de jure](/source/De_jure)* [vassal](/source/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire) of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) from 1475 to 1774.[3][4]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** [Crimean Tatar](/source/Crimean_Tatar_language): *Qırım Hanlığı*, قریم خانلیغی.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [Crimean Tatar](/source/Crimean_Tatar_language): *Taht-i Qırım ve Deşt-i Qıpçaq*, تخت قريم و دشت قپچاق Other names include: *Ulu(g) Orda*, [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) '**Great Horde'**; *Ulu(g) yurt*, [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) '**Great Yurt'**; *Qırım yurt*, [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) '**Crimean Yurt'**.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** [Latin](/source/Latin_language): *Tartaria Minor*.

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** [Archive](https://archive.org/details/lemondeoulagogra00duva_0/page/n403)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEТемушев20211026see_legend_of_the_map_(red_dash_line)_2-0)** [Темушев 2021](#CITEREFТемушев2021), p. 1026, see legend of the map (red dash line).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Колодзєйчик Д.: Крымское ханство как фактор стабилизации на геополитической карте Восточной Европы // Украина и соседние государства в XVII веке. Материалы международной конференции. СПб., 2004. С. 83–89

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** [Крымское ханство: вассалитет или независимость? (Crimean Khanate: vassalage or independence?)](https://book.ivran.ru/sites/31/files/osmanskij-mir-i-osmanistika-2010.pdf) // Османский мир и османистика. Сборник статей к 100-летию со дня рождения А. С. Тверитиновой (1910—1973). М., 2010. С. 288—298

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** *Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm ansiklopedisi* (in Turkish). Vol. 14. 1996. p. 77.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Chaghatay Language and Literature"](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatay-language-and-literature). *Iranica*. Ebn Mohannā (Jamāl-al-Dīn, fl. early 8th/14th century, probably in Khorasan), for instance, characterized it as the purest of all Turkish languages (Doerfer, 1976, p. 243), and the khans of the Golden Horde (Radloff, 1870; Kurat; Bodrogligeti, 1962) and of the Crimea (Kurat), as well as the Kazan Tatars (Akhmetgaleeva; Yusupov), wrote in Chaghatay much of the time.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-numista1_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-numista1_8-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-numista1_8-2) ["Items from Khanate of Crimea"](https://en.numista.com/catalogue/crimea-1.html). 2 July 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-numista2_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-numista2_9-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-numista2_9-2) ["Items from Khanate of Crimea"](https://en.numista.com/catalogue/crimea-2.html). 2 July 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Albert Romer Frey (1917). [*A Dictionary of Numismatic Names: Their Official and Popular Designations*](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/A_dictionary_of_numismatic_names_-_their_official_and_popular_designations_%28IA_dictionaryofnumi00frey_0%29.pdf) (PDF). p. 128. An enormous copper coin, about forty-four millimetres in diameter, issued for Baghcheserai, in the Crimea, by Shahin Gerai (A. II. 1191-1197) before its annexation to Russia.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Andriy Domanovsky (2017). [*Загадки Истории Крымское Ханство*](https://folio.com.ua/system/books/samples/000/000/237/original/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE.pdf?1536370638) (PDF) (in Russian). p. 11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Г. Л. Кессельбреннер (1994). [*Крым: страницы истории*](https://mgimo.ru/about/news/main/249710/). Moscow: SvR-Аргус. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-86949-003-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-86949-003-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Documents of the Crimean khanate from the collection of Huseyn Feyzkhanov / comp. and the transliteration. R. R. Abdujalilov; scientific. edited by I. Mingaleev. – Simferopol: LLC "Konstanta". - 2017. – 816 p. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-5-906952-38-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-906952-38-7)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Sagit Faizov. Letters of khans Islam Giray III and Muhammad Giray IV to Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich and King Jan Kazimir, 1654–1658: Crimean Tatar diplomacy in polit. post-Pereyaslav context. time – Moscow: Humanitarii, 2003. – 166 p. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-89221-075-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-89221-075-8)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Gaivoronsky Oleksa. The Country Of Crimea. Essays on the monuments of the history of the Crimean Khanate. Simferopol: FL ablaeva N. F., 2016–336 p. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-5-600-01505-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-600-01505-0)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Oleksa Gaivoronsky. Lords of two Continents, volume 1, Kyiv-Bakhchysarai, 2007 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-966-96917-1-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-966-96917-1-2)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Edmund Spencer, *Travels in Circassia, Krim-Tartary &c: Including a Steam Voyage Down the Danube from Vienna to Constantinople, and Round the Black Sea*, Henry Colburn, 1837.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** *To His Most Serene and August Majesty Peter Alexovitz Absolute Lord of Russia &c. This map of Moscovy, Poland, Little Tartary, and ye Black Sea &c. is most Humbly Dedicated by H. Moll Geographer* ([raremaps.com](https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/22285/To_His_Most_Serene_and_August_Majesty_Peter_Alexovitz_Absolute_Lord_of/Moll.html)). The map shows Little Tartary as reaching the left bank of the Dnipro, and as including the [Kalmius](/source/Kalmius) but not the Mius, to the north reaching as far as the Tor (Torets) basin, somewhat south of [Izium](/source/Izium). Other geographers (but not Moll) sometimes included in "Lesser Tartary"[*[according to whom?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions)*] the territory of the [Lesser Nogai Horde](/source/Lesser_Nogai_Horde) in [Kuban](/source/Krasnodar_Krai), east of the Sea of Azov (in Moll's map labelled separately as *Koeban Tartary*).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** *The Crimea. Great historical guide*. Alexander Andreev publishing house Liters 2014

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["the Turkic peoples are becoming not only the ruling but also the state-forming people"](http://history-doc.ru/zolotaya-orda-i-slavyane/) – the Golden Horde and the Slavs

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** R. I. Kurteev, K. K. Choghoshvili. The ethnic term "Tatars" and the ethnic group "Crimean Tatars". – Through the ages: the peoples of the Crimea. Issue 1 \ Ed. N. Nikolaenko-Simferopol: Academy of Humanities, 1995

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** see [Codex Cumanicus](/source/Codex_Cumanicus)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarkavets200769–70_26-0)** [Garkavets 2007](#CITEREFGarkavets2007), pp. 69–70.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-codex_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-codex_27-1) Géza Lajos László József Kuun, Budapest Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (1880). [*Codex cumanicus, Bibliothecae ad templum divi Marci Venetiarum primum ex integro editit prolegomenis notis et compluribus glossariis instruxit comes Géza Kuun*](https://archive.org/details/codexcumanicusbi00kuunuoft). Budapestini Scient. Academiae Hung.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Michel Balard (2017). ["Генуя и Золотая Орда"](https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=30612247). *Zolotoordynskai︠a︡ T︠s︡ivilizat︠s︡ii︠a︡* (10) (Золотоордынская Цивилизация ed.): 105–112. [eISSN](/source/EISSN_(identifier)) [2409-0875](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2409-0875). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2308-1856](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2308-1856).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** ["Крымское ханство. Города и население"](https://ru.krymr.com/a/29412284.html) (in Russian). Крым.Реалии. Retrieved 2019-03-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** ["Из истории крымтатарского народа. Кыпчаки"](https://avdet.org/ru/2018/01/05/iz-istorii-krymtatarskogo-naroda-kypchaki/) (in Russian). avdet.org. 5 January 2018. Retrieved 2019-03-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Гаркавец_31-0)** Гаркавец А. Н. (1987). [*Кыпчакские языки*](https://www.academia.edu/22460578). [Алма-Ата](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0&action=edit&redlink=1): Наука. p. 18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["Наступление Тимура на Москву 1395"](https://histrf.ru/lenta-vremeni/event/view/nastuplieniie-timura-na-moskvu) (in Russian). histrf.ru. Retrieved 2019-03-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEГерценМогаричев199363_33-0)** [Герцен & Могаричев 1993](#CITEREFГерценМогаричев1993), p. 63.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEФадеева2001_34-0)** [Фадеева 2001](#CITEREFФадеева2001).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEГерценМогаричев199365_35-0)** [Герцен & Могаричев 1993](#CITEREFГерценМогаричев1993), p. 65.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** [Bakhchisaray history](http://www.hansaray.org.ua/e_ist_devlet.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090106132743/http://www.hansaray.org.ua/e_ist_devlet.html) 2009-01-06 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) (in English)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["Saudi Aramco World: The Palace and the Poet"](https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/201202/the.palace.and.the.poet.htm). *archive.aramcoworld.com*. Retrieved 2020-07-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Khan Palace in Bakhchisaray, [The Giray Dynasty](http://www.hansaray.org.ua/e_geray_ist.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304184355/http://hansaray.org.ua/e_geray_ist.html) 2016-03-04 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), [Hansaray](/source/Bakhchisaray_Palace) Organization

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Bennigsen

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Yaşar, Murat; Oh, Chong Jin (May 10, 2018). ["The Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate in the North Caucasus: A Case Study of Ottoman–Crimean Relations in the Mid-Sixteenth Century"](https://brill.com/view/journals/thr/9/1/article-p86_86.xml). *Turkish Historical Review*. **9** (1): 86–103. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/18775462-00901005](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18775462-00901005). Retrieved December 4, 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** ["WHKMLA: List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars"](http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html). *www.zum.de*. Retrieved 2020-07-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Peter B. Brown, "Russian Serfdom's Demise and Russia's Conquest of the Crimean Khanate and the Northern Black Sea Littoral: Was There a Link?", in *Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860* (Routledge, 2015), p. 346: "The slave trade was the backbone of the Crimean khanate's economy."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** J. Otto Pohl, *Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949* (Greenwood, 1999), p. 110: "The slave trade formed the backbone of the Crimean Khanate's the role of the slave trade in the economy of the Crimean Khanate is a tragic example of Evil.<[The historical fate of the Crimean Tatars](http://194.44.152.155/elib/local/sk803789.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191020103218/http://194.44.152.155/elib/local/sk803789.pdf) 2019-10-20 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) – Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Valery Vozgrin, 1992, Moscow (in Russian)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by [Mikhail Kizilov](/source/Mikhail_Kizilov) (2007). ["Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate"](https://www.academia.edu/3706285). *The Journal of Jewish Studies*. **58** (2): 189–210. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.18647/2730/JJS-2007](https://doi.org/10.18647%2F2730%2FJJS-2007).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** [Historical survey > Slave societies](https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** [Caffa](https://www.britannica.com/place/Feodosiya)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-slave_trade_47-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-slave_trade_47-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-slave_trade_47-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-slave_trade_47-3) [Mikhail Kizilov](/source/Mikhail_Kizilov) (2007). ["Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources"](https://www.academia.edu/2971600). *[Journal of Early Modern History](/source/Journal_of_Early_Modern_History)*. **11** (1–2): 1. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/157006507780385125](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006507780385125).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Brian Glyn Williams (2013). ["The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf) (PDF). *[The Jamestown Foundation](/source/The_Jamestown_Foundation)*. p. 27. Archived from [the original](http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf) (PDF) on 2013-10-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Davies, Brian (2014). *Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700*. Routledge. pp. 32, 104. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-55283-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-55283-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Kolodziejczyk, Dariusz (June 22, 2011). [*The Crimean Khanate and Poland-Lithuania*](https://brill.com/display/title/15156). [Brill](/source/Brill_Publishers). pp. 637–646. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-19190-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-19190-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** [Moscow – Historical background](http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20071011214606/http://economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW) 2007-10-11 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Davies, Brian (2014). *Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700*. Routledge. p. 29. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-55283-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-55283-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** [Turchin, P.](/source/Peter_Turchin); Nefedov, S. (2009). *Secular Cycles*. Princeton University Press. p. 257. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-13696-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13696-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** According to Tsutsiev (Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus, 2014, Map 4 for 1774), many of these tribes existed north of the Caucasus. From west to east he lists 'Kipchak', Yedishkul, Jambulak, Navruz, Mansur(sic), and Beshtau Nogay. North of Jambulak-Beshtau were Yedisans and north of these names are omitted. East of the Beshtau Nogay were Turkmen and then the Kara-Nogai in the present Nogai location west of the Caspian.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Williams, Brian Glyn (2001). *The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation*. Brill. p. 198. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-12122-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12122-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Kármán, Gábor, ed. (2020). *Tributaries and Peripheries of the Ottoman Empire*. Brill. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-43060-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43060-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Fisher, Alan (1998). [*Between Russians, Ottomans and Turks: Crimea and Crimean Tatars*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-PFoAAAAMAAJ&q=Evliya+Celebi). Isis Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-975-428-126-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-428-126-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Emecen, Feridun. ["Şâhin Giray"](https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/sahin-giray). [İslâm Ansiklopedisi](/source/%C4%B0sl%C3%A2m_Ansiklopedisi).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Fisher_59-0)** Fisher, Alan W (1978). *The Crimean Tatars*. Studies of Nationalities in the USSR. Hoover Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8179-6662-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-6662-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Fisher2_60-0)** Fisher p. 34

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ReferenceB_61-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ReferenceB_61-1) A history of Ukraine, Paul Robert Magocsi, 347, 1996

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Williams

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_63-1) The Russian Annexation of the Crimea 1772–1783, p. 26

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Johnstone, Sarah. *Ukraine*. Lonely Planet, 2005. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-86450-336-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86450-336-X)

### Works cited

- Garkavets, А. Н. (2007). ["Codex Cumanicus: Половецкие молитвы, гимны и загадки XIII–XIV веков"](http://www.qypchaq.unesco.kz/Memorials-Rus.htm). *Кыпчакское письменное наследие*. Vol. II. Алматы: Кaceah; Баур. pp. 63–120.

- Фадеева, Татьяна Михайловная (2001). [*Тайны горного Крыма (Чуфут-кале и Успенский монастырь)*](http://family-travel.crimea.ru/books/Kniga_fadeeva/3.3.html). Симферополь: Бизнес-Информ.

- Герцен, А. Г.; Могаричев, Ю. М. (1993). [*Крепость драгоценностей. Кырк-Ор. Чуфут-кале*](http://handvorec.ru/doc/PUBLIC/krepost%20drag.PDF) (PDF). Симферополь: Таврида. pp. 58–64. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-7780-0216-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7780-0216-5).

- Хакимов, Р. С. (2015). ["Обращаясь к Средневековью, важно не смешивать татар и монгол"](https://www.business-gazeta.ru/article/138331) (in Russian).

- Темушев, С. Н. (2021). [*История крымских татар в пяти томах (Том III)*](http://xn--80aimpg.xn--80aagie6cnnb.xn--p1ai/uploads/libraries/original/cea83c9468b6f06df77461e1f6d8d22ceba02086.pdf?1646462932) (PDF). Vol. 1. Казань: Institute of History named after Sh. Marjani of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan.

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Crimean Khanate](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Crimean_Khanate).

- [The Bağçasaray Palace of the Crimean Khans](https://web.archive.org/web/20121029140244/http://www.hansaray.org.ua/e_index.html)

- [Tatar.Net](https://web.archive.org/web/20110107044141/http://tatar.net/)

- [Annexation of the Crimean Khanate](https://web.archive.org/web/20051123225321/http://www.qurultay.org/linkshow.asp?AD=..%2Flinks%2Feng%2Fhistory%2Frus_period%2F3_1.html)

## Further reading

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Part of a series on Crimean Tatars By region or country Bulgaria Romania Turkey United States Uzbekistan Religion Atheism and Agnosticism Sunni Islam (Hanafi) Language Crimean Tatar (alphabet) Dobrujan Tatar (alphabet) Dialects Crimean Romani Culture Cuisine Literature Subgroups History Western Steppe Herders Khanate (1441–1783) Taurida Oblast (1783–1796) Taurida Governorate (1802–1917) People's Republic (1917–1918) Crimean ASSR (1921–1945) Generalbezirk Krym-Taurien(1941–1944) Sürgün (1944) Crimean Oblast (1945–1991) Autonomous Republic (1991–) Republic of Crimea (2014–) People and groups List Biographies Khans Mejlis Milliy Firqa UDTTMR v t e

- Ivanics, Mária (2007). "Enslavement, Slave Labour, and the Treatment of Captives in the Crimean Khanate". In Dávid, Géza; Pál Fodor (eds.). *Ransom Slavery along the Ottoman Borders (Early Fifteenth-Early Eighteenth Centuries)*. Leiden: Brill. pp. 193–219.

- [Дворец крымских ханов в Бахчисарае](https://web.archive.org/web/20080828201002/http://www.hansaray.org.ua/r_index.html)

- *[Дубровин Н. Ф.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D1%91%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87)* [Присоединение Крыма к России.](http://runivers.ru/lib/detail.php?ID=539389) В 4-х тт. – СПб.: Тип. Императорской Академии наук, 1885–1889.

- Возгрин В. Е. (1992). [*Исторические судьбы крымских татар*](https://web.archive.org/web/20060711080144/http://tavrika.by.ru/books/vozgrin_ists/html/index.htm). Moscow: [Мысль](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8C_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE)&action=edit&redlink=1). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-244-00641-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-244-00641-X). Archived from [the original](http://kitap.net.ru/vozgrin1.php) on 2006-07-11. Retrieved 2020-06-01.

- *Гайворонский О.* [Созвездие Гераев. Краткие биографии крымских ханов.](https://web.archive.org/web/20070318162008/http://www.cidct.org.ua/ru/publications/Giray/index.html) – Симферополь: Доля, 2003. – [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [966-8295-31-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/966-8295-31-5)

- *[Базилевич В. М.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87,_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87)* [Из истории московско-крымских отношений в первой половине XVII века.](http://www.runivers.ru/lib/detail.php?ID=144297) – Киев: Тип. 2–й артели, 1914. – 23 с.

- *[Бантыш-Каменский Н. Н.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%88-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9,_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87)* [Реестр делам крымского двора с 1474 по 1779 год.](http://www.runivers.ru/lib/detail.php?ID=285886) – Симферополь: Тип. Таврическ. губернск. правления, 1893.

- *[Смирнов В. Д.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87)* [Крымское ханство под верховенством Оттоманской Порты в XVIII в. до присоединения его к России](http://www.runivers.ru/lib/detail.php?ID=144298) – Одесса: Тип. А. Шульце, 1889.

- *Смирнов В. Д.* [Крымское ханство в XVIII веке.](https://web.archive.org/web/20140527212857/http://www.lomonosov-books.ru/krimskoe_khanstvo.html) – М.: Ломоносовъ, 2014. – [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-5-91678-230-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-91678-230-1)

- *Смирнов В. Д.* [Сборник некоторых важных известий и официальных документов касательно Турции, России и Крыма](http://runivers.ru/lib/detail.php?ID=144303) – СПб., 1881.

- *[Шваб М. М.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B1,_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0)* [Русско-крымские отношения середины XVI – первых лет XVII веков в отечественной историографии 1940-х – 2000-х гг.](http://cheloveknauka.com/russko-krymskie-otnosheniya-serediny-xvi-pervyh-let-xvii-vekov-v-otechestvennoy-istoriografii-1940-h-2000-h-gg) – [Сургут](/source/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%82), 2011.

- Некрасов A. M. (1999). [*Возникновение и эволюция Крымского государства в XV–XVI веках*](http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Nekrasov_01.pdf) (PDF) ([ru:Отечественная история](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F) ed.). pp. 48–58.

- [Зайцев И. В.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%98%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87) [in Russian] (2010). [*Крымское ханство: вассалитет или независимость?//Османский мир и османистика. Сборник статей к 100–летаю со дня рождения A.C. Тверитиновой (1910–1973)*](https://book.ivran.ru/f/osmanskij-mir-i-osmanistika-2010.pdf) (PDF) (Учреждение [Российской академии наук](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA&action=edit&redlink=1), Институт востоковедения ed.). pp. 288–297.

- [Зайцев И. В.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%98%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87) [in Russian] (2016). [*Где останавливались крымские послы в Москве и московские послы при дворе крымского хана в XVI веке?*](https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=27182254). Институт истории имени Шигабутдина Марджани [Академии наук Республики Татарстан](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD&action=edit&redlink=1). pp. 35–51.

- [В.В. Пенской](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9,_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87) [in Russian] (2010). ["ВОЕННЫЙ ПОТЕНЦИАЛ КРЫМСКОГО ХАНСТВА В КОНЦЕ XV – НАЧАЛЕ XVII в?"](https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/151214186.pdf) (PDF). *Восток (Oriens)* (2): 56–66.

- [Зайцев И. В.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%98%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87) [in Russian] (2004). [*Между Москвой и Стамбулом*](http://inion.ru/site/assets/files/1021/zaitsev_mezhdu_moskvoi_i_stambulom.pdf) (PDF). Moscow: Рудомино. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-7380-0202-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7380-0202-4).

- [Соловьёв С. М.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%91%D0%B2,_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87) [in Russian] (1856). [*История России с древнейших времён*](http://az.lib.ru/s/solowxew_sergej_mihajlowich/text_1060.shtml#200). Vol. 6, Гл. 2.

- Фадеева Татьяна Михайловная (2001). [*Тайны горного Крыма (Чуфут–кале и Успенский монастырь)*](http://family-travel.crimea.ru/books/Kniga_fadeeva/3.3.html). Симферополь: Бизнес–Информ.

- Фадеева Татьяна Михайловная (2007). [*Горный Крым (Гробница Джанике–ханым дочери хана Тохтамыша )*](http://www.bibliotekar.ru/3-1-72-gorniy-krym/9.htm). Симферополь: Бизнес–Информ.

- Глаголев В. С. (2018). [*Религия Караимов*](https://mgimo.ru/upload/iblock/bf9/religiya-karaimov.pdf) (PDF). Moscow: Издательство [ru:МГИМО](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C%D0%9E)–университет.

- [Домановский А. М.](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87) [in Ukrainian] (2017). [*Секреты государственного устройства Крымского ханства: Куда ступит копыто ханского коня, то и принадлежит хану*](https://folio.com.ua/system/books/samples/000/000/237/original/Домановский_Крымское_хансто.pdf?1536370638) (PDF). Vol. 1. [Харьков](/source/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2): ФОЛИО. pp. 11–16.

- Gorshenina, Svetlana. (2014). *L'invention de l'Asie centrale: histoire du concept de la Tartarie à l'Eurasie*. Droz. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-600-01788-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-600-01788-6).

- Горский, А. А. (2010). [*Русское Средневековье*](https://web.archive.org/web/20210308233318/https://unotices.com/book.php?id=118949&page=40). Vol. 1. Moscow: Олимп. p. 40. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-5-271-23786-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-271-23786-7). Archived from [the original](https://unotices.com/book.php?id=118949&page=40) on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2020-06-01.

- К. А. Кочегаров (2008). [*Речь Посполитая и Россия в 1680–1686 годах: заключение Вечного мира*](http://inslav.ru/images/stories/pdf/2008_Kochegarov.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 1. Moscow: Индрик, [Институт славяноведения Российской академии наук](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%9D&action=edit&redlink=1). p. 230. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-5-85759-443-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-85759-443-8).

- [Чокан Ч. В.](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%A7%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87) [in Russian] (1984). [*Собрание сочинений в пяти томах*](https://dlib.rsl.ru/viewer/01004460966). Vol. 1. [Алматы](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0&action=edit&redlink=1): Издательство Академии наук Казахской ССР.

v t e Successor states of the Golden Horde Blue Horde Great Horde Khanate of Kazan Qasim Khanate Khanate of Astrakhan Khanate of Crimea White Horde Nogai Horde Budjak Horde Khanate of Sibir Kazakh Khanate Uzbek Khanate

v t e Crimea articles Political status Sevastopol Republic of Crimea (Russia) Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Ukraine) History Greek Crimea Crimea in the Roman era Cherson (theme) Bosporan Kingdom Akatziri Khazars Crimean Goths Kipchaks Empire of Trebizond Genoese Crimea Genoese–Mongol Wars Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689 Crimean Khanate 1778 eviction of Christians 1783 annexation by Russia Crimean War Soviet period Crimea in World War II 1944 Crimean Tatar deportation Renaming of Crimean toponyms 1954 transfer to Ukraine Crimean Tatar repatriation Autonomous Republic of Crimea Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People President of Crimea 2003 Tuzla Island conflict 2014 status referendum 2014 annexation by Russia Geography Arabat Spit Arabat Bay Azov Sea Black Sea Caves Marble Vyalova Crimean Mountains Kerch Strait Perekop Isthmus Pontic–Caspian steppe Southern Coast Syvash Subdivisions Cities Raions Urban-type settlements administrative divisions Politics De jure (Ukrainian) Autonomous Republic of Crimea Supreme Council Chairman Prime Minister Council of Ministers Sevastopol City Council State administration Mayor De facto (Russian) Republic of Crimea Constitution Head State Council 2024 parliamentary election Sevastopol Legislative Assembly Governor 2017 election Crimean Federal District Black Sea Fleet Economy Tourism Crimean Bridge Crimean Trolleybus Society Sports Crimean Premier League Demographics Peoples Russians Ukrainians Crimean Tatars Armenians Karaites Pontic Greeks Krymchaks Crimea Germans Languages Crimean Tatar Krymchak Russian Ukrainian Religion Christianity Russian Orthodox Church Roman Catholicism Ukrainian Catholicism Judaism Islam Category

v t e Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire c. 1365 – 1867 (eyalets) Africa Algiers Egypt Muhammad Ali dynasty Habesh Zeila Tripolitania Tunis Anatolia Adana Aidin Anatolia Ankara Childir Diyarbekir Dulkadir Erzurum Hüdavendigâr Karaman Kars Kastamonu Kurdistan Rum Trebizond Van Europe Adrianople Archipelago Bosnia Budin Crete Egir Herzegovina Kanije Kefe Morea Niš Podolia Rumelia Salonica Silistra Temeşvar Uyvar Varat Widdin Yanina Levant Aleppo Cyprus Damascus Jerusalem Sidon Mount Lebanon Tripoli Arabia Yemen Lahsa Mesopotamia Baghdad (Mamluk of Iraq) Mosul Basra Rakka Shahrizor 1867–1922 (vilayets and mutasarrıfates) Africa Tripolitania Anatolia Adana Aidin Angora (Ankara) Archipelago Bitlis Constantinople (Istanbul) Diyarbekir Erzurum Hüdavendigâr Kastamonu Konya Mamuret-ul-Aziz Sivas Trebizond (Trabzon) Van Europe Adrianople (Edirne) Bosnia Constantinople Crete Danube East Rumelia Janina Kosovo Manastir Salonica Scutari Levant Aleppo Beirut Mount Lebanon Syria Jerusalem Arabia Hejaz Yemen Mesopotamia Baghdad Mosul Basra Vassals and autonomies Vassals Cossack Hetmanate Ottoman Ukraine Crimean Khanate Khanate of Kazan Principality of Moldavia Sharifate of Mecca Republic of Ragusa Serbian Despotate Duchy of Syrmia Principality of Transylvania Principality of Wallachia Principality of Romania Principality of Serbia Principality of Bulgaria Kingdom of Imereti Septinsular Republic Sultanate of Aceh Principality of Guria Principality of Svaneti Principality of Mingrelia Principality of Abkhazia Samtskhe-Saatabago Mount Lebanon Emirate Autonomies Cretan State Khedivate of Egypt Kurdish emirates Mamluk of Iraq Eastern Rumelia Principality of Samos

v t e State organisation of the Ottoman Empire Central system House of Osman Ottoman dynasty (Ottoman Caliphate) Seraglio Imperial Harem Enderûn Palace Schools Mabeyn-i hümayun Government Imperial Council (Porte) (classical period) Grand Vizier Viziers Kazaskers Defterdars/Ministers of Finance Nişancı Reis ül-Küttab Dragoman of the Porte Birûn Cabinet (reform period) Grand Vizier Cadastre Bureau Ministry of Evkaf Ministry of Finance Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of the Interior Ministry of Justice Ministry of Trade and Agriculture Ministry of War Ministry of Navy Sheikh-ul-Islam Imperial government (reform period) Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances Council of State Supreme Council of Reorganization Council of Judicial Regulations General Assembly (constitutional period) Senate Chamber of Deputies (political parties) Constitution Administrative divisions Millets Islam Sheikh ul-Islam Christianity Eastern Orthodox Armenian Apostolic Syriac Orthodox Coptic Orthodox Judaism Hakham Bashi Provincial Eyalets Beylerbeys Vilayets Sanjaks Sanjakbeys Mutasarrifates Kazas/Kadiluks Vassal and tributary states Rayas

v t e Turkic topics Languages Afshar Altai Northern Southern Äynu Azerbaijani Bashkir Bulgar Chagatai Chulym Chuvash Crimean Tatar Cuman Dolgan Fuyü Gïrgïs Gagauz Ili Turki Karachay-Balkar Karaim Karakalpak Karamanli Turkish Kazakh Khakas Khalaj Khazar Khorasani Turkic Kipchak Krymchak Kumyk Kipchak languages Kyrgyz Nogai Old Turkic Ottoman Turkish Pecheneg Qashqai Sakha/Yakut Salar Shor Siberian Tatar Tatar Telengit Tofa Turkish Turkmen Tuvan Urum Uyghur Uzbek Western Yugur Alphabets Old Turkic Common Turkic Cyrillic Old Uyghur Persian Peoples Afshars Altaians Chelkans, Kumandins, Telengits, Teleuts, Tubalars Azerbaijanis in Iran, Armenia, Georgia1 Balkars Bashkirs Chulyms Chuvash Crimean Karaites Crimean Tatars Dolgans Gagauz Karachays Karakalpaks Kazakhs in China1 Khakas Khalaj Khorasani Turks Krymchaks Kyrgyz in China1 Kumyks Naimans Nogais Qarai Turks Qashqai Salar Shors Siberian Tatars Baraba Tatars Chat Tatars Kalmak Tatars Eushta Tatars Zabolotnie Tatars Tyumen-Tura Tatars Tobol Tatars Kurdak-Sargat Tatars Tara Tatars Tatars Astrakhan, Chinese, Finnish, Lipka, Kryashens, Mishar, Nağaybäk, Volga Tofalar Turkmens Afghan, Iranian1 Turkish in Abkhazia, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Crete, Cyprus, Dodecanese, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Kosovo, Lebanon, Libya, North Macedonia, Meskhetia (Ahiska), Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Syria, Tunisia, Western Thrace, Yemen1 Tuvans Uyghurs Uzbeks in Afghanistan1 Yakuts (Sakha) Yugurs Extinct Turkic groups Bulaqs Bulgars Cumans Dughlats Göktürks Karluks Khazars Kimek Kipchaks K'o-sa Oghuz Turks Shatuo Türgesh Uzes Politics Grey Wolves Kemalism Burkhanism Jadid Pan-Turkism Turkesism Turanism (Hungarian) Origins Turkestan Mongolia History Timeline of the Göktürks Timeline 500–1300 Migration Turkification Nomadic empire Turco-Mongol Tian Shan / Altai Mountains Otuken Oğuz Locations Sovereign states Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Northern Cyprus2 Turkey Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Autonomous areas Altai Republic Bashkortostan Chuvashia Crimea Gagauzia Jagoldai Kabardino-Balkaria Karachay-Cherkessia Karakalpakstan Khakassia Nakhchivan Sakha Tatarstan Tuva Xinjiang Studies Old Turkic script Proto-Turkic language Turkology Religions Turkic mythology Tengrism Shamanism Aiyy Faith Tibetan Buddhism Islam Alevism Batiniyya Bayramiye Bektashi Order Burkhanism Christianity Hurufism Khalwati order Malamatiyya Qadiri Qalandariyya Rifaʽi* Safaviyya Zahediyeh Vattisen Yaly Traditional sports Kyz kuu Jereed Kokpar Jigit Chovgan Organizations Organization of Turkic States International Organization of Turkic Culture (TÜRKSOY) Parliamentary Assembly (TURKPA) Turkic Academy Organization of the Eurasian Law Enforcement Agencies with Military Status (TAKM) World Turks Qurultai 1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. 2State with limited international recognition.

v t e Turco-Mongol States Tatar confederation Golden Horde Uzbek Khanate Kazakh Khanate Nogai Horde Budjak Horde Chagatai Khanate Timurid Empire Mughal Empire Crimean Khanate Astrakhan Khanate Kazan Khanate Sibir Khanate Related ethnic groups and clans Avars* Keraites Barlas Naimans Merkit Ongud Mughal people Aimaq people Hazaras Culture Kurultai Kumis Tengrism (Tengri, Ergenekon, Ülgen, Erlik) Deel Tug banner *Origin is controversial.

Authority control databases International VIAF GND National United States Japan Czech Republic Israel Other Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Crimean Khanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Khanate) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Khanate?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.