# Cooking oil

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Oil consumed by humans, of vegetable or animal origin

Plant oils Olive oil Types Vegetable oil (list) Macerated oil (list) Essential oil (list) Uses Drying oil Oil paint Cooking oil Fuel Biodiesel Components Saturated fat Monounsaturated fat Polyunsaturated fat Trans fat v t e

**Cooking oil** (also known as **edible oil**) is a plant or animal liquid [fat](/source/Fat) used in [frying](/source/Frying), [baking](/source/Baking), and [other types of cooking](/source/Cooking#Methods). Oil allows higher cooking temperatures than water, making [cooking](/source/Cooking) faster and more flavorful, while likewise distributing heat, reducing burning and uneven cooking. It sometimes imparts its own flavor. Cooking oil is also used in food preparation and flavoring not involving heat, such as [salad dressings](/source/Salad_dressings) and bread dips.

Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as [coconut oil](/source/Coconut_oil), [palm oil](/source/Palm_oil) and [palm kernel oil](/source/Palm_kernel_oil), are solid.[1]

There are a wide variety of cooking oils from plant sources, such as [olive oil](/source/Olive_oil), [palm oil](/source/Palm_oil), [soybean oil](/source/Soybean_oil), [canola oil](/source/Canola_oil) ([rapeseed](/source/Rapeseed) oil), [corn oil](/source/Corn_oil), [peanut oil](/source/Peanut_oil), [sesame oil](/source/Sesame_oil), [sunflower oil](/source/Sunflower_oil) and other [vegetable oils](/source/List_of_vegetable_oils#Edible_oils), as well as animal-based oils like [butter](/source/Butter), [ghee](/source/Ghee), [schmaltz](/source/Schmaltz), and [lard](/source/Lard).

Oil can be flavored with aromatic foodstuffs such as [herbs](/source/Herb), [chilies](/source/Chili_pepper) or [garlic](/source/Garlic). [Cooking spray](/source/Cooking_spray) is an [aerosol](/source/Aerosol) of cooking oil.

## Health and nutrition

While consumption of small amounts of [saturated fats](/source/Saturated_fat) is common in diets,[2] [meta-analyses](/source/Meta-analyses) found a significant correlation between *high consumption* of saturated fats and blood [LDL](/source/Low-density_lipoprotein) concentration,[3] a [risk factor](/source/Risk_factor) for [cardiovascular diseases](/source/Cardiovascular_diseases).[4] Other meta-analyses based on [cohort studies](/source/Cohort_studies) and on [controlled, randomized trials](/source/Scientific_control#Controlled_experiments) found a positive,[5] or neutral,[6] effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats (a 10% lower risk for 5% replacement).[6]

[Mayo Clinic](/source/Mayo_Clinic) has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including [coconut](/source/Coconut_oil), [palm oil](/source/Palm_oil) and [palm kernel oil](/source/Palm_kernel_oil). Those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated (preferably omega-3) fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and [cottonseed oils](/source/Cottonseed_oil) are generally healthier.[7] The US [National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute](/source/National_Heart%2C_Lung_and_Blood_Institute)[8] urged saturated fats be replaced with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, listing olive and canola oils as sources of healthier monounsaturated oils while soybean and sunflower oils as good sources of polyunsaturated fats. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean and sunflower is preferable to the consumption of palm oil for lowering the risk of [heart disease](/source/Heart_disease).[9]

[Cashew oil](/source/Cashew_oil) and other nut-based oils do not present a danger to persons with a [nut allergy](/source/Nut_allergy), because oils are primarily lipids, and allergic reactions are due to surface proteins on the nut.[10]

The seeds of most cultivated plants contain higher levels of [omega-6 fatty acids](/source/Omega-6_fatty_acids) than [omega-3](/source/Omega-3), with some notable exceptions. Growth at colder temperatures tends to result in higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids in seed oils.[11]

### Trans fats

Main article: [Trans fat](/source/Trans_fat)

Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not [essential](/source/Essential_nutrient), and they do not promote good health.[12] The consumption of trans fats increases one's risk of [coronary heart disease](/source/Coronary_heart_disease)[13] by raising levels of [LDL](/source/Low-density_lipoprotein) cholesterol and lowering levels of [HDL](/source/High-density_lipoprotein) cholesterol.[14] Trans fats from [partially hydrogenated oils](/source/Fat_hydrogenation) are more harmful than naturally occurring oils.[15]

Several large studies[16][17][18][19] indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States [Food and Drug Administration (FDA)](/source/Food_and_Drug_Administration), the [National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute](/source/National_Heart%2C_Lung_and_Blood_Institute) and the [American Heart Association (AHA)](/source/American_Heart_Association) all have recommended limiting the intake of trans fats. In the US, trans fats are no longer "generally recognized as safe", and cannot be added to foods, including cooking oils, without special permission.[20]

### Cooking with oil

Lisbon oil merchant, c. 1900.

Olive oil

[Sunflower seed](/source/Sunflower_seed) oil

Heating, as well as heating vessels rapidly change characteristics of cooking oil.[21] Oils that are [healthy](/source/Healthy_diet) at room temperature can become unhealthy when heated above certain temperatures, especially when heating repeatedly. The toxic risk is linked to oxidation of fatty acids and fatty acids with higher levels of unsaturation are oxidized more rapidly during heating in air.[22] So, when choosing a cooking oil, it is important to match the oil's *[heat tolerance](/source/Smoke_point)* with the temperature which will be used.[23] and to change frying oil a few times per week.[22] Deep-fat frying temperatures are commonly in the range of 170–190 °C (338–374 °F), less commonly, lower temperatures ≥ 130 °C (266 °F) are used.[24]

[Palm oil](/source/Palm_oil) contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, and sunflower oil. Therefore, palm oil can withstand [deep frying](/source/Deep_frying) at higher temperatures and is resistant to [oxidation](/source/Oxidation) compared to high-polyunsaturated vegetable oils.[25] Since the 1900s, palm oil has been increasingly added into food by the global commercial food industry because it remains stable in deep frying, or in baking at very high temperatures,[26][27] and for its high levels of natural antioxidants, though the refined palm oil used in industrial food has lost most of its carotenoid content (and its orange-red color).[28]

The following oils are suitable for high-temperature frying due to their high [smoke point](/source/Smoke_point):

- [Avocado oil](/source/Avocado_oil)

- [Mustard oil](/source/Mustard_oil)

- [Palm oil](/source/Palm_oil)

- [Peanut oil](/source/Peanut_oil) (marketed as "groundnut oil" in the UK and India)

- [Rice bran oil](/source/Rice_bran_oil)

- [Safflower oil](/source/Safflower)

- [Olive oil](/source/Olive_oil)

- Semi-refined [sesame oil](/source/Sesame_oil)

- Semi-refined [sunflower oil](/source/Sunflower_oil)[29]

Less aggressive frying temperatures are frequently used.[30] A quality frying oil has a bland flavor, at least 200 °C (392 °F) smoke and 315 °C (599 °F) flash points, with maximums of 0.1% free fatty acids and 3% linolenic acid.[31] Those oils with higher linolenic fractions are avoided due to polymerization or gumming marked by increases in viscosity with age.[30] Olive oil resists thermal degradation and has been used as a frying oil for thousands of years.[30]

### Storing and keeping oil

All oils degrade in response to heat, light, and oxygen.[32] To delay the onset of [rancidity](/source/Rancidity), a blanket of an [inert gas](/source/Inert_gas), usually nitrogen, is applied to the vapor space in the storage container immediately after production – a process called [tank blanketing](/source/Tank_blanketing).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*][33]

In a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the degrading effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

[Refined](/source/Refining) oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as [macadamia oil](/source/Macadamia_oil),[32] keep *up to a year*, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as [soybean oil](/source/Soybean_oil), keep about six months. Rancidity tests have shown that the shelf life of [walnut oil](/source/Walnut_oil) is about 3 months, a period considerably shorter than the [*best before* date](/source/Best_before_date) shown on labels.[32]

By contrast, oils high in saturated fats, such as [avocado oil](/source/Avocado_oil), have relatively long shelf lives and can be safely stored at [room temperature](/source/Room_temperature), as the low polyunsaturated fat content facilitates stability.[32]

## Types and characteristics

Cooking oils are composed of various fractions of [fatty acids](/source/Fatty_acid).[34] For the purpose of frying food, oils high in monounsaturated or saturated fats are generally popular, while oils high in polyunsaturated fats are less desirable.[24] High [oleic acid](/source/Oleic_acid) oils include almond, macadamia, olive, pecan, pistachio, and high-oleic cultivars of safflower and sunflower.[35]

**Cold-Pressed vs. Refined Cooking Oils**

Cold-pressed oils are extracted mechanically without the use of heat or chemical solvents, preserving nutrients and natural flavors, whereas refined oils undergo additional processes like bleaching and deodorization, which can strip beneficial compounds.[36]

- [view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Principal_fatty_acids_of_common_cooking_oils)
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Oils and fats Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA 4:0 6:0 8:0 10:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 20:0 22:0 24:0 16:1 18:1 20:1 22:1 18:2 18:3 Almond[37] 6.5 1.7 0.6 69.4 17.4 Almond[38] 1 5 77 17 Apricot kernel[37] 5.8 0.5 1.5 58.5 29.3 Avocado[37] 10.9 0.7 2.7 67.9 12.5 1 Basil[39] 8.5 11 24.5 54.5 Brazil nut[40] 0.1 13.5 11.8 0.5 0.3 29.1 0.2 42.8 0.2 Butter[41] 5.3 2.8 1.6 3.1 3.4 10.8 28.1 10.6 1.4 20.8 0.3 2 Butter, anhydrous[37] 3.2 1.9 1.1 2.5 2.8 10 26.2 12.1 2.2 25 2.2 1.4 Canola[37] 4.3 2.1 0.7 0.3 0.2 61.7 1.3 19 9.1 Canola[42] 3.9 1.9 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 64.1 1 18.7 9.2 Cashew[39] 11.5 9 61 17 Cocoa butter[37] 0.1 25.4 33.2 0.2 32.6 2.8 0.1 Coconut[43] 0.4 7.3 6.6 47.8 18.1 8.9 2.7 0.1 6.4 1.6 Corn[37] 10.6 1.8 0.4 0.1 27.3 0.1 53.5 1.2 Cottonseed[44] 0.9 25.5 2.5 0.3 0.2 0.6 17.7 52.2 0.1 Grapeseed[37] 0.1 6.7 2.7 0.3 15.8 69.6 0.1 Hazelnut[40] 0.1 5.8 2.7 0.2 0.3 79.3 0.2 10.4 0.5 Hemp[39] 6.5 3 11.5 56.5 20 Lard[45] 0.1 0.2 1.4 24.9 14.1 2.8 43.1 10.7 1 Macadamia nut[40] 1 8.4 3.2 2.3 17.3 65.1 2.2 2.3 0.1 Olive[37] 11.3 2 0.4 0.1 1.3 71.3 0.3 9.8 0.8 Olive, Virgin[46] 13.8 2.8 0.1 1.9 69 12.2 Palm kernel[47] 0.3 3.6 3.3 48 16.7 8.5 2.1 14.9 2.5 Palm[48] 0.3 1.1 43.5 4.3 0.2 0.2 39.8 10.2 0.3 Palm[37] 0.1 1 43.5 4.3 0.3 36.6 0.1 9.1 0.2 Peanut[42] 0.1 11.6 3.1 1.5 3 1 0.2 46.5 1.4 31.4 Rapeseed[46] 4.8 1.9 60.5 22.5 9.5 Rice bran[49] 0.4 19.8 1.9 0.9 0.3 0.2 42.3 0.5 31.9 1.2 Safflower, high oleic[37] 0.1 4.9 1.9 0.4 0.3 0.1 74.8 0.3 12.7 0.1 Safflower[50] 7.3 2.5 13.6 75.7 0.5 Sesame[51] 0.1 9.2 5.8 0.7 0.2 0.1 40.6 0.2 42.6 0.3 Soybean[37] 10.5 4.4 0.4 0.4 22.6 0.2 51 6.8 Soybean[42] 0.1 11 4 0.3 0.1 0.1 23.4 53.2 7.8 Soybean, low linolenic[44] 10.8 4.5 0.4 0.4 26.1 55.4 2 Soybean, high oleic[note 1] 7.3 3.4 0.4 0.4 85.1 1.3 2 Sunflower[42] 0.5 0.2 6.8 4.7 0.4 0.1 18.6 68.2 0.5 Sunflower, high linoleic[37] 5.9 4.5 19.5 65.7 Sunflower, linoleic[37] 5.4 3.5 0.2 45.3 39.8 0.2 Sunflower, mid-oleic[37] 0.1 4.2 3.6 0.3 0.8 0.1 57 0.2 28.9 Sunflower, high oleic[37] 0.1 3.7 4.3 1 0.1 82.6 1 3.6 0.2 Sunflower, high oleic I[52] 5 3 82 9 Sunflower, high oleic II[52] 5 4 90 1 Tallow, beef[37] 0.9 3.7 24.9 18.9 4.2 36 0.3 3.1 0.6 Tallow, mutton[37] 3.8 21.5 19.5 2.3 37.6 5.5 2.3 Walnut[40] 0.1 6.7 2.3 0.1 0.2 21 0.2 57.5 11.6 [53] Parts per hundred

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Warner and Gupta reported fishy and stale flavors in potato chips fried in this oil and attributed them to the unusual linoleic:linolenic acids ratio.[44]

### Smoke point

The smoke point is marked by "a continuous wisp of smoke".[54] It is the temperature at which an oil starts to burn, leading to a burnt flavor in the foods being prepared and degradation of [nutrients](/source/Nutrients) and [phytochemicals](/source/Phytochemical) characteristic of the oil.[55]

Above the smoke point are flash and fire points.[54] The flash point is the temperature at which oil vapors will ignite but are not produced in sufficient quantities to stay lit. The flash point generally occurs at about 275–330 °C (527–626 °F).[56] The fire point is the temperature at which hot oil produces sufficient vapors they will catch on fire and burn.[56] As frying hours increase, all these temperature points decrease.[56] They depend more on an oil's acidity than fatty-acid profile.[57]

The smoke point of cooking oils varies generally in association with how oil is refined: a higher smoke point results from removal of impurities and free fatty acids.[55] Residual solvent remaining from the refining process may decrease the smoke point.[57] It has been reported to increase with the inclusion of antioxidants (BHA, BHT, and TBHQ). For these reasons, the published smoke points of oils may vary.[57]

- [view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Smoke_point_of_cooking_oils)
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Fat Quality Smoke point[caution 1] Almond oil 221 °C 430 °F[58] Avocado oil Refined 271 °C 520 °F[59][60] Avocado oil Virgin (unrefined) 200 °C 392 °F[61] Avocado oil Extra virgin (unrefined) 250 °C 482 °F[61] Beef tallow 250 °C 480 °F Butter Unrefined 150 °C 302 °F[62] Butter, clarified (ghee) Clarified 250 °C 482 °F[63] Castor oil Refined 200 °C[64] 392 °F Coconut oil Refined, dry 204 °C 400 °F[65] Coconut oil Unrefined, dry expeller pressed, virgin 177 °C 350 °F[65] Corn oil 230–238 °C[66] 446–460 °F Corn oil Unrefined 178 °C[64] 352 °F Cottonseed oil Refined, bleached, deodorized 220–230 °C[67] 428–446 °F Flaxseed oil Unrefined 107 °C 225 °F[60] Grapeseed oil 216 °C 421 °F Lard 190 °C 374 °F[62] Mustard oil 250 °C 480 °F[68] Olive oil Refined 199–243 °C 390–470 °F[69][failed verification] Olive oil Virgin 210 °C 410 °F Olive oil Extra virgin, low acidity, high quality 207 °C 405 °F[60][70] Olive oil Extra virgin 190 °C 374 °F[70] Palm oil Fractionated 235 °C[71] 455 °F Peanut oil Refined 232 °C[60] 450 °F Peanut oil 227–229 °C[60][72] 441–445 °F Peanut oil Unrefined 160 °C[60] 320 °F Pecan oil 243 °C[73] 470 °F Rapeseed oil (Canola) 220–230 °C[74] 428–446 °F Rapeseed oil (Canola) Expeller press (unrefined) 190–232 °C 375–450 °F[75] Rapeseed oil (Canola) Refined 204 °C 400 °F Rice bran oil Refined 232 °C[49] 450 °F Safflower oil Unrefined 107 °C 225 °F[60] Safflower oil Semirefined 160 °C 320 °F[60] Safflower oil Refined 266 °C 510 °F[60] Sesame oil Unrefined 177 °C 350 °F[60] Sesame oil Semirefined 232 °C 450 °F[60] Soybean oil 234 °C[76] 453 °F Sunflower oil Neutralized, dewaxed, bleached & deodorized 252–254 °C[77] 486–489 °F Sunflower oil Semirefined 232 °C[60] 450 °F Sunflower oil 227 °C[60] 441 °F Sunflower oil Unrefined, first cold-pressed, raw 107 °C[78] 225 °F Sunflower oil, high oleic Refined 232 °C 450 °F[60] Sunflower oil, high oleic Unrefined 160 °C 320 °F[60] Vegetable oil blend Refined 220 °C[70] 428 °F

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Specified smoke, fire, and flash points of any fat and oil can be misleading: they depend almost entirely upon the free fatty acid content, which increases during storage or use. The smoke point of fats and oils decreases when they are at least partially split into free fatty acids and glycerol; the glycerol portion decomposes to form acrolein, which is the major source of the smoke evolved from heated fats and oils. A partially hydrolyzed oil therefore smokes at a lower temperature than non-hydrolyzed oil. (Adapted from Gunstone, Frank D., ed. (17 March 2011). [*Vegetable Oils in Food Technology: Composition, Properties and Uses*](https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/_/lnk2tdo8_P4C?hl=en). Wiley, Inc. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1083187382](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1083187382).)

[Oils](/source/Vegetable_oil) are extracted from nuts, seeds, olives, grains or legumes by [extraction](/source/Extract) using industrial chemicals or by mechanical processes. [Expeller pressing](/source/Expeller_pressing) is a chemical-free process that collects oils from a source using a mechanical press with minimal heat. [Cold-pressed oils](/source/Cold-pressed_juice) are extracted under a controlled temperature setting usually below 105 °C (221 °F) intended to preserve naturally occurring phytochemicals, such as [polyphenols](/source/Polyphenols), [tocotrienols](/source/Tocotrienols), [plant sterols](/source/Plant_sterols) and [vitamin E](/source/Vitamin_E) which collectively affect color, flavor, aroma and nutrient value.[55][79]

- [view](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Types_of_cooking_oils_and_fats)
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Type of oil or fat SFA MUFA PUFA Omega- Smoke point [80][81] Uses 3 6 Almond 8% 66% 26% 0 17% 221 °C (430 °F) Baking, sauces, flavoring Avocado oil 12% 74% 14% 0.95% 12% 271 °C (520 °F) Frying, sautéing, dipping oil, salad oil Butter 66% 30% 4% 0.3% 2.7% 150 °C (302 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment, sauces, flavoring Butter, clarified, Ghee 65% 32% 3% 0 0 190–250 °C (374–482 °F) Deep frying, cooking, sautéing, condiment, flavoring Canola oil 6% 62% 32% 9.1% 18% 225 °C (437 °F)[74] Frying, baking, salad dressings Coconut oil (virgin) 92% 6% 2% 0 1.8% 177 °C (351 °F) Cooking, tropical cuisine, beauty products Corn oil 13% 25% 62% 1.1% 53% 235 °C (455 °F)[82] Frying, baking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening Cottonseed oil 24% 26% 50% 0.2% 50% 216 °C (421 °F) Margarine, shortening, salad dressings, commercially fried products Diacylglycerol (DAG) oil 3.05% 37.95% 59% 0 - 215 °C (419 °F) Frying, baking, salad oil Linseed oil[83] 11% 21% 68% 53% 13% 107 °C (225 °F) Salad dressings, nutritional supplement Grapeseed oil 12% 17% 71% 0.1% 69% 204 °C (399 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, margarine Hemp oil 9% 12% 79% 18% 55% 165 °C (329 °F) Cooking, salad dressings Lard 41% 47% 2% 1% 10% 183–205 °C (361–401 °F) Baking, frying Macadamia oil 12.5% 84% 3.5% 0 2.8% 210 °C (410 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. A slightly nutty odour. Margarine (hard) 80% 14% 6% 2% 22% 150 °C (302 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment Margarine (soft) 20% 47% 33% 2.4% 23% 150–160 °C (302–320 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment Mustard oil 13% 60% 21% 5.9% 15% 254 °C (489 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable. Olive oil (extra virgin) 14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8% 190 °C (374 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine Olive oil (virgin) 14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8% 215 °C (419 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine Olive oil (refined) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 225 °C (437 °F) Sautee, stir frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine Olive oil (extra light) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 242 °C (468 °F) Sautee, stir frying, frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine Palm oil 52% 38% 10% 0.2% 9.1% 230 °C (446 °F) Frying,[84] cooking, flavoring, vegetable oil, shortening Peanut oil 18% 49% 33% 0 31% 231 °C (448 °F) Frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine, deep frying Pumpkin seed oil 8% 36% 57% 0% 64% 121 °C (250 °F) Salad oils Rice bran oil 20% 47% 33% 1.6% 33% 213 °C (415 °F)[49] Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable. Safflower oil (high oleic)[85][86] 6% 75% 13% 242 °C (468 °F)[82] Frying, cooking Safflower oil (linoleic)[87] 6% 14% 75% 242 °C (468 °F)[82] Cooking, salad dressings, margarine Sesame oil (unrefined) 14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% 177 °C (351 °F) Cooking Sesame oil (semi-refined) 14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% 232 °C (450 °F) Cooking, deep frying Soybean oil 15% 24% 61% 6.7% 50% 240 °C (464 °F)[82] Cooking, salad dressings, vegetable oil, margarine, shortening Sunflower oil (high oleic, refined)[88] 9% 82% 9% 0.2% 3.6% 244 °C (471 °F)[82] Frying, cooking[89] Sunflower oil (linoleic, refined)[88] 11% 20% 69% 0% 56% 240 °C (464 °F)[82] Cooking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening Sunflower oil (mid-oleic, refined, NuSun)[88] 9% 65% 26% 211 °C (412 °F)[82] Commercial food manufacturing Tea seed oil[90] 22% 60% 18% 0.7% 22% 252 °C (486 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, stir frying, frying, margarine Tallow[91] 43% 50% 4% 1% 3% 249 °C (480 °F) Cooking, shortening, pemmican, deep frying Walnut oil (semi-refined) 9% 23% 63% 10% 53% 204 °C (399 °F)[92] Salad dressings, added to cold dishes to enhance flavor [93]

### Comparison to other types of food

Fat composition in different foods

Fat composition as weight percentage of total fat view talk edit Food Saturated (%) Mono- unsaturated (%) Poly- unsaturated (%) Cooking oils Algal oil[94] 4 92 4 Canola[95] 8 64 28 Coconut oil 87 13 0 Corn oil 13 24 59 Cottonseed oil[95] 27 19 54 Olive oil[96] 14 73 11 Palm kernel oil[95] 86 12 2 Palm oil[95] 51 39 10 Peanut oil[97] 17 46 32 Rice bran oil 25 38 37 Safflower oil, high oleic[98] 6 75 14 Safflower oil, linoleic[95][99] 6 14 75 Soybean oil 15 24 58 Sunflower oil[100] 11 20 69 Mustard oil 11 59 21 Dairy products Butterfat[95] 66 30 4 Cheese, regular 64 29 3 Cheese, light 60 30 0 Ice cream, gourmet 62 29 4 Ice cream, light 62 29 4 Milk, whole 62 28 4 Milk, 2% 62 30 0 Whipping cream[101]* 66 26 5 Meats Beef 33 38 5 Ground sirloin 38 44 4 Pork chop 35 44 8 Ham 35 49 16 Chicken breast 29 34 21 Chicken 34 23 30 Turkey breast 30 20 30 Turkey drumstick 32 22 30 Fish, orange roughy 23 15 46 Salmon 28 33 28 Hot dog, beef 42 48 5 Hot dog, turkey 28 40 22 Burger, fast food 36 44 6 Cheeseburger, fast food 43 40 7 Breaded chicken sandwich 20 39 32 Grilled chicken sandwich 26 42 20 Sausage, Polish 37 46 11 Sausage, turkey 28 40 22 Pizza, sausage 41 32 20 Pizza, cheese 60 28 5 Nuts Almonds dry roasted 9 65 21 Cashews dry roasted 20 59 17 Macadamia dry roasted 15 79 2 Peanut dry roasted 14 50 31 Pecans dry roasted 8 62 25 Flaxseeds, ground 8 23 65 Sesame seeds 14 38 44 Soybeans 14 22 57 Sunflower seeds 11 19 66 Walnuts dry roasted 9 23 63 Sweets and baked goods Candy, chocolate bar 59 33 3 Candy, fruit chews 14 44 38 Cookie, oatmeal raisin 22 47 27 Cookie, chocolate chip 35 42 18 Cake, yellow 60 25 10 Pastry, Danish 50 31 14 Fats added during cooking or at the table Butter, stick 63 29 3 Butter, whipped 62 29 4 Margarine, stick 18 39 39 Margarine, tub 16 33 49 Margarine, light tub 19 46 33 Lard 39 45 11 Shortening 25 45 26 Chicken fat 30 45 21 Beef fat 41 43 3 Goose fat[102] 33 55 11 Dressing, blue cheese 16 54 25 Dressing, light Italian 14 24 58 Other Egg yolk fat[103] 36 44 16 Avocado[104] 16 71 13 Unless else specified in boxes, then reference is: [citation needed] * 3% is trans fats

## Extraction and refinement

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Olive oil production in [Croatia](/source/Croatia)

Cooking oil extraction and refinement are separate processes. Extraction first removes the oil, typically from a seed, nut or fruit. Refinement then alters the appearance, texture, taste, smell, or stability of the oil to meet buyer expectations.

### Extraction

There are three broad types of oil extraction:

- Chemical solvent extraction, most commonly using [hexane](/source/Hexane).

- Pressing, using an [expeller](/source/Expeller) press or cold press (pressing at low temperatures to prevent oil heating).

- [Decanter centrifuge](/source/Decanter_centrifuge).

In large-scale industrial oil extraction, combinations of pressing, chemical extraction and/or centrifuging are used in order to extract the maximum amount of oil possible.[105]

### Refinement

Cooking oil can either be unrefined, or refined using one or more of the following refinement processes (in any combination):[106]

- Distilling, which heats the oil to evaporate off chemical solvents from the extraction process.

- Degumming, by passing hot water through the oil to precipitate out gums and proteins that are soluble in water but not in oil, then discarding the water along with the impurities.

- Neutralization,[107] or deacidification, which treats the oil with sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to pull out free fatty acids, phospholipids, pigments, and waxes.

- Bleaching, which removes "off-colored" components by treatment with [fuller's earth](/source/Fuller's_earth), activated carbon, or activated clays, followed by heating, filtering, then drying to recoup the oil.

- Dewaxing, or winterizing, improves clarity of oils intended for refrigeration by dropping them to low temperatures and removing any solids that form.

- Deodorizing, by treating with high-heat pressurized steam to evaporate less stable compounds that might cause "unusual" odors or tastes.[108]

- Preservative addition, including antioxidants such as [BHA](/source/Butylated_hydroxyanisole), [BHT](/source/Butylated_hydroxytoluene), and [tocopherol](/source/Tocopherol) to help preserve oils that have been made less stable due to high-temperature processing.

Filtering, a non-chemical process which screens out larger particles, could be considered a step in refinement, although it does not alter the state of the oil.

Most large-scale commercial cooking oil refinement will involve all of these steps in order to achieve a product that's uniform in taste, smell and appearance, and has a longer shelf life.[105] Cooking oil intended for the health food market will often be unrefined, which can result in a less stable product but minimizes exposure to high temperatures and chemical processing.

## Waste cooking oil

A bin for spent cooking oil in [Austin, Texas](/source/Austin%2C_Texas), managed by a recycling company

Proper disposal of used cooking oil is an important waste-management concern. Oil can congeal in pipes, causing [sanitary sewer overflow](/source/Sanitary_sewer_overflow).[109] Because of this, cooking oil should never be dumped in the kitchen sink or in the toilet bowl. The proper way to dispose of oil is to put it in a sealed non-recyclable container and discard it with regular garbage.[110] Placing the container of oil in the refrigerator to harden also makes disposal easier and less messy.

### Recycling

Main articles: [Yellow grease](/source/Yellow_grease) and [Brown grease](/source/Brown_grease)

Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used in animal feed, soap, make-up, clothes, rubber, detergents, directly as fuel, and to produce [biodiesel](/source/Biodiesel).[111][112][113]

In the recycling industry, used cooking oil recovered from restaurants and food-processing industries (typically from [deep fryers](/source/Deep_fryer) or [griddles](/source/Griddle)) is called yellow grease, recycled vegetable oil (RVO), used vegetable oil (UVO), or waste vegetable oil (WVO).[114]

[Grease traps](/source/Grease_trap) or interceptors collect fats and oils from kitchen sinks and floor drains. The result is called brown grease, and unlike yellow grease, it contains severe contaminants that make it much harder to recycle.[115]

### Adulteration

[Gutter oil](/source/Gutter_oil) and trench oil are terms used in China to describe recycled oil processed to resemble virgin oil, but containing toxic contaminants and sold illegally for cooking; its origin is frequently brown grease from [garbage](/source/Garbage).[116]

In [Kenya](/source/Kenya), thieves have sold stolen electric [transformers](/source/Transformer) to operators of roadside [food stalls](/source/Food_stall) for reuse of the oil in [deep frying](/source/Deep_frying), suitable for prolonged use longer than regular cooking oil, but a threat to consumer health due to the presence of [PCBs](/source/Polychlorinated_biphenyl) and [polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons](/source/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons).[117]

## References

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Mensink, RP; Zock, PL; Kester, AD; Katan, MB (2003). ["Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F77.5.1146). *Am J Clin Nutr*. **77** (5): 1146–55. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1146](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F77.5.1146). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12716665](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12716665).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-pmc2843598_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-pmc2843598_6-1) Katan, Martijn B.; Mozaffarian, Dariush; Micha, Renata; Wallace, Sarah (2010). Katan, Martijn B. (ed.). ["Effects on Coronary Heart Disease of Increasing Polyunsaturated Fat in Place of Saturated Fat: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2843598). *PLOS Medicine*. **7** (3) e1000252. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pmed.1000252](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000252). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2843598](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2843598). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20351774](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20351774).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Urry. *Campbell Biology*. Pearson.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-p423_12-0)** Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies (2005). [*Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients)*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309085250/page/423). National Academies Press. p. [423](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309085250/page/423). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-309-08537-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-08537-3).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** [The Nurses' Health Study (NHS)](http://www.channing.harvard.edu/nhs/)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** ["Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils (Removing Trans Fat)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150618214145/http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm449162.htm). *[Food and Drug Administration](/source/Food_and_Drug_Administration)*. Archived from [the original](https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm449162.htm) on June 18, 2015. Retrieved March 29, 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Doureradjou, P.; Koner, Bidhan Chandra (2008). ["Effect of Different Cooking Vessels on Heat Induced Lipid Peroxidation of Different Edible Oils"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-4514.2008.00195.x). *Journal of Food Biochemistry*. **32** (6): 740–751. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1745-4514.2008.00195.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-4514.2008.00195.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1745-4514](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1745-4514).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-boskoudimitrios2010_30-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-boskoudimitrios2010_30-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-boskoudimitrios2010_30-2) Boskou, Dimitrios (2010). ["21 Frying Fats"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259575170). *Chemical and functional properties of food lipids*. p. 429.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-parkash_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-parkash_32-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-parkash_32-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-parkash_32-3) Kochhar, S. Parkash; Henry, C. Jeya K. (2009-01-01). "Oxidative stability and shelf-life evaluation of selected culinary oils". *International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition*. **60** (Suppl 7): 289–296. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/09637480903103774](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09637480903103774). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1465-3478](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1465-3478). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19634067](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19634067). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [44352150](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44352150).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** ["Cold-Pressed vs Refined Cooking Oils: Which is Healthier for Your Family? | Adya Organics"](https://adyaorganics.com/cold-pressed-vs-refined-cooking-oils-which-is-healthier-for-your-family/). 2024-12-17. Retrieved 2024-12-17.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Lipid_Handbook200771–73_39-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Lipid_Handbook200771–73_39-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Lipid_Handbook200771–73_39-2) [The Lipid Handbook (2007)](#CITEREFThe_Lipid_Handbook2007), pp. 71–73.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011329_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011329_40-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011329_40-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011329_40-3) [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 329.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Lipid_Handbook200793_41-0)** [The Lipid Handbook (2007)](#CITEREFThe_Lipid_Handbook2007), pp. 93.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology201161_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology201161_42-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology201161_42-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology201161_42-3) [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 61.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011172_43-0)** [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 172.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-warner.gupta.2005_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-warner.gupta.2005_44-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-warner.gupta.2005_44-2) Warner, K.; Gupta, M. (2005). ["Potato chip quality and frying oil stability of high oleic acid soybean oil"](https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/1761/PDF). *Journal of Food Science*. **70** (6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Lipid_Handbook200798_45-0)** [The Lipid Handbook (2007)](#CITEREFThe_Lipid_Handbook2007), pp. 98.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011141_46-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011141_46-1) [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 141.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011180_47-0)** [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 180.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Sundram, K; Sambanthamurthi, R; Tan, YA (2003). ["Palm fruit chemistry and nutrition"](http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/apjcn/12/3/355.pdf) (PDF). *Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition*. **12** (3): 355–62. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [14506001](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14506001).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011148_53-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011148_53-1) [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 148.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** ["Fats and fatty acids"](http://nutritiondata.self.com/topics/fatty-acids).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011122_55-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011122_55-1) [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 122.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-beck_56-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-beck_56-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-beck_56-2) Beck, Leslie (28 September 2015). ["'Smoke point' matters when cooking with oil"](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/health/smoke-point-matters-in-cooking-with-oil/article26569060/). Toronto, Canada: The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 11 April 2017.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011149_58-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011149_58-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011149_58-2) [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 149.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-13) [***o***](#cite_ref-jonbarron.org_62-14) ["Smoke Point of Oils"](https://www.jonbarron.org/diet-and-nutrition/healthiest-cooking-oil-chart-smoke-points). *Baseline of Health*. Jonbarron.org. 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2019-12-26.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-aocs_marie_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-aocs_marie_63-1) Marie Wong; Cecilia Requejo-Jackman; Allan Woolf (April 2010). ["What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil?"](https://www.aocs.org/stay-informed/inform-magazine/featured-articles/what-is-unrefined-extra-virgin-cold-pressed-avocado-oil-april-2010). *Aocs.org*. Retrieved 26 December 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-chef9_64-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-chef9_64-1) [The Culinary Institute of America](/source/The_Culinary_Institute_of_America) (2011). The Professional Chef (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-470-42135-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-42135-2). OCLC 707248142.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-detwiler_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-detwiler_66-1) Detwiler, S. B.; Markley, K. S. (1940). "Smoke, flash, and fire points of soybean and other vegetable oils". *Oil & Soap*. **17** (2): 39–40. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/BF02543003](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02543003).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-nutiva1_67-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-nutiva1_67-1) ["Introducing Nutiva Organic Refined Coconut Oil"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150214100025/http://nutiva.com/introducing-nutiva-refined-coconut-oil/). *Nutiva*. Archived from [the original](http://nutiva.com/introducing-nutiva-refined-coconut-oil/) on 2015-02-14.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-isbn0-8493-2364-9_82-0)** F. D. Gunstone; D. Rousseau (2004). [*Rapeseed and canola oil: production, processing, properties and uses*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gDuHzSsaWLYC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 91. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8493-2364-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-2364-9). Retrieved 2011-01-17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** Brown, Amy L. (2010). [*Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ppMzyDFyHUwC&pg=PA468#v=onepage&q&f=false). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 468. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-538-73498-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-538-73498-1). Retrieved 2011-01-16. The smoke point of an oil depends primarily on its free fatty acid content (FFA) and molecular weight. Through repeated use, as in a deep fryer, the oil accumulates food residues or by-products of the cooking process, that lower its smoke point further. The values shown in the table must therefore be taken as approximate, and are not suitable for accurate or scientific use

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-transfatsreplacementsolutions_84-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-transfatsreplacementsolutions_84-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-transfatsreplacementsolutions_84-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-transfatsreplacementsolutions_84-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-transfatsreplacementsolutions_84-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-transfatsreplacementsolutions_84-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-transfatsreplacementsolutions_84-6) Kodali, D.R. (ed.). [*Trans Fats Replacement Solutions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hTZfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143). AOCS Press. p. 143. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9830791-5-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9830791-5-6).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** National Research Council, 1976, *Fat Content and Composition of Animal Products*, Printing and Publishing Office, National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C., [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-309-02440-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-02440-4); p. 203, [online edition](http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?chapselect=yo&page=203&record_id=22&Jump+to+Specified+Page.x=0&Jump+to+Specified+Page.y=0)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** ["Cooking Oil Smoke Points"](http://www.goodeatsfanpage.com/collectedinfo/oilsmokepoints.htm). Retrieved January 3, 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** ["List of Abbreviations"](http://jn.nutrition.org/content/132/5/1061S.full). The Journal of Nutrition. Retrieved April 18, 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** ["Thrive Culinary Algae Oil"](https://www.thrivealgae.com/our-product/). Retrieved 7 January 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-uccs.edu_97-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-uccs.edu_97-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-uccs.edu_97-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-uccs.edu_97-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-uccs.edu_97-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-uccs.edu_97-5) Anderson D. ["Fatty acid composition of fats and oils"](http://www.uccs.edu/Documents/danderso/fats_oils.pdf) (PDF). Colorado Springs: University of Colorado, Department of Chemistry. Retrieved April 8, 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-usda_98-0)** ["NDL/FNIC Food Composition Database Home Page"](https://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/). United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved May 21, 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-99)** ["Basic Report: 04042, Oil, peanut, salad or cooking"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160309021611/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/634?fg=Fats+and+Oils&man=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=25&offset=&sort=&qlookup=). USDA. Archived from [the original](https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/634?fg=Fats+and+Oils&man=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=25&offset=&sort=&qlookup=) on March 9, 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** ["Oil, vegetable safflower, oleic"](http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/574/2). *nutritiondata.com*. Condé Nast. Retrieved 10 April 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-101)** ["Oil, vegetable safflower, linoleic"](http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fats-and-oils/573/2). *nutritiondata.com*. Condé Nast. Retrieved 10 April 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-102)** ["Oil, vegetable, sunflower"](http://nutritiondata.com/facts/fats-and-oils/572/2). *nutritiondata.com*. Condé Nast. Retrieved 27 September 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-103)** [USDA Basic Report Cream, fluid, heavy whipping](https://web.archive.org/web/20161221223006/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/52?fgcd=&manu=&lfacet=&format=&count=&max=50&offset=&sort=default&order=asc&qlookup=cream+whipping&ds=)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-104)** ["Nutrition And Health"](http://www.goosefat.co.uk/page/nutrition-and-health). *The Goose Fat Information Service*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** ["Egg, yolk, raw, fresh"](http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts/dairy-and-egg-products/113/2). *nutritiondata.com*. Condé Nast. Retrieved 24 August 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-106)** ["09038, Avocados, raw, California"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140110085159/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2235). *National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26*. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Archived from [the original](https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2235) on January 10, 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-How_cooking_oil_is_made_107-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-How_cooking_oil_is_made_107-1) ["How cooking oil is made"](http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Cooking-Oil.html). Retrieved May 18, 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mart1920_108-0)** Martin, Geoffrey (1920). [*Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, & Waxes: Their Manufacture, Refining, and Analysis, including the Manufacture of Candles, Margarine, and Butter*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32544). Crosby Lockwood and Son. pp. [79](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32544/page/n96)-80.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011236_109-0)** [Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011)](#CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011), p. 236.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Brad1871_110-0)** [US 110626](https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US110626), Bradley, Henry W., "Improvement in compounds for culinary use", published 1871-01-03

1. **[^](#cite_ref-111)** ["Tips to avoid water waste and to require the preservation of hydro-resources"](http://www.natureba.com.br/nature/saving-water.htm). *Natureba - Educação Ambiental*. Retrieved 2007-09-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** ["Grease Disposal Tips to Help the City's Environment"](http://nyc.gov/html/dep/html/residents/congrease.shtml). NYC Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved 2007-08-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** ["Production of biodiesel based on waste oils and/or waste fats from biogenic origin for use as fuel"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005947/http://www.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0016/16059.pdf) (PDF). CDM - Executive Board. Archived from [the original](http://www.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0016/16059.pdf) (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-09-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-114)** Murphy, Denis J. *Plant lipids: biology, utilisation, and manipulation*. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005, p. 117.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** Radich, Anthony [*Biodiesel Performance, Costs, and Use*](https://www.wsile.com/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220626072158/https://www.wsile.com/) 2022-06-26 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pub32_116-0)** [Brown Grease Feedstocks for Biodiesel](http://www.nrbp.org/pdfs/pub32.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120617023123/http://www.nrbp.org/pdfs/pub32.pdf) 2012-06-17 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). K. Shaine Tyson, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved January 31, 2009

1. **[^](#cite_ref-117)** Canakci, M. (2007). "The potential of restaurant waste lipids as biodiesel feedstocks". *Bioresource Technology*. **98** (1): 183–190. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.biortech.2005.11.022](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biortech.2005.11.022). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16403628](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16403628).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Time_118-0)** Austin Ramzy (13 September 2011). ["China Cracks Down on "Gutter Oil," a Substance Even Worse Than its Name"](https://world.time.com/2011/09/13/china-cracks-down-on-gutter-oil-a-substance-even-worse-than-its-name/). Time Inc. Retrieved 13 March 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** Iraki XN (12 December 2014). ["Thieves fry Kenya's power grid for fast food"](http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/12/thieves-fry-kenya-power-grid-fast-food-2014122884728785480.html). Al Jazeera Media Network. Retrieved 13 March 2016.

- The Lipid Handbook (2007). Frank D. Gunstone; John L. Harwood; Albert J. Dijkstra (eds.). [*The Lipid Handbook with CD-ROM*](https://books.google.com/books?id=INZa6WmqDA8C&pg=PA71) (Third ed.). CRC Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8493-9688-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9688-5).

- Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011). Frank D. Gunstone (ed.). [*Vegetable Oils in Food Technology -- Composition, Properties and Uses*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lnk2tdo8_P4C) (Second ed.). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4443-3268-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3268-1).

## Further reading

- Warner, K. (1999). "Impact of High-Temperature Food Processing on Fats and Oils". *Impact of Processing on Food Safety*. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 459. pp. 67–77. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-1-4615-4853-9_5](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-4853-9_5). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4613-7201-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-7201-1). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [10335369](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10335369).

- Fox, R. (2001). "Frying oils". In Kaarin Goodburn (ed.). [*EU Food Law*](https://books.google.com/books?id=utrZlCcmb3cC&pg=PA195). Woodhead. pp. 195–224. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-85573-557-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85573-557-6).

## External links

**Cooking oil**  at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects)

- [Definitions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oil) from Wiktionary
- [Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Cooking_oils) from Commons
- [Recipes](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook:Oil_and_fat) from Wikibooks
- [Data](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q427457) from Wikidata

v t e Non-timber forest products Animal products Furs Honey pine Wild game Berries / tree fruit Banana Bilberry Binukaw Blackberry Blueberry Breadfruit Cocoa bean Coconut Durian Gambooge Huckleberry Jackfruit Juniper berry Lingonberry Raspberry Tamarind Woodland strawberry Edible plants / roots Betel Fiddlehead ferns Heart of palm Mahuwa flowers Sago palm queen Sassafras filé powder root beer Saw palmetto Wild ginseng Wild onions Bear garlic Canada onion Crow garlic Twincrest onion Pacific mountain onion Ramps Mushrooms Bare-toothed russula Bay bolete Birch bolete Cep Chanterelle Honey mushroom Lingzhi (reishi) Matsutake Morel Oyster mushroom Parasol mushroom Red cap Saffron milk cap Slippery jack Truffle Yellow knight Nuts spices Allspice Areca nut Bay leaf Black pepper Brazil nut Cinnamon Clove Hazelnut Malva nut Nutmeg Pine nut Vanilla Oil waxes Allanblackia Babassu Bacuri Candlenut Capuacu Carnauba Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus wightiana) Cocoa butter Eucalyptol Eucalyptus Illipe Japan wax Kokum Kombo Kpangnan Kusum Mafura Mahua Mango butter Murumuru Nagkesar Palm (kernel) Phulwara Pilu Pongamia Sal-seed (Shorea robusta) Sandalwood Shea butter Tamanu Tea-seed Tea-tree Tucuma Ucuuba Vateria indica Resins Benzoin Birch tar Camphor Creosote Frankincense Gamboge Kauri Lacquer Mastic Myrrh Pine tar Pitch Rosin Turpentine Varnish Sap / gum / etc. Birch syrup Chicle chewing gum Coconut sugar Date sugar Fruit syrup Gum arabic Gutta-percha Kino Latex Maple sugar Maple syrup Palm sugar Palm wine akpeteshie ogogoro Rubber Spruce gum Other Amadou Bamboo edible musical instruments textiles Birch bark Birch beer Cork Ferns Forage Gambier Moss Natural dyes henna Peat Quinine Rattan Shellac Tanbark tannin Tendu leaves Thatching Vegetable ivory Willow bark Related Dehesa (Iberian agroforestry) Forest farming / gardening Honey hunting Indian forest produce Mushroom hunting Naval stores Resin extraction Rubber tapping Wildcrafting Category Commons

v t e Edible fats and oils Fats Pig fats Fatback Lardo Salo Lard Lardon Beef/Mutton fats Dripping Suet Tail fat Tallow Dairy fats Butter Clarified butter Ghee Manteiga-da-terra Niter kibbeh Smen Urfa butter Poultry fats Chicken fat Duck fat Goose fat Schmaltz Other animal fats Blubber Muktuk Whale oil Vegetable fats Borneo tallow Cocoa butter Coconut oil Mango butter Margarine Palm kernel oil Shea butter Vegetable shortening Oils Marine oils Cod liver oil Krill oil Seaweed oil Shark liver oil Vegetable oils (List) Fruit oils Avocado oil Olive oil Palm oil Nut oils Almond oil Argan oil Cashew oil Hazelnut oil Macadamia oil Marula oil Mongongo nut oil Pecan oil Pine nut oil Pistachio oil Walnut oil Seed oils Ambadi seed oil Apple seed oil Castor oil Corn oil Cottonseed oil Grape seed oil Hemp oil Linseed (flaxseed) oil Mustard oil Peanut oil Pequi oil Perilla oil Poppyseed oil Pumpkin seed oil Rapeseed (canola) oil Rice bran oil Safflower oil Sesame oil Soybean oil Sunflower oil Tea seed oil Watermelon seed oil See also Cooking oil Plant oil Essential oil

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Cooking oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking_oil) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking_oil?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.