# Construction

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Process of building or assembling a building or infrastructure

For other uses, see [Construction (disambiguation)](/source/Construction_(disambiguation)). "Construction site" redirects here. For the TV series, see [Construction Site](/source/Construction_Site).

Construction site and equipment prepared for start of work in [Cologne](/source/Cologne), Germany (2017)

**Construction** is the process involved in delivering [buildings](/source/Building), [infrastructure](/source/Infrastructure), industrial facilities, and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with [planning](/source/Planning), [financing](/source/Financing), and [design](/source/Design) that continues until the asset is built and ready for use. Construction also covers repairs and maintenance work, any work to expand, extend, and improve the asset, and its eventual demolition, dismantling, or [decommissioning](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/decommission).

The construction industry contributes significantly to many countries' gross domestic products ([GDP](/source/Gross_domestic_product)). Global expenditure on construction activities was about $4 trillion in 2012. In 2022, expenditure on the construction industry exceeded $11 trillion a year, equivalent to about 13 percent of global [GDP](/source/Gross_domestic_product). This spending was forecasted to rise to around $14.8 trillion in 2030.[1]

The construction industry promotes economic development and brings many non-monetary benefits to many countries, but it is one of the most hazardous industries. For example, about 20% (1,061) of US industry fatalities in 2019 happened in construction.[2]

## Etymology

"Construction" stems from the [Latin](/source/Latin) word *constructio* (which comes from *com-* "together" and *struere* "to pile up") as well as [Old French](/source/Old_French) *construction*.[3] "To construct" is a [verb](/source/Verb): the act of building. The [noun](/source/Noun) is "construction": how something is built or the nature of its structure.

## History

Main article: [History of construction](/source/History_of_construction)

See also: [History of architecture](/source/History_of_architecture)

Bricklayers at work on a construction site during World War I

The first [huts](/source/Hut_(dwelling)) and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As [cities](/source/Cities) grew during the [Bronze Age](/source/Bronze_Age), a class of professional [craftsmen](/source/Artisan), like [bricklayers](/source/Bricklayer) and [carpenters](/source/Carpentry), appeared. Occasionally, [slaves](/source/Slavery) were used for construction work. In the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages), the artisan craftsmen were organized into [craft guilds](/source/Craft_guilds). In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later, diesel- and electric-powered vehicles such as [cranes](/source/Crane_(machine)), [excavators](/source/Excavator) and [bulldozers](/source/Bulldozer).

[Fast-track construction](/source/Fast-track_construction) has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.[4]

## Construction industry sectors

See also: [List of construction trades](/source/List_of_construction_trades)

Industrial assemblage of a [thermal oxidizer](/source/Thermal_oxidiser) in the [United States](/source/United_States)

Broadly, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and industrial:[5]

- Building construction is usually further divided into residential and non-residential.

- Infrastructure, also called '[heavy civil' or 'heavy engineering'](/source/Civil_engineering), includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, railways, water or wastewater and utility distribution.

- Industrial construction includes [offshore construction](/source/Offshore_construction) (mainly of energy installations), mining and quarrying, [refineries](/source/Refining), chemical processing, mills and [manufacturing plants](/source/Factory).

The industry can also be classified into sectors or markets.[6] For example, *[Engineering News-Record](/source/Engineering_News-Record)* (*ENR*), a US-based construction trade magazine, has compiled and reported data about the size of design and construction contractors. In 2014, it split the data into nine market segments: transportation, [petroleum](/source/Petroleum_industry), buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewage/waste, [telecom](/source/Telecommunications), [hazardous waste](/source/Hazardous_waste), and a tenth category for other projects.[7] *ENR* used data on transportation, sewage, hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy contractors.[8]

The [Standard Industrial Classification](/source/Standard_Industrial_Classification) and the newer [North American Industry Classification System](/source/North_American_Industry_Classification_System) classify companies that perform or engage in construction into three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors. There are also categories for professional services firms (e.g., [engineering](/source/Engineering), [architecture](/source/Architecture), [surveying](/source/Surveying), [project management](/source/Project_management)).[9][10]

### Building construction

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Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan

Building construction is the process of adding structures to areas of land, also known as [real property](/source/Real_property) sites. Typically, a project is instigated by or with the owner of the property (who may be an individual or an organisation); occasionally, land may be [compulsorily purchased](/source/Eminent_domain) from the owner for public use.[11]

#### Residential construction

Main article: [Home construction](/source/Home_construction)

Units under construction in [Brighton, Victoria](/source/Brighton%2C_Victoria), Australia

Residential construction may be undertaken by individual land-owners ([self-built](/source/Self-build)), by specialist [housebuilders](/source/Home_construction), by [property developers](/source/Real_estate_development), by [general contractors](/source/General_contractor), or by providers of [public or social housing](/source/Public_housing) (e.g.: local authorities, [housing associations](/source/Housing_association)). Where local [zoning](/source/Zoning) or [planning](/source/Planning_permission) policies allow, [mixed-use developments](/source/Mixed-use_development) may comprise both residential and non-residential construction (e.g.: retail, leisure, offices, public buildings, etc.).

Residential construction practices, [technologies](/source/Technologies), and resources must conform to local building [authority's](/source/Authority) regulations and [codes of practice](/source/Building_code). Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g.: [brick](/source/Brick) versus stone versus [timber](/source/Lumber)). Costs of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for [houses](/source/House) can vary dramatically based on site conditions, access routes, local regulations, [economies of scale](/source/Economies_of_scale) (custom-designed homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople.[12]

#### Non-residential construction

Construction of the Federal Reserve building in [Kansas City, Missouri](/source/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri)

Depending upon the [type of building](/source/List_of_building_types), non-residential building construction can be procured by a wide range of private and public organisations, including local authorities, educational and religious bodies, transport undertakings, retailers, hoteliers, property developers, financial institutions and other private companies. Most construction in these sectors is undertaken by general [contractors](/source/Contractors).

### Infrastructure construction

Main article: [Civil engineering](/source/Civil_engineering)

[Shasta Dam](/source/Shasta_Dam) under construction in June 1942

Civil engineering covers the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally [built environment](/source/Built_environment), including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, tunnels, airports, water and sewerage systems, pipelines, and railways.[13][14] Some general contractors have expertise in civil engineering; civil engineering contractors are firms dedicated to work in this sector, and may specialise in particular types of infrastructure.

### Industrial construction

The National Cement Share Company of [Ethiopia](/source/Ethiopia)'s new plant in [Dire Dawa](/source/Dire_Dawa)

[Industrial construction](/source/Industrial_architecture) includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations: [oil and gas platforms](/source/Oil_platform), [wind power](/source/Offshore_wind_power)), [mining](/source/Mining) and [quarrying](/source/Quarry), [refineries](/source/Refinery), food processing plants, breweries and distilleries, [power stations](/source/Power_station), [steel mills](/source/Steel_mill), [warehouses](/source/Warehouse) and [factories](/source/Factory).[14]

## Construction processes

Some construction projects are small [renovations](/source/Renovations) or repair jobs, like repainting or fixing leaks, where the owner may act as designer, paymaster and labourer for the entire project. However, more complex or ambitious projects usually require additional multi-disciplinary expertise and manpower, so the owner may commission one or more specialist businesses to undertake detailed planning, design, construction and handover of the work. Often the owner will appoint one business to oversee the project (this may be a [designer](/source/Designer), a [contractor](/source/General_contractor), a [construction manager](/source/Construction_manager), or other advisors); such specialists are normally appointed for their expertise in [project delivery](/source/Project_delivery_method) and construction management and will help the owner define the project [brief](/source/Brief_(architecture)), agree on a [budget](/source/Budget) and [schedule](/source/Schedule), liaise with relevant public authorities, and procure materials and the services of other specialists (the [supply chain](/source/Supply_chain), comprising [subcontractors](/source/Subcontractor) and materials suppliers). [Contracts](/source/Contracts) are agreed for the delivery of services by all businesses, alongside other detailed plans aimed at ensuring legal, timely, on-budget and safe delivery of the specified works.

Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must be adequate to build the design provided and must pay amounts that are legally owed. Legal structures integrate design with other activities and enforce financial and other construction processes.

These processes also affect procurement strategies. [Clients](/source/Client_(business)) may, for example, appoint a [business](/source/Business) to design the project, after which a competitive process is undertaken to appoint a lead contractor to construct the asset ([design–bid–build](/source/Design%E2%80%93bid%E2%80%93build)); they may appoint a business to lead both design and construction ([design-build](/source/Design-build)); or they may directly appoint a designer, contractor and specialist subcontractors ([construction management](/source/Construction_management)).[15] Some forms of procurement emphasize collaborative relationships ([partnering](/source/Construction_partnering), alliancing) between the client, the contractor, and other stakeholders within a construction project, seeking to ameliorate often highly competitive and adversarial industry practices. [DfMA](/source/DFMA) (design for manufacture and assembly) and so-called [modern methods of construction](/source/Modern_methods_of_construction) approaches also emphasize early collaboration with manufacturers and suppliers regarding products and components.

Construction or refurbishment work in a "live" environment (where residents or businesses remain living in or operating on the site) requires particular care, planning and communication.[16]

### Planning

Main articles: [Architectural plan](/source/Architectural_plan) and [Pre-construction services](/source/Pre-construction_services)

Digging the foundation for a building construction in [Jakarta](/source/Jakarta), [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia)

When applicable, a proposed construction project must comply with local [land-use planning](/source/Land-use_planning) policies including [zoning](/source/Zoning) and [building code](/source/Building_code) requirements. A project will normally be assessed (by the 'authority having jurisdiction', AHJ, typically the [municipality](/source/Municipality) where the project will be located) for its potential impacts on neighbouring properties, and upon existing infrastructure (transportation, social infrastructure, and utilities including water supply, sewerage, electricity, telecommunications, etc.). Data may be gathered through [site analysis](/source/Site_analysis), [site surveys](/source/Site_survey) and [geotechnical investigations](/source/Geotechnical_investigation). Construction normally cannot start until [planning permission](/source/Planning_permission) has been granted, and may require preparatory work to ensure relevant infrastructure has been upgraded before building work can commence. Preparatory works will also include surveys of existing utility lines to avoid damage-causing outages and other hazardous situations.

Some legal requirements come from *[malum in se](/source/Malum_in_se)* considerations, or the desire to prevent indisputably bad phenomena, e.g. explosions or bridge collapses. Other legal requirements come from *[malum prohibitum](/source/Malum_prohibitum)* considerations, or factors that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses from a business district or residences from a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not cause a collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community).[17]

During the construction of a building, a municipal building inspector usually inspects the ongoing work periodically to ensure that construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete, any later changes made to a building or other asset that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and [fire protection](/source/Fire_protection), usually require municipality approval.

### Finance

Depending on the type of project, [mortgage bankers](/source/Mortgage_bank), [accountants](/source/Accountant), and [cost engineers](/source/Cost_engineering) may participate in creating an overall plan for the financial management of a construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Professionals including cost engineers, [estimators](/source/Estimators) and [quantity surveyors](/source/Quantity_surveyor) apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation.

Financial planning ensures adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before the project is started, and ensures that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems.[18] Underbids happen when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. [Cash flow](/source/Cash_flow) problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials; such problems may arise even when the overall budget is adequate, presenting a temporary issue. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[19] [Fraud](/source/Fraud) is also an issue of growing significance within construction.[20]

Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual [cost estimate](/source/Cost_estimate) performed by a [building estimator](/source/Building_estimator). As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carry forward. [Public–private partnerships](/source/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership) (PPPs) or [private finance initiatives](/source/Private_finance_initiative) (PFIs) may also be used to help deliver major projects. According to [McKinsey](/source/McKinsey_%26_Company) in 2019, the "vast majority of large construction projects go over budget and take 20% longer than expected".[21]

### Legal

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Main article: [Construction law](/source/Construction_law)

Construction along [Ontario Highway 401](/source/Ontario_Highway_401), widening the road from six to twelve travel lanes

A construction project is a complex net of [construction contracts](/source/Construction_contract) and other legal obligations, each of which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, and provides structures to manage issues. For example, construction delays can be costly, so construction contracts set out clear expectations and clear paths to manage delays. Poorly drafted contracts can lead to confusion and costly disputes.

At the start of a project, legal advisors seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structures, and to present options for preventing problems. During projects, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project.

Apartment complex under construction in [Daegu](/source/Daegu), [South Korea](/source/South_Korea)

### Procurement

#### Traditional or design-bid-build

Main article: [Design–bid–build](/source/Design%E2%80%93bid%E2%80%93build)

Design-bid-build is the most common and well-established method of construction procurement. In this arrangement, the [architect](/source/Architect), [engineer](/source/Engineer) or builder acts for the client as the project coordinator. They design the works, prepare specifications and design deliverables (models, drawings, etc.), administer the contract, [tender](/source/Request_for_tender) the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. In parallel, there are direct contractual links between the client and the main contractor, who, in turn, has direct contractual relationships with subcontractors. The arrangement continues until the project is ready for handover.

#### Design-build

Main article: [Design-build](/source/Design-build)

Design-build became more common from the late 20th century, and involves the client contracting a single entity to provide design and construction. In some cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents. Typically, the client invites several Design & Build (D&B) contractors to submit proposals to meet the project brief and then selects a preferred supplier. Often this will be a [consortium](/source/Consortium) involving a design firm and a contractor (sometimes more than one of each). In the United States, [departments of transportation](/source/Department_of_transportation) usually use design-build contracts as a way of progressing projects where states lack the skills or resources, particularly for very large projects.[22]

#### Construction management

Main article: [Construction management](/source/Construction_management)

In a construction management arrangement, the client enters into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), a [construction manager](/source/Construction_management), and individual [trade contractors](/source/Tradesman). The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together. This approach is often used to speed up [procurement](/source/Procurement) processes, to allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, to enable the appointment of individual work contractors, to separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.

### Design

See also: [List of building information modeling software](/source/List_of_building_information_modeling_software)

In the industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. Most commonly (i.e.: in a design-bid-build project), the design team is employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Depending upon the type of project, a design team may include [architects](/source/Architect), [civil engineers](/source/Civil_engineer), [mechanical engineers](/source/Mechanical_engineering), [electrical engineers](/source/Electrical_engineering), [structural engineers](/source/Structural_engineer), [fire protection engineers](/source/Fire_protection_engineering), planning [consultants](/source/Consultant), architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. A 'lead designer' will normally be identified to help coordinate different disciplinary inputs to the overall design. This may be aided by integration of previously separate disciplines (often undertaken by separate firms) into multi-disciplinary firms with experts from all related fields,[23] or by firms establishing relationships to support design-build processes.

The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of a project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the asset as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. For buildings, [building engineering](/source/Architectural_engineering) is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.

Traditionally, design has involved the production of [sketches](/source/Sketch_(drawing)), [architectural](/source/Architectural_drawing) and [engineering drawings](/source/Engineering_drawing), and [specifications](/source/Specification_(technical_standard)). Until the late 20th century, drawings were largely hand-[drafted](/source/Drafter); adoption of [computer-aided design](/source/Computer-aided_design) (CAD) technologies then improved design productivity, while the 21st-century introduction of [building information modeling](/source/Building_information_modeling) (BIM) processes has involved the use of computer-generated models that can be used in their own right or to generate drawings and other [visualisations](/source/Visualization_(graphics)) as well as capturing non-geometric data about building components and systems.

On some projects, work on-site will not start until design work is largely complete; on others, some design work may be undertaken concurrently with the early stages of on-site activity (for example, work on a building's foundations may commence while designers are still working on the detailed designs of the building's internal spaces). Some projects may include elements that are designed for [off-site construction](/source/Off-site_construction) (see also DfMA, [prefabrication](/source/Prefabrication) and [modular building](/source/Modular_building)) and are then delivered to the site ready for erection, installation or assembly.

### On-site construction

Construction storage site with [shipping containers](/source/Shipping_container), for the rebuilding of the [Houses of Parliament](/source/Houses_of_Parliament%2C_Cape_Town) in [Cape Town CBD](/source/Cape_Town_CBD)

On-site [foundation construction](/source/Foundation_(engineering))

Once contractors and other relevant professionals have been appointed and designs are sufficiently advanced, work may commence on the project site. Some projects require preliminary works, such as land preparation and levelling, demolition of existing structures (see [below](#Demolition)), or laying foundations, and there are circumstances where this work may be contracted for in advance of finalising the contract and costs for the whole project.

Typically, a construction site will include a secure perimeter to restrict unauthorised access, site access control points, office and welfare accommodation for personnel from the main contractor and other firms involved in the project team, and storage areas for materials, machinery and equipment. According to the *McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction's* definition, construction may be said to have *started* when the first feature of the permanent structure has been put in place, such as pile driving, or the pouring of slabs or footings.[24]

### Commissioning and handover

Main article: [New-construction building commissioning](/source/New-construction_building_commissioning)

Commissioning is the process of verifying that all subsystems of a new building (or other assets) work as intended to achieve the owner's project requirements and as designed by the project's architects and engineers.

### Defects liability period

A period after handover (or practical completion) during which the owner may identify any shortcomings in relation to the building specification ('defects'), with a view to the contractor correcting the defect.[25]

### Maintenance, repair and improvement

Main article: [Maintenance (technical)](/source/Maintenance_(technical))

Maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, [machinery](/source/Machine), building infrastructure, and supporting utilities in industrial, business, governmental, and residential installations.[26][27]

### Demolition

Main article: [Demolition](/source/Demolition)

Demolition is the discipline of safely and efficiently tearing down [buildings](/source/Building) and other artificial [structures](/source/Structure). [Demolition](/source/Demolition) contrasts with [deconstruction](/source/Deconstruction_(building)), which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes ([recycling](/source/Recycling) – see also [circular economy](/source/Circular_economy)).

## Industry scale and characteristics

### Economic activity

Helicopter view of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array ([ALMA](/source/Atacama_Large_Millimeter_Array)) Operations Support Facility (OSF) construction site

The output of the global construction industry was worth an estimated $10.8 trillion in 2017, and in 2018 was forecast to rise to $12.9 trillion by 2022,[28] and to around $14.8 trillion in 2030.[1] As a sector, construction accounts for more than 10% of global GDP (in [developed countries](/source/Developed_country), construction comprises 6–9% of GDP),[29] and employs around 7% of the total employed workforce around the globe[30] (accounting for over 273 million full- and part-time jobs in 2014).[31] Since 2010,[32] China has been the world's largest single construction market.[33] The United States is the second largest construction market with a 2018 output of $1.581 trillion.[34]

- In the United States in February 2020, around $1.4 trillion worth of construction work was in progress, according to the [Census Bureau](/source/United_States_Census_Bureau), of which just over $1.0 trillion was for the [private sector](/source/Private_sector) (split roughly 55:45% between residential and nonresidential); the remainder was [public sector](/source/Public_sector), predominantly for state and local government.[35]

- In [Armenia](/source/Armenia), the construction sector experienced growth during the latter part of 2000s. Based on National Statistical Service, Armenia's construction sector generated approximately 20% of Armenia's GDP during the first and second quarters of 2007. In 2009, according to the World Bank, 30% of Armenia's economy was from construction sector.[36]

- In [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam), the construction industry plays an important role in the [national economy](/source/Economy_of_Vietnam).[37][38][39] The Vietnamese construction industry has been one of the fastest growing in the [Asia-Pacific](/source/Asia%E2%80%93Pacific) region in recent years.[40][41] The market was valued at nearly $60 billion in 2021.[42] In the first half of 2022, Vietnam's construction industry growth rate reached 5.59%.[42][43][44] In 2022, Vietnam's construction industry accounted for more than 6% of the country's GDP, equivalent to over 589.7 billion [Vietnamese dong](/source/Vietnamese_%C4%91%E1%BB%93ng).[45][46] The industry of industry and construction accounts for 38.26% of Vietnam's GDP.[47][48][49] At the same time, the industry is one of the most attractive industries for foreign direct investment (FDI) in recent years.[50][51][52]

Construction is a major source of employment in most countries; high reliance on small businesses, and under-representation of women are common traits. For example:

- In the US, construction employed around 11.4m people in 2020, with a further 1.8m employed in architectural, engineering, and related professional services – equivalent to just over 8% of the total US workforce.[53] The construction workers were employed in over 843,000 organisations, of which 838,000 were privately held businesses.[54] In March 2016, 60.4% of construction workers were employed by businesses with fewer than 50 staff.[55] Women are substantially underrepresented (relative to their share of total employment), comprising 10.3% of the US construction workforce, and 25.9% of professional services workers, in 2019.[53]

- The [United Kingdom construction sector](/source/Construction_industry_of_the_United_Kingdom) contributed £117 billion (6%) to UK GDP in 2018, and in 2019 employed 2.4m workers (6.6% of all jobs). These worked either for 343,000 'registered' construction businesses, or for 'unregistered' businesses, typically self-employed contractors;[56] just over one million small/medium-sized businesses, mainly self-employed individuals, worked in the sector in 2019, comprising about 18% of all UK businesses.[57] Women comprised 12.5% of the UK construction workforce.[58]

According to [McKinsey](/source/McKinsey_%26_Company) research, [productivity](/source/Productivity) growth per worker in construction has lagged behind many other industries across different countries including in the [United States](/source/United_States) and in European countries. In the United States, construction productivity per worker has declined by half since the 1960s.[59]

### Construction GVA by country

List of countries with the largest construction gross value added in 2018 Economy Construction GVA in 2018 (billions in USD) (01) China 934.2 (02) United States 839.1 (03) Japan 275.5 (04) India 201.2 (05) Germany 180.5 (06) United Kingdom 154.7 (07) France 138.7 (08) Canada 125.4 (09) Russia 121.2 (10) Australia 111.8 (11) Indonesia 109.7 (12) South Korea 93.0 (13) Brazil 92.6 (14) Mexico 89.0 (15) Spain 80.0 (16) Italy 78.9 (17) Turkey 55.3 (18) Saudi Arabia 40.2 (19) Netherlands 39.5 (20) Poland 39.4 (21) Switzerland 36.3 (22) United Arab Emirates 34.5 (23) Sweden 33.3 (24) Austria 27.2 (25) Qatar 27.0 The twenty-five largest countries in the world by construction GVA (2018)[60]

### Employment

[Ironworkers](/source/Ironworker) erecting the steel frame of a new building at [Massachusetts General Hospital](/source/Massachusetts_General_Hospital) in [Boston](/source/Boston)

A truck operator at [Al Gamil](/source/Al_Gamil), the largest construction company in [Djibouti](/source/Djibouti)

Some workers may be engaged in [manual labour](/source/Manual_labour)[61] as unskilled or semi-skilled workers; they may be skilled tradespeople; or they may be supervisory or managerial personnel. Under safety legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, construction workers are defined as people "who work for or under the control of a contractor on a construction site";[62] in Canada, this can include people whose work includes ensuring conformance with building codes and regulations, and those who supervise other workers.[63]

[Laborers](/source/Laborers) comprise a large grouping in most national construction industries. In the United States, for example, in May 2023, the construction sector employed just over 7.9 million people, of whom 859,000 were laborers, while 3.7 million were construction trades workers (including 603,000 [carpenters](/source/Carpentry), 559,000 [electricians](/source/Electrician), 385,000 [plumbers](/source/Plumber), and 321,000 equipment operators).[64] Like most business sectors, there is also substantial [white-collar](/source/White-collar_worker) employment in construction - out of 7.9 million US construction sector workers, 681,000 were recorded by the [United States Department of Labor](/source/United_States_Department_of_Labor) in May 2023 as in 'office and administrative support occupations', 620,000 in 'management occupations' and 480,000 in 'business and financial operations occupations'.[64]

Large-scale construction requires [collaboration](/source/Collaboration) across multiple disciplines. A [project manager](/source/Project_manager) normally manages the budget on the job, and a [construction manager](/source/Construction_management), [design engineer](/source/Design_engineer), [construction engineer](/source/Construction_engineer) or [architect](/source/Architect) supervises it. Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning requirements and legal issues, [environmental impact](/source/Environmental_impact_assessment) of the project, [scheduling](/source/Scheduling_(production_processes)), [budgeting](/source/Budget) and [bidding](/source/Construction_bidding), [construction site safety](/source/Construction_site_safety), availability and transportation of [building materials](/source/Building_material), logistics, and inconvenience to the public, including those caused by [construction delays](/source/Construction_delay).

Some models and policy-making organisations promote the engagement of [local labour](/source/Local_employment) in construction projects as a means of tackling [social exclusion](/source/Social_exclusion) and addressing skill shortages. In the UK, the [Joseph Rowntree Foundation](/source/Joseph_Rowntree_Foundation) reported in 2000 on 25 projects which had aimed to offer training and employment opportunities for locally based school leavers and unemployed people.[65] The Foundation published "a good practice resource book" in this regard at the same time.[66] Use of local labour and local materials were specified for the construction of the Danish [Storebaelt bridge](/source/Storebaelt_bridge), but there were legal issues which were challenged in court and addressed by the [European Court of Justice](/source/European_Court_of_Justice) in 1993. The court held that a [contract](/source/Contract) condition requiring use of local labour and local materials was incompatible with [EU treaty principles](/source/Treaty_on_European_Union).[67] Later UK guidance noted that social and employment clauses, where used, must be compatible with relevant EU regulation.[68] Employment of local labour was identified as one of several social issues which could potentially be incorporated in a sustainable procurement approach, although the interdepartmental *Sustainable Procurement Group* recognised that "there is far less scope to incorporate [such] social issues in public procurement than is the case with environmental issues".[69]

There are many routes to the different [careers](/source/Career) within the construction industry. There are three main tiers of [construction workers](/source/Construction_worker) based on educational background and training, which vary by country:

#### Unskilled and semi-skilled workers

Unskilled and semi-skilled workers provide general site labor, often have few or no construction qualifications, and may receive basic site training.

#### Skilled tradespeople

See also: [List of construction trades](/source/List_of_construction_trades)

Skilled [tradespeople](/source/Tradesmen) have typically served [apprenticeships](/source/Apprenticeship) (sometimes in [labor unions](/source/Labor_union)) or received technical training; this group also includes on-site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their [craft](/source/Craft) or [profession](/source/Profession). Skilled manual occupations include [carpenters](/source/Carpenter), [electricians](/source/Electrician), [plumbers](/source/Plumber), [ironworkers](/source/Ironworker), [heavy equipment operators](/source/Heavy_equipment_operator) and [masons](/source/Brick_mason), as well as those involved in project management. In the UK these require [further education](/source/Further_education) qualifications, often in [vocational](/source/Vocation) subject areas, undertaken either directly after completing [compulsory education](/source/Secondary_education) or through "on the job" apprenticeships.[70]

#### Professional, technical or managerial personnel

Professional, technical and managerial personnel often have [higher education](/source/Higher_education) qualifications, usually [graduate degrees](/source/Graduate_degrees), and are trained to design and manage construction processes. These roles require more training as they demand greater technical knowledge, and involve more legal responsibility. Example roles (and qualification routes) include:

- [Architect](/source/Architect) – Will usually have studied [architecture](/source/Architecture) to degree level, and then undertaken further study and gained professional experience. In many countries, the title of "architect" is protected by law, strictly limiting its use to qualified people.

- [Civil engineer](/source/Civil_engineer) – Typically holds a degree in a related subject and may only be eligible for membership of a professional institution (such as the UK's [ICE](/source/Institution_of_Civil_Engineers)) following completion of additional training and experience. In some jurisdictions, a new university graduate must hold a [master's degree](/source/Master's_degree) to become chartered,[a] and persons with [bachelor's degrees](/source/Bachelor's_degree) may become [Incorporated Engineers](/source/Engineering_technologist).

- [Building services engineer](/source/Building_services_engineering) – May also be referred to as an "M&E" or "[mechanical, electrical, and plumbing](/source/Mechanical%2C_electrical%2C_and_plumbing) (MEP) engineer" and typically holds a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering.[a]

- [Project manager](/source/Project_manager) – Typically holds a 4-year or greater [higher education](/source/Higher_education) qualification, but are often also qualified in another field such as architecture, civil engineering or quantity surveying.

- [Structural engineer](/source/Structural_engineer) – Typically holds a bachelor's or master's degree in structural engineering.[a]

- [Quantity surveyor](/source/Quantity_surveyor) – Typically holds a bachelor's degree in quantity surveying. UK chartered status is gained from the [Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors](/source/Royal_Institution_of_Chartered_Surveyors).

## Safety

See also: [Construction site safety](/source/Construction_site_safety)

At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the [European Union](/source/European_Union).[2][71] In the US in 2019, 1,061, or about 20%, of worker fatalities in private industry occurred in construction.[2] In 2017, more than a third of US construction fatalities (366 out of 971 total fatalities) were the result of falls;[72] in the UK, half of the average 36 fatalities per annum over a five-year period to 2021 were attributed to falls from height.[73] Proper safety equipment such as harnesses, hard hats and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting [scaffolding](/source/Scaffolding) can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry.[74] Other major causes of fatalities in the construction industry include electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-ins.[75]

Other safety risks for workers in construction include [hearing loss](/source/Hearing_loss) due to high noise exposure, [musculoskeletal injury](/source/Musculoskeletal_injury), chemical exposure, and high levels of stress.[76] Besides that, the high turnover of workers in construction industry imposes a huge challenge of accomplishing the restructuring of work practices in individual workplaces or with individual workers.[77] Construction has been identified by the [National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health](/source/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health) (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the [National Occupational Research Agenda](/source/National_Occupational_Research_Agenda) (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.[78][79] A study conducted in 2022 found "significant effect of air pollution exposure on construction-related injuries and fatalities", especially with the exposure of [nitrogen dioxide](/source/Nitrogen_dioxide).[80]

### Sustainability

Main article: [Sustainability in construction](/source/Sustainability_in_construction)

Sustainability is an aspect of "green building", defined by the United States [Environmental Protection Agency](/source/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency) (EPA) as "the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction."[81]

### Decarbonising construction

The construction industry may require transformation at pace and at scale if it is to successfully contribute to achieving the target set out in [The Paris Agreement](/source/The_Paris_Agreement) of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5C above industrial levels.[82][83] The [World Green Building Council](/source/World_Green_Building_Council) has stated the buildings and infrastructure around the world can reach 40% less embodied carbon emissions but that this can only be achieved through urgent transformation.[84][85]

Conclusions from industry leaders have suggested that the [net zero](/source/Net_zero) transformation is likely to be challenging for the construction industry, but it does present an opportunity. Action is demanded from [governments](/source/Government), standards bodies, the construction sector, and the [engineering](/source/Engineering) profession to meet the decarbonising targets.[86]

In 2021, the [National Engineering Policy Centre](/source/Royal_Academy_of_Engineering) published its report *Decarbonising Construction: Building a new net zero industry,*[86] which outlined key areas to decarbonise the construction sector and the wider [built environment](/source/Built_environment). This report set out around 20 different recommendations to transform and decarbonise the construction sector, including recommendations for [engineers](/source/Engineer), the construction industry and decision makers, plus outlined six-overarching 'system levers' where action taken now will result in rapid decarbonisation of the construction sector.[86] These levels are:

- Setting and stipulating progressive targets for carbon reduction

- Embedding quantitative whole-life carbon assessment into public procurement

- Increasing design efficiency, materials reuse and retrofit of buildings

- Improving whole-life carbon performance

- Improving skills for net zero

- Adopting a joined up, systems approach to decarbonisation across the construction sector and with other sectors

Progress is being made internationally to decarbonise the sector including improvements to sustainable procurement practice such as the CO2 performance ladder in the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) and the Danish Partnership for Green Public Procurement.[87][88] There are also now demonstrations of applying the principles of circular economy practices in practice such as Circl, [ABN AMRO](/source/ABN_AMRO)'s sustainable pavilion and the [Brighton Waste House](/source/Waste_House).[89][90][91]

## Construction magazines

See also: [List of civil engineering journals](/source/List_of_civil_engineering_journals) and [List of architecture journals](/source/List_of_architecture_journals)

- *[Engineering News-Record](/source/Engineering_News-Record)*

- *[Building](/source/Building_(magazine))*

- *[Construction News](/source/Construction_News)*

- *[New Civil Engineer](/source/New_Civil_Engineer)*

- *[Concrete and Constructional Engineering](/source/Concrete_and_Constructional_Engineering)*

- *[Consulting-Specifying Engineer](/source/Consulting-Specifying_Engineer)*

- *[Construct Ireland](/source/Construct_Ireland)*

- *[Building Giants](/source/Building_Giants_(magazine))*

- [List of woodshop magazines](/source/Woodshop_(workspace)#Woodshop_magazines)

## See also

Look up ***[construction](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/construction)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [Agile construction](/source/Agile_construction) – Management system in the construction industry

- [Building material](/source/Building_material) – Material which is used for construction purposes

- [Commissioning (construction)](/source/Commissioning_(construction)) – Process to ensure that all building systems perform according to the "Design Intent"

- [Construction robots](/source/Construction_robots) – Automation in construction

- [Environmental impact of concrete](/source/Environmental_impact_of_concrete)

- [Impervious surface](/source/Impervious_surface) – Artificial structures such as pavements covered with water-tight materials

- [Index of construction articles](/source/Index_of_construction_articles)

- [Land degradation](/source/Land_degradation) – Gradual destruction of land

- [List of tallest structures](/source/List_of_tallest_structures)

- [List of tallest structures built before the 20th century](/source/List_of_tallest_structures_built_before_the_20th_century)

- [List of tools and equipment](/source/List_of_tools_and_equipment)

- [Outline of construction](/source/Outline_of_construction) – Overview of and topical guide to construction

- [Rate analysis](/source/Rate_analysis)

- [Real estate development](/source/Real_estate_development) – Process that creates or renovates new or existing spaces

- [Structural robustness](/source/Structural_robustness) – Ability of a structure to withstand physical strain

- [Umarell](/source/Umarell) – Construction site watcher

[Architecture portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Architecture) [Engineering portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering)

## Notes

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-CEng_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-CEng_71-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-CEng_71-2) In the UK, the [Chartered Engineer](/source/Chartered_Engineer) qualification is controlled by the [Engineering Council](/source/Engineering_Council), and is often achieved through membership of the relevant professional institution (ICE, CIBSE, IStructE, etc).

## References

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Construction](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Construction).

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Construction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.