# Comorian languages

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Bantu language group of the Comoro Islands

Comorian shikomori شِكُمُرِ / شیكهمهری‎[1] Native to Comoros and Mayotte Region Throughout Comoros and Mayotte; also in Madagascar and Réunion Ethnicity Comorians Native speakers 800,000 in Comoros (2011)[2] 300,000 in Mayotte (2007)[3][4] Language family Niger–Congo? Atlantic–Congo Volta-Congo Benue–Congo Bantoid Southern Bantoid Bantu Northeast Coast Bantu Sabaki Comorian Dialects Maore Writing system Arabic Latin Official status Official language in Comoros Language codes ISO 639-3 Variously: zdj – Ngazidja dialect wni – Ndzwani (Anjouani) dialect swb – Maore dialect wlc – Mwali dialect Glottolog como1260 Guthrie code G.44[5]

**Comorian** (*Shikomori*, or *Shimasiwa*, the "language of islands") is the name given to a group of four [Bantu languages](/source/Bantu_language) spoken in the [Comoro Islands](/source/Comoro_Islands), an [archipelago](/source/Archipelago) in the southwestern [Indian Ocean](/source/Indian_Ocean) between [Mozambique](/source/Mozambique) and [Madagascar](/source/Madagascar). It is named as one of the official languages of the [Union of the Comoros](/source/Union_of_the_Comoros) in the Comorian constitution. Shimaore, one of the languages, is spoken on the disputed island of [Mayotte](/source/Mayotte), a [French department](/source/Departement_of_France) claimed by Comoros.

Like [Swahili](/source/Swahili_language), the Comorian languages are [Sabaki languages](/source/Sabaki_languages), part of the Bantu language family. Each island has its own language, and the four are conventionally divided into two groups: the eastern group is composed of *[Shindzuani](/source/Shindzuani)* (spoken on [Ndzuani](/source/Anjouan)) and *[Shimaore](/source/Shimaore_dialect)* (Mayotte), while the western group is composed of *[Shimwali](/source/Shimwali)* ([Mwali](/source/Moh%C3%A9li)) and *[Shingazija](/source/Shingazija)* ([Ngazidja](/source/Grande_Comore)). Although the languages of different groups are not usually [mutually intelligible](/source/Mutually_intelligible), only sharing about 80% of their lexicon, there is mutual intelligibility between the languages within each group, suggesting that Shikomori should be considered as two language groups, each including two languages, rather than four distinct languages.[6][7]

Historically, the language was written in the Arabic-based [Ajami script](/source/Ajami_script). The [French colonial administration](/source/French_Comoros) introduced the [Latin script](/source/Latin_script). In 2009 the current independent government decreed a modified version of the Latin script for official use.[7] Many Comorians now use the Latin script when writing the Comorian language although the Ajami script is still widely used, especially by women.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Recently, some scholars have suggested that the language may be on its way to endangerment, citing the unstable code-switching and numerous French words used in daily speech.[8]

It is the language of *[Umodja wa Masiwa](/source/Udzima_wa_ya_Masiwa),* the national anthem.

## History and classification

The first Bantu speakers arrived at the Comoros sometime between the 5th and 10th centuries, before the Shirazi Arabs.[8]

### Shimwali

The Shimwali dialect was possibly one of the earliest Bantu languages to be recorded by a European. On July 3, 1613, Walter Payton claimed to have recorded 14 words on the island of [Moheli](/source/Moh%C3%A9li), stating "They speak a kind of [Morisco](/source/Morisco) language." [Sir Thomas Roe](/source/Thomas_Roe) and Thomas Herbert also claimed to have recorded vocabulary.[9]

Until the 1970s, it was considered a dialect or archaic form of Swahili. This was first proposed in 1871, when Kersten suggested it might be a mixture of Shingazija, Swahili, and Malagasy. In 1919 Johnston, referring to it as 'Komoro Islands Swahili - the dialect of 'Mohila' and 'the 'Mohella' language', suggested that, taken together with the other two dialects in the Comoros, it might be an ancient and corrupt form of Swahili. However, Ottenheimer et al. (1976) found this to not be the case. Instead, they classify Shimwali, as well as the other Comorian languages, as a separate language group from Swahili.[10]

### Shinzwani

Shinzwani was first noted by a South African missionary Reverend William Elliott in 1821 and 1822. During a 13-months' mission stay on the island of [Anjouan](/source/Anjouan) he compiled a vocabulary and grammar of the language. Elliott included a 900-word vocabulary and provided 98 sample sentences in Shinzwani. He does not appear to have recognized noun- classes (of which there are at least six in Shinzwani) nor does he appear to have considered Shinzwani a Bantu language, only making a superficial connection to Swahili.[10]

The dialect was noted again in 1841 by Casalis, who placed it within Bantu, and by Peters, who collected a short word list. In 1875 Hildebrandt published a Shinzwani vocabulary and suggested in 1876 that Shinzwani was an older form of Swahili.

The idea of the distinctness of Shingazija and Shinzwani from Swahili finally gained prominence during the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century. In 1883, an analysis by Gust distinguished Shinzwani from Swahili. He discusses Shinzwani and Swahili as two separate languages which had contributed to the port-language which he referred to as Barracoon.[11]

In 1909 two publications reaffirmed and clarified the distinctiveness of Shinzwani, Shingazija and Swahili. Struck published a word list which appeared to have been recorded by a Frenchman in Anjouan in 1856, identified the words as belonging to Shinzwani and noted some influence from Swahili.[12][13]

In his Swahili Grammar, Sacleux cautioned that although Swahili was spoken in the Comoros it must not be confused with the native languages of the Comoros, Shinzwani and Shingazija. He said that while Swahili was mostly spoken in cities, the Comorian languages were widely spoken in the countryside.[14]

### Shingazija

Shingazija was not documented until 1869 when Bishop Edward Steere collected a word list and commented that he did not know which language family it belonged to. In 1870 Gevrey characterized both Shingazija and Shinzwani as the 'Souaheli des Comores' (Swahili of the Comoros) which was only a 'patois de celui de Zanzibar'. However, Kersten noted in 1871 that Shingazija was not at all like Swahili but was a separate Bantu language.

Torrend was the first to identify the difference between Shingazija and Shinzwani in 1891. He attempted to account for Shingazija by suggesting that it was a mixture of Shinzwani and Swahili.[10]

## Phonology

The consonants and vowels in the Comorian languages:

### Vowels

Vowels[15][16] Front Central Back Close i ĩ u ũ Mid e o Open a ã

### Consonants

Consonants[15][16] Bilabial Labio- dental Dental/Alveolar Palatal Retroflex Velar Glottal plain sibilant Nasal m n ɲ Plosive/ Affricate voiceless plain p t t͡s t͡ʃ ʈ k (ʔ) prenasal ᵐp ⁿt ⁿt͡s ⁿt͡ʃ ᶯʈ ᵑk voiced/ implosive plain ɓ~b ɗ~d d͡z d͡ʒ ɖ ɡ prenasal ᵐɓ~ᵐb ⁿɗ~ⁿd ⁿd͡z ⁿd͡ʒ ᶯɖ ᵑɡ Fricative voiceless f θ s ʃ x h voiced β v ð z ʒ ɣ Approximant w l j Trill r

The consonants *mb*, *nd*, *b*, *d* are phonemically [implosives](/source/Implosives), but may also be phonetically recognized as ranging from implosives to voiced stops as [ᵐɓ~ᵐb], [ⁿɗ~ⁿd], [ɓ~b], [ɗ~d]. A glottal stop [ʔ] can also be heard when in between vowels.

In the Shimaore dialect, if when inserting a prefix the leading consonant becomes intervocalic, [p] becomes [β], [ɗ] becomes [l], [ʈ] becomes [r], [k] becomes [h], and [ɓ] is deleted.

There is a preference for multi-syllable words and a CV syllable structures. Vowels are frequently deleted and inserted to better fit the CV structure. There is also an alternate strategy of *h*-insertion in scenarios which would otherwise results in VV.

I

5.DEF

kukuyi

5.rooster

li-hi(h)a

5.NOM-crow.PRF

I kukuyi li-hi(h)a

5.DEF 5.rooster 5.NOM-crow.PRF

The rooster crowed

There is a strong preference for penultimate stress. There was previously a tone system in the language, but it has been mostly phased out and no longer plays an active role in the majority of cases.

## Orthography

Comorian is most commonly written in Latin alphabet today. Traditionally and historically, Arabic alphabet is used as well but to a lesser extent. Arabic alphabet has been universally known in Comoros, due to the fact that there was a near universal attendance at Quranic schools on the islands, whereas knowledge and literacy in French was lacking. Since independence from [France](/source/France), the situation has changed, with improvements to infrastructure of secular education, in which French is the language of instruction.

### Latin alphabet

Comorian Latin alphabet[17] Upper Case A Ɓ B C Ɗ D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W Y Z Lower Case a ɓ b c ɗ d e f g h i j k l m n o p r s t u v w y z IPA [a] [ɓ] [b] [t͡ʃ] [ɗ] [d] [e] [f] [ɡ] [h] [i] [d͡ʒ][a 1] [k] [l] [m] [n] [o] [p] [r] [s] [t] [u] [v] [w] [j] [z]

List of digraphs in Comorian Digraphs dh dj dr dz gh ny sh pv th tr ts IPA [ð] [d͡ʒ][a 2] [ɖ] [d͡z] [ɣ] [ɲ] [ʃ] [β] [θ] [ʈ] [t͡s]

**Note**: In [Shimaore](/source/Maore_dialect), the digraphs " vh " and " bv " are used for representing the phoneme [[β](/source/Voiced_bilabial_fricative)].

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Only in the shiMaore and in the shiNdzuani dialects.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Only used in the shiMwali and in the shiNgazidja dialects.

### Arabic alphabet

[Comoros](/source/Comoros) being located near the East African coast, the archipelago being connected by deep trade links to the mainland, and Comorian being a [Bantu language](/source/Bantu_languages) much like [Swahili language](/source/Swahili_language), means that historically, the Arabic orthography of Comorian followed the [Swahili suit](/source/Swahili_Ajami) in being part of the tradition of the African [Ajami script](/source/Ajami_script). Key components of the Ajami tradition are mainly that vowels were always represented with [diacritics](/source/Arabic_diacritics) (thus differing from [Persian](/source/Persian_alphabet) conventions). The letters *alif* ا‎, *wāw* و‎, and *yāʼ* ي‎ were used for indicating stressed syllable or long vowels. Furthermore, whereas Bantu languages have 5 vowels, while Arabic has 3 vowels and 3 diacritics; until recently, specifically until the early 20th century, there hasn't been an agreed upon way of writing the vowels [[e](/source/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel)] and [[o](/source/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel)]. Furthermore, sounds unique to Bantu languages were generally shown with the closest matching letter in the Arabic alphabet, avoiding as much as possible the creation of new letters in order not to deviate from the authentic 28-letter base. In addition, [prenasalized consonants](/source/Prenasalized_consonant) were shown using digraphs.[1]

The 20th century marked the start of a process of orthographic reform and standardization across the [Muslim world](/source/Muslim_world). This process included standardizing, unifying, and clarifying the Arabic script in most places, ditching the Arabic script in favour of Latin or Cyrillic in others in places such as [Soviet Turkistan](/source/Turkestan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) and [Soviet Caucasus](/source/Mountain_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic), to [Turkey](/source/Turkey) and [Kurdistan](/source/Kurdistan), to [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia) and [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia),[18] to the Eastern African coast ([Swahili Ajami](/source/Swahili_Ajami)) and Comoros.

The mantle of standardization and improvement of Arabic-based orthography in Comoros was carried by the literaturist *Said Kamar-Eddine (1890-1974)* in 1960. Only two decades before, in the 1930s and 1940s, Swahili literaturists such as *Sheikh el Amin* and *Sheikh Yahya Ali Omar* had developed the Swahili Arabic alphabet as well.[19][1]

In [Swahili](/source/Swahili_Ajami), two new diacritics were added to the 3 original [diacritics](/source/Arabic_diacritics), namely ◌ٖ‎ to represent the phoneme [e], and ◌ٗ‎ to represent the phoneme [o]. Furthermore, the usage of the 3 [mater lectionis](/source/Mater_lectionis) (or vowel carrier letters) followed the following convention too: Vowels in stressed ([second-to-last](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Swahili/Pronunciation#Stress)) syllable of the word are marked with diacritic as well as a carrier letter, namely *alif* ا‎ for vowel [a], *yāʼ* ي‎ for vowels [e] and [i], and *wāw* و‎ for vowels [o] and [u].[19][1]

But, in the proposal by *Said Kamar-Eddine* for Comorian, there was a departure from the [Ajami tradition](/source/Ajami_script) and a divergence from what was done by Swahili literaturists. *Kamar-Eddine* had an eye on [Iraqi](/source/Iraqi_Kurdistan) and [Iranian](/source/Iranian_Kurdistan) [Kurdistan](/source/Kurdistan), and the orthographic reforms implemented there. In Kurdish, the direction of the reforms of the alphabet favoured elimination of all diacriticts and designating specific letters to each and every vowel sound, thus creating a full *[alphabet](/source/Alphabet)*. Kurdish orthography wasn't unique in this regard. A similar direction was pursued in various Turkic languages such as [Uzbek](/source/Uzbek_language), [Azerbaijani](/source/Azerbaijani_language), [Uyghur](/source/Uyghur_language), and [Kazakh](/source/Kazakh_language), as well as languages of the Caucasus such as [Western](/source/Adyghe_language) and [Eastern](/source/Kabardian_language) Circassian languages and [Chechen language](/source/Chechen_language). This makes *Said Kamar-Eddine* orthography for Comorian, a unique case for Sub-saharan African languages that have been written with the Arabic script.[1]

In the initial position, the vowels are written as a single letter. No preceding *alif* or *hamza* is required. (This is similar to the convention of [Kazakh Arabic alphabet](/source/Kazakh_alphabets))

Vowels in Comorian[1] Final Medial Initial Isolated a ـا‎ ا‎ u ‍ـو‎ و ‎ i ‍ـی‎ ‍ـیـ‎ ‍یـ‎ ی‎ o ‍ـه‎ ‍ـهـ‎ هـ‎ ه‎ e ‍ـ‍ہ‍‎ ‍ـ‍ہ‍ـ‎ ‍ ‍ہ‍ـ ‎ ‍ ‍ہ‍ ‎

In [Kurdish](/source/Kurdo-Arabic_alphabet), new vowel letters were created by adding accents on existing letters. The phonemes [o] and [e] are written with ۆ‎ and ێ‎ respectively. In Comorian, new independent letters were assigned instead. The letter *hāʾ* in two of its variants are used for both aforementioned phonemes. A standard Arabic *hāʾ*, in all its 4 positional shapes (ه هـ ـهـ ـه‎) is used for the vowel [o]. This is a unique innovation exclusive to this orthography. The letter *hāʾ* in these shapes is not used as vowel in any other Arabic orthography. A letter *hāʾ*, in a fixed *medial* zigzag shape (medial form of what's known in Urdu as [gol he](/source/Gol_he)) ( ‍ہ‍ ‎) is used for the vowel [e]. The usage of this variant of the letter *hāʾ* as a vowel is not unique to Comorian. In the early 20th century, [West](/source/Adyghe_language) and [East](/source/Kabardian_language) Circassian Arabic orthography also used this variant of the letter *hāʾ* to represent the vowel [ə] (written as *ы* in Cyrillic).

Letters representing consonant phonemes that are not present in Arabic have been formed in either of the two following methods. First method is similar to [Persian](/source/Persian_alphabet) and [Kurdish](/source/Kurdo-Arabic_alphabet), where new letters are created by adding or modifying of dots. The second method is to use the Arabic gemination diacritic *[Shaddah](/source/Shaddah)* on letters that are most similar to the missing consonant phoneme. This is similar to the tradition of [Sorabe (Arabo-Malagasy)](/source/Sorabe_alphabet) orthography, where a geminated *r* (رّ‎) is meant to represent [nd] or [ndr], and where a geminated *f* (فّـ ࢻّ‎) is meant to represent [p] or [mp].

Kamar-Eddine's Comorian Arabic Alphabet[1] Arabic (Latin) [IPA] ا‎ ‌( A a ) [a] ب‎ (B b / Ɓ ɓ) [b]/[ɓ] پ‎ (P p) [p] ت‎ (T t) [t] تّ‎ (Tr tr) [ʈ] ث‎ (Th th) [θ] Arabic (Latin) [IPA] ج‎ (J j / Dj dj) [d͡ʒ] ح‎ (H h) [h] د‎ (D d / Ɗ ɗ) [d]/[ɗ] ذ‎ (Dh dh) [ð] ر‎ (R r / Dr dr) [r] / [ɖ] ز‎ (Z z) [z] Arabic (Latin) [IPA] زّ‎ (Dz dz) [d͡z] س‎ (S s) [s] سّ‎ (Ts ts) [t͡s] ش‎ (Sh sh) [ʃ] شّ‎ (C c) [t͡ʃ] غ‎ (G g / Gh gh) [ɡ]/[ɣ] Arabic (Latin) [IPA] ف‎ (F f) [f] ڢ‎ (Pv pv) [β] ڤ ‎ (V v) [v] ك‎ (K k) [k] ل‎ (L l) [l] م‎ (M m) [m] Arabic (Latin) [IPA] ن‎ (N n) [n] نّ‎ (Ny ny) [ɲ] هـ ـهـ ـه ه‎ (O o) [o] ‍ ‍ہ‍ ‎ (E e) [e] و‎ (U u / W w) [u]/[w] ی‎ (I i / Y y) [i]/[j] Arabic (Latin) [IPA] ئ‎ ( - ) [ʔ]

There are two types of [vowel sequencees](/source/Vowel_sequence) in Comorian, a glide or a vowel hiatus. Latin letters *w* and *y*, represented by و‎ and ی‎, are considered semivowels. When these letters follow another vowel, they are written sequentially.

Other succession of vowels are treated as *vowel hiatus*. In these instances, a *hamza* (ئ‎) is written in between.

[Prenasalized consonants](/source/Prenasalized_consonant) are written as digraphs, with either *m* (م‎) or *n* (ن‎).

### Sample text

*Comorian Latin Alphabet*:

- Ha mwakinisho ukaya ho ukubali ye sheo shaho wo ubinadamu piya pvamwedja ne ze haki za wadjibu zaho usawa, zahao, uwo ndo mshindzi waho uhuria, no mlidzanyiso haki, ne amani yahe duniya kamili.

*Comorian Arabic (Kamar-Eddine's) Alphabet*:

- حا مواكینیشه وكایا حه وكوبالی یہ‍ شہ‍ئه شاحه وبین‌ادامو پییا ڢ‎اموہ‍جا نہ‍ زـہ‍ حاقی زا واجیبو زاحو وساوا، زاحائه، ووه نده مشینزّی واحو وحوریا، نه ملیزّانّیسه حاقی، نہ‍ امانی یاحہ‍ دونیا كامیلی.‎

## Grammar

### Noun class

As in other Bantu languages, Shikomor displays a noun class/gender system in which classes share a prefix. Classes 1 through 10 generally have singular/plural pairings.

Class Prefix Class Prefix 1 m(u)-, mw 2 wa- 3 m(u)-,mw- 4 m(i)- 5 Ø- 6 ma- 7 shi- 8 zi- 9 Ø- 10 Ø- 10a nyi- 11 u-

Classes 9 & 10 consists mainly of borrowed words, such as *dipe* (from French *du pain* 'some bread') and do not take prefixes. Class 7 & 8 and class 9 & 10 take on the same agreements in adjectives and verbs. Class 10a contains a very small amount of words, generally plurals of Class 11. Class 15 consists of verbal infinitives, much like English gerunds.

Ufanya

15.do

hazi

work

njema

good

Ufanya hazi njema

15.do work good

Working is good

Class 16 contains only two words, *vahana* and *vahali*, both meaning 'place'. It was probably borrowed from Swahili *pahali*, which was borrowed from Arabic *mahal*. Class 17 consists of locatives with the prefix *ha-*, and Class 18 consists of locatives with the prefix *mwa-.*[8][20]

### Numerals

Numerals in Comorian follow the noun. If the number is 1 through 5 or 8, it must agree with the class of its noun.

Numerals Number Comorian Num. Comorian 1 oja/muntsi 6 sita 2 ili/mbili 7 saba 3 raru/ndraru 8 nane 4 nne 9 shendra 5 tsano/ntsanu 10 kumi/kume

### Demonstratives

There are three demonstratives: One that refers to a proximate object, a non-proximate object, and an object that was previously mentioned in the conversation.[8]

### Possessives

The possessive element -*a* agrees with the possessed noun. The general order of a possessive construction is possessed-*Ca*-possessor.[8]

gari

5.car

l-a

5-GEN

Sufa

Sufa

gari l-a Sufa

5.car 5-GEN Sufa

Sufa's car

### Verbs

Comorian languages exhibit a typical Bantu verb structure.

Comorian Verb Structure Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Content Verbal preprefix (pre) Subject Marker (SM) Tense-Aspect-Mood Object Marker (OM) Root Extension Final Vowel Suffix

Although there is only one form of the subject marker for personal plural subjects and for subjects belonging to the classes 3-18.

Subject Pronouns[21] Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 (Shingazija and Shimwali only) 1sg ni- tsi- -m- 2sg u- hu-/u- -o- 3sg a- ha-/a- -u- 1pl ri- 2pl m-/mu- 3pl wa-

In Proto-Sabaki, the 2sg and 2sg subject markers were **ku* and **ka*, respectively. However, the **k* was weakened to *h* in Shingazija and further to *Ø* in all other dialects.[22]

Verbs can be negated by adding the prefix *ka-*. However, occasionally other morphemes of the verb may take on different meanings when the negative prefix is added, such as in the following example, where the suffix *-i*, usually the past tense, takes on the present habitual meaning when it is in a negative construction.

ri-dy-i

1PL-eat-PST

nyama

meat

ri-dy-i nyama

1PL-eat-PST meat

We ate meat

ka-ri-dy-i

NEG-1PL-eat-PRES.HAB.NEG

nyama

meat

ka-ri-dy-i nyama

NEG-1PL-eat-PRES.HAB.NEG meat

We don't eat meat

The present progressive uses the prefix si-/su-, the future tense uses tso-, and the conditional uses a-tso-.There are two past tense constructions in Comorian.[8]The first of these is the simple past tense, which uses the structure SM-Root-Suffix 1.

The second is the compound past, using the structure SM-*ka* SM-Root-Suffix 1.[21]

tsi-ka

1sg.NOM-PST

tsi-hu-on-o

1sg.NOM-2sg.ACC-see-FV

tsi-ka tsi-hu-on-o

1sg.NOM-PST 1sg.NOM-2sg.ACC-see-FV

I(sg) saw you(sg)

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-lafon_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-lafon_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-lafon_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-lafon_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-lafon_1-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-lafon_1-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-lafon_1-6) Lafon, Michel (2007). ["Le système Kamar-Eddine : une tentative originale d'écriture du comorien en graphie arabe"](https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00265704/document). *Ya Mkobe* (in French) (14–15): 29–48. Retrieved 26 August 2022. ([Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20230430044934/https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00265704/document)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Udzima wa Komori"](http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/comores.htm). Université Laval, 2325, rue de l'Université. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150304065836/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/comores.htm) from the original on 4 March 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Daniel Barreteau. ["Premiers résultats d'une enquête sociolinguistique auprès des élèves de CM2 de Mayotte"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070614075940/http://www.ac-mayotte.fr/IMG/pdf/Interv_BARRETEAU_CM2.pdf) (PDF) (in French). Archived from [the original](http://www.ac-mayotte.fr/IMG/pdf/Interv_BARRETEAU_CM2.pdf) (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Population of Mayotte"](https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3284395). INSEE. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190403070726/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3284395) from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2018-12-04.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Guthrie_5-0)** Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. [New Updated Guthrie List Online](https://web.archive.org/web/20180203191542/http://goto.glocalnet.net/mahopapers/nuglonline.pdf)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Breslar, Jon Haskell (1981). *An ethnography of the Mahorais (Mayotte Comoro Islands)* (Thesis). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [9174567](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9174567). [ProQuest](/source/ProQuest) [303167533](https://www.proquest.com/docview/303167533).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_7-1) Ahmed-Chamanga, Mohamed (2010). *Le shiNdzuani*. Introduction à la grammaire structurale du comorien. Moroni (Comores): Komedit CNDRS Palashiyo. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-914564-74-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-914564-74-8).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_8-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:2_8-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:2_8-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:2_8-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:2_8-5) Alnet, Aimee Johansen (2009). [*The Clause Structure Of The Shimaore Dialect Of Comorian (Bantu)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=rLeU4S5CBt4C&dq=shimaore&pg=PR9). Shimaore.net. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240227155556/https://books.google.com/books?id=rLeU4S5CBt4C&dq=shimaore&pg=PR9) from the original on 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Roe, Sir Thomas (1615). Observations Collected out of the Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, Knight, Lord Embassadour from His Majestie of Great Britaine, to the Great Mogol . . . I. Occurrents and Observations, in Samuel Purchas (1905) Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas his Pilgrimes,-ol. IV. Glasgow.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_10-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_10-2) Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph; Ottenheimer, Martin (1976). "The Classification of the Languages of the Comoro Islands". *Anthropological Linguistics*. **18** (9): 408–415. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [30027589](https://www.jstor.org/stable/30027589).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Richardson, Irvine (1963). "Evolutionary Factors in Mauritian Creole". *Journal of African Languages*. **2** (1): 2–14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Doke, Clement M. (1945). *Bantu: Modern Grammatical, Phonetical and Lexicographical Studies Since 1860*. Oxford. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781138095816](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781138095816). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Heepe, Martin (1920). *Die Komorendialekte Ngazidja, Nzwani und Mwali* [*The Comorian Dialects Shingazija and Shimwali*] (in German). Hamburg. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1361862162](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1361862162). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Sacleux, Ch. (1909). Grammaire des Dialects Swahilis. Paris.[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed-Chamanga1992_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAhmed-Chamanga1992_15-1) [Ahmed-Chamanga (1992)](#CITEREFAhmed-Chamanga1992).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELafon1991_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELafon1991_16-1) [Lafon (1991)](#CITEREFLafon1991).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Ahmed-Chamanga, Mohamed (5 June 2019). ["Transcription et orthographe du comorien"](https://editions-komedit.com/2019/06/05/transcription-et-orthographe-du-comorien/). *KomEDIT*. Retrieved 26 August 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** [Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu](/source/Dewan_Bahasa_dan_Pustaka) (2014), [*Ejaan Rumi Baharu Bahasa Malaysia*](http://prpm.dbp.gov.my/Search.aspx?k=ejaan+rumi+baharu&d=8), retrieved 2014-10-04

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Omar_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Omar_21-1) Omar, Yahya Ali; Frankl, P. J. L. (April 1997). "An Historical Review of the Arabic Rendering of Swahili Together with Proposals for the Development of a Swahili Writing System in Arabic Script (Based on the Swahili of Mombasa)". *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society*. **7** (1): 55–71. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1356186300008312](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186300008312).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Rombi, Mmie-Franyoise 1983. Le Shimaore Paris: SELAF.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_23-1) Full, Wolfram (2001). ["Two past tenses in Comorian: morphological form and inherent meaning"](https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa-91542). *Swahili Forum*. **8**: 49–58. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240306034800/https://ul.qucosa.de/landing-page/?tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=https%3A%2F%2Ful.qucosa.de%2Fapi%2Fqucosa%253A11537%2Fmets) from the original on 2024-03-06. Retrieved 2024-02-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Nurse, D (1983). "The Proto-Sabaki Verb System and its Subsequent Development". *The Proto-Sabaki Verb System and Its Subsequent Development*. **5**: 45–109. [INIST](/source/Institut_de_l'information_scientifique_et_technique) [6144169](https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=6144169).

### Works cited

- Ahmed-Chamanga, Mohamed (1992). *Lexique Comorien (shindzuani) – Français*. Paris: L'Harmattan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-7384-1663-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7384-1663-6).

- Ahmed-Chamanga, Mohamed (2010). *Introduction à la grammaire structurale du comorien*. Moroni: Komedit. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9782914564748](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782914564748). 2 vols.

- Breslar, Jon (1981). *An Ethnography of the Mahorais (Mayotte, Comoro Islands)* (PhD thesis). University of Pittsburgh.

- Lafon, Michel (1991). *Lexique Français-Comorien (Shingazidja)*. Paris: L'Harmattan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-296-24728-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-296-24728-4).

## Further reading

- Ahmed-Chamanga, Mohamed. (1997) *Dictionnaire français-comorien (dialecte Shindzuani)*. Paris: L'Harmattan.

- Djohar, Abdou. (2014) *Approche contrastive Franco-comorienne: les séquences figées à caractère adjectival*. Université Paris-Nord.

- Johansen, Aimee. *A History of Comorian Linguistics*. in John M. Mugane (ed.), *Linguistic Typology and Representation of African Languages*. Africa World Press. Trenton, New Jersey.

- Rey, Veronique. (1994) *Première approche du mwali*. Africana Linguistica XI. Tervuren: MRAC.

## External links

- [Shingazidja](http://www.chez.com/shingazidja/)

v t e Languages of the Comoros Official languages Comorian French Arabic Non-official languages Bushi Malagasy Maore

v t e Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H) (by Guthrie classification) Zone E [J]E10 [J]E11 Nyoro [J]E12 Tooro [J]E13 Nyankore [J]E14 Ciga [J]E15 Ganda [J]E16 Soga [J]E17 Gwere [J]E18 Nyala [JE101 Gungu JE102 Talinga-Bwisi JE103 Ruli JE121 Hema [J]E20 [J]E21 Nyambo [J]E22 Ziba [J]E23 Dzindza [J]E24 Kerebe [J]E25 Jita [JE221 Rashi JE251 Kwaya JE252 Kara JE253 Ruri [J]E30 [J]E31a Gisu [J]E31b Kisu [J]E31c Bukusu [J]E32a Hanga [J]E32b Tsotso [J]E33 Nyore [J]E34 Saamia [J]E35 Nyuli [JE341 Xaayo JE342 Marachi JE343 Songa [J]E40 [J]E41 Logooli [J]E42 Gusii [J]E43 Koria [J]E44 Zanaki [J]E45 Nata E46 Sonjo [JE401 Nguruimi JE402 Ikizu JE403 Suba/Suba-Simbiti JE404 Shashi JE405 Kabwa JE406 Singa JE407 Ware JE411 Idaxo JE412 Isuxa JE413 Tiriki JE431 Simbiti JE432 Hacha JE433 Surwa JE434 Sweta E50 E51 Kikuyu E52 Embu E53 Meru E54 Saraka E55 Kamba E56 Daiso [E531 Mwimbi-Muthambi E541 Cuka E60 E61[621a] Rwo E62a[621b,622a] Hai E62b[622c] Wunjo E62c[623] Rombo E63 Rusa E64 Kahe E65 Gweno E70 E71 Pokomo E72a Gyriama E72b Kauma E72c Conyi E72d Duruma E72e Rabai E73 Digo E74a Dabida E74b[741] Sagala [E701 Elwana E731 Segeju E732 Degere E74 Taita Zone F F10 F11 Tongwe F12 Bende [J]F20 [J]F21 Sukuma [J]F22 Nyamwezi [J]F23 Sumbwa [J]F24 Kimbu [J]F25 Bungu F30 F31 Nilamba F32 Remi F33 Langi F34 Mbugwe Zone G G10 G11 Gogo G12 Kaguru G20 G21 Tubeta G22 Asu G23 Shambala G24 Bondei [G221 Mbugu G30 G31 Zigula G32 Ngwele G33 Zaramo G34 Ngulu G35 Ruguru G36 Kami G37 Kutu G38 Vidunda G39 Sagala [G301 Doe G311 Mushungulu G40 G41 Tikuu G42a Amu G42b Mvita G42c Mrima G42d Unguja G43a Phemba G43b Tumbatu G43c Hadimu G44a Ngazija G44b Njuani [G402 Makwe G403 Mwani G404 Sidi G411 Socotra Swahili G412 Mwiini G50 G51 Pogolo G52 Ndamba G60 G61 Sango G62 Hehe G63 Bena G64 Pangwa G65 Kinga G66 Wanji G67 Kisi [G651 Magoma Zone H H10 H11 Beembe H12 Vili H13 Kunyi H14 Ndingi H15 Mboka H16a South Kongo H16b Central Kongo H16c Yombe H16d Fiote H16e Bwende H16f Laadi H16g East Kongo H16h Southeast Kongo [H111 Hangala H112 Kamba-Doondo H131 Suundi H20 H21a Kimbundu H21b Mbamba H22 Sama H23 Bolo H24 Songo H30 H31 Yaka H32 Suku H33 [L12b] Hungu H34 Mbangala H35 Sinji [H321 Soonde H40 H41 Mbala H42 Hunganna Italics indicate extinct languages. Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. The Guthrie classification is geographic and its groupings do not imply a relationship between the languages within them. Narrow Bantu languages by Guthrie classification zone templates Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones A–B) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M) Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)

v t e Arabic alphabets † indicates the language is no longer written using Arabic Europe Albanian † Avar † Azerbaijani Belarusian † Chechen † Circassian Adyghe † Kabardian † Crimean Tatar † Dargwa † Greek † Ingush † Karachay-Balkar † Kazakh Kumyk † Lak † Old Spanish † Ottoman Turkish † Serbo-Croatian † Asia Aer Arabic Azerbaijani Balochi Balti Bashkir Bengali † Brahui Buri Wolio Burushaski Chagatay † Cham Jawi Gawri Gujrati Jawi Jawoe Kashmiri Kazakh Kishtwari Khowar Kurdish Kyrgyz Malayalam Ottoman Turkish † Marwari (Rajasthani) Mehri Pamir (Munjani Sarikoli Shughni Wakhi) Palula Parkari Pashto Pegon Persian Punjabi Rohingya Saraiki Sindhi Shina Gilgiti Kohistani Sulat Sug Tamil Tatar (İske imlâ Yaña imlâ) Torwali Turkmen Urdu Ushoji Uyghur Uzbek Xiao'erjing Zaza † Africa Afrikaans † Berber Comorian Fula Ajami Adamawa Bagirmi Nigeria Fuuta Jalon Fuuta Tooro Maasina Kibushi Harari Hausa Ajami Kanembu Maba Serer Ajami Shimaore Songhay Humburi Koyra Chiini Koyraboro Senni Zarma Sorabe Tigre Tuareg Air Tamajeq Tawellemmet Swahili Wadaad † Wolof Yoruba Category

Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Japan Israel Other IdRef Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Comorian languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comorian_languages) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comorian_languages?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.