# Coast

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Area where land meets the sea or ocean

For other uses, see [Coast (disambiguation)](/source/Coast_(disambiguation)). "Shore", "Shoreline", and "Seacoast" redirect here. For other uses, see [Shore (disambiguation)](/source/Shore_(disambiguation)) and [Shoreline (disambiguation)](/source/Shoreline_(disambiguation)). For the specific area, see [Seacoast Region (New Hampshire)](/source/Seacoast_Region_(New_Hampshire)).

[Sunrise](/source/Sunrise) on the [Jersey Shore](/source/Jersey_Shore) coastline at [Spring Lake](/source/Spring_Lake%2C_New_Jersey), [New Jersey](/source/New_Jersey), U.S.

Rugged coastline of the [West Coast Region](/source/West_Coast%2C_New_Zealand) of New Zealand

A **coast** (also called the **coastline**, **shoreline**, or **seashore**) is the [land](/source/Land) next to the [sea](/source/Sea) or the line that forms the boundary between the land and the [ocean](/source/Ocean) or a [lake](/source/Lake).[1][2] Coasts are influenced by the [topography](/source/Topography) of the surrounding landscape and by aquatic [erosion](/source/Erosion), such as that caused by [waves](/source/Wind_wave). The [geological](/source/Geology) composition of [rock](/source/Rock_(geology)) and [soil](/source/Soil) dictates the type of shore that is created. [Earth](/source/Earth) has about 620,000.0 km (385,250.1 mi) of coastline.

Coasts are important zones in natural [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem), often home to a wide range of [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity). On land, they harbor ecosystems, such as [freshwater](/source/Freshwater_marsh) or [estuarine](/source/Estuary) [wetlands](/source/Wetland), that are important for birds and other [terrestrial animals](/source/Terrestrial_animal). In wave-protected areas, coasts harbor [salt marshes](/source/Salt_marsh), [mangroves](/source/Mangrove), and [seagrasses](/source/Seagrass_meadow), all of which can provide [nursery habitat](/source/Nursery_habitat) for fin[fish](/source/Fish), [shellfish](/source/Shellfish), and other [aquatic animals](/source/Aquatic_animal).[3][4] [Rocky shores](/source/Rocky_shore) are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of [sessile animals](/source/Sessility_(motility)) (e.g. [mussels](/source/Mussel), [starfish](/source/Starfish), [barnacles](/source/Barnacle)) and various kinds of [seaweeds](/source/Seaweed).

In [physical oceanography](/source/Physical_oceanography), a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present, and the [beach](/source/Beach) is at the edge of the shore, including the [intertidal zone](/source/Intertidal_zone) where there is one.[5] Along [tropical](/source/Tropics) coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, [coral reefs](/source/Coral_reef) can often be found at depths of 1–50 m (3.3–164.0 ft).

According to an atlas prepared by the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations), about 44% of the [human population](/source/World_population) lives within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea as of 2013[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coast&action=edit).[6] Due to its importance in society and its high population concentrations, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many [ecosystem services](/source/Ecosystem_service) to humankind. For example, important human activities happen in [port](/source/Port) cities. Coastal [fisheries](/source/Fishery) (commercial, recreational, and subsistence) and [aquaculture](/source/Aquaculture) are major economic activities and create jobs, livelihoods, and [protein](/source/Protein) for the majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like [beaches](/source/Beach) and [seaside resorts](/source/Seaside_resort) generate large revenues through [tourism](/source/Tourism).

[Marine coastal ecosystems](/source/Marine_coastal_ecosystem) can also provide protection against [sea level rise](/source/Sea_level_rise) and [tsunamis](/source/Tsunami). In many countries, [mangroves](/source/Mangrove) are the primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. [charcoal](/source/Charcoal)) and building material. Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and [seagrasses](/source/Seagrass) have a much higher capacity for [carbon sequestration](/source/Carbon_sequestration) than many [terrestrial ecosystems](/source/Terrestrial_ecosystem), and as such can play a critical role in the near-future to help [mitigate climate change](/source/Climate_change_mitigation) effects by uptake of [atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide](/source/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere).

However, the economic importance of coasts makes many of these communities [vulnerable to climate change](/source/Effects_of_climate_change), which causes increases in [extreme weather](/source/Extreme_weather) and sea level rise, as well as related issues like [coastal erosion](/source/Coastal_erosion), [saltwater intrusion](/source/Saltwater_intrusion), and [coastal flooding](/source/Coastal_flooding).[7] Other coastal issues, such as [marine pollution](/source/Marine_pollution), [marine debris](/source/Marine_debris), coastal development, and [marine ecosystem](/source/Marine_ecosystem) destruction, further complicate the human uses of the coast and threaten coastal ecosystems.[7]

The interactive effects of climate change, [habitat destruction](/source/Habitat_destruction), [overfishing](/source/Overfishing), and [water pollution](/source/Water_pollution) (especially [eutrophication](/source/Eutrophication)) have led to the demise of coastal ecosystem around the globe. This has resulted in population collapse of fisheries stocks, [loss of biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity_loss), increased [invasion of alien species](/source/Invasive_species), and loss of healthy habitats. International attention to these issues has been captured in [Sustainable Development Goal 14](/source/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14) "Life Below Water", which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving marine coastal ecosystems and supporting more [sustainable economic practices](/source/Sustainable_development) for coastal communities.[8] Likewise, the United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the [UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration](/source/UN_Decade_on_Ecosystem_Restoration), but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention.[9]

Since coasts are constantly changing, a coastline's exact [perimeter](/source/Perimeter) cannot be determined; this measurement challenge is called the [coastline paradox](/source/Coastline_paradox). The term *coastal zone* is used to refer to a region where interactions of sea and land processes occur.[10] Both the terms *coast* and *coastal* are often used to describe a geographic location or region located on a coastline (e.g., New Zealand's [West Coast](/source/West_Coast_Region), or the [East](/source/East_Coast_of_the_United_States), [West](/source/West_Coast_of_the_United_States), and [Gulf Coast](/source/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States) of the [United States](/source/United_States).) Coasts with a narrow continental shelf that are close to the open ocean are called *[pelagic](/source/Pelagic)* *coast*, while other coasts are more sheltered coast in a [gulf](/source/Gulf) or [bay](/source/Bay). A [shore](/source/Shore), on the other hand, may refer to parts of land adjoining any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore).

## Size

[Somalia](/source/Somalia) has the longest coastline in Africa.[11]

The [Earth](/source/Earth) has approximately 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats, which extend to the margins of the [continental shelves](/source/Continental_shelves), make up about 7 percent of the Earth's oceans,[12] but at least 85% of commercially harvested fish depend on coastal environments during at least part of their life cycle.[13] As of October 2010,[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coast&action=edit) about 2.86% of [exclusive economic zones](/source/Exclusive_economic_zones) were part of [marine protected areas](/source/Marine_protected_areas).[14]

The definition of coasts varies. Marine scientists think of the "wet" (aquatic or [intertidal](/source/Intertidal_zone)) vegetated habitats as being [coastal ecosystems](/source/Coastal_ecosystem) (including seagrass, salt marsh etc.) whilst some terrestrial scientists might only think of coastal ecosystems as purely terrestrial plants that live close to the seashore (see also [estuaries and coastal ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem_service#Estuarine_and_coastal_ecosystem_services)).

While there is general agreement in the scientific community regarding the definition of coast, in the political sphere, the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to [jurisdiction](/source/Jurisdiction).[15][16] Government authorities in various countries may define coast differently for economic and social policy reasons.

### Challenges of precisely measuring the coastline

This section is an excerpt from [Coastline paradox](/source/Coastline_paradox).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coastline_paradox&action=edit)]

The [coastline paradox](/source/Coastline_paradox) is the counterintuitive observation that the [coastline](/source/Coastline) of a [landmass](/source/Landmass) does not have a well-defined [length](/source/Length) or [perimeter](/source/Perimeter). This results from the [fractal curve](/source/Fractal_curve)–like properties of coastlines, namely the fact that a coastline typically has a [fractal dimension](/source/Fractal_dimension). Although the "paradox of length" was previously noted by [Hugo Steinhaus](/source/Hugo_Steinhaus),[17] the first systematic study of this phenomenon was by [Lewis Fry Richardson](/source/Lewis_Fry_Richardson),[18][19] and it was expanded upon by [Benoit Mandelbrot](/source/Benoit_Mandelbrot).[20][21]

The measured length of the coastline depends on the method used to measure it and the degree of [cartographic generalization](/source/Cartographic_generalization). Since a landmass has features at all scales, from hundreds of kilometers in size to tiny fractions of a millimeter and below, there is no obvious size of the smallest feature that should be taken into consideration when measuring, and hence no single well-defined perimeter to the landmass. Various approximations, such as the [Minkowski–Bouligand dimension](/source/Minkowski%E2%80%93Bouligand_dimension), exist when specific assumptions are made about minimum feature size.

## Formation

Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area. [Porto Covo](/source/Porto_Covo), west coast of Portugal

Seaside in [Budelli](/source/Budelli), Italy. Budelli beach is famous for the color of its sand, which is pink due to the presence of fragments of a microorganism called *Miniacina miniacea*.[22]

[Tides](/source/Tide) often determine the range over which [sediment](/source/Sediment) is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, [tidal bores](/source/Tidal_bore) can erode as the waves surge up the river [estuaries](/source/Estuary) from the ocean.[23]: 421

Geologists classify coasts on the basis of [tidal range](/source/Tidal_range) into *macrotidal coasts* with a tidal range greater than 4 m (13 ft); *mesotidal coasts* with a tidal range of 2 to 4 m (6.6 to 13 ft); and *microtidal coasts* with a tidal range of less than 2 m (7 ft). The distinction between macrotidal and mesotidal coasts is more important. Macrotidal coasts lack [barrier islands](/source/Barrier_islands) and [lagoons](/source/Lagoons), and are characterized by funnel-shaped estuaries containing sand ridges aligned with tidal currents. Wave action is much more important for determining [bedforms](/source/Bedforms) of sediments deposited along mesotidal and microtidal coasts than in macrotidal coasts.[24]

Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas, the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an [abrasion](/source/Abrasion_coast) or [cliffed coast](/source/Cliffed_coast).

Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located in the case of coastlines that have estuaries.[25] Today, riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland. Coral reefs are a provider of sediment for coastlines of tropical islands.[26]

Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The [Earth](/source/Earth)'s natural processes, particularly [sea level rises](/source/Sea_level_rise), waves and various [weather](/source/Weather) phenomena, have resulted in the [erosion](/source/Erosion), [accretion](/source/Accretion_(geology)) and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of [continental shelves](/source/Continental_shelf) and drowned river valleys ([rias](/source/Ria)).

## Importance for humans and ecosystems

### Human settlements

Further information: [Port](/source/Port), [island nation](/source/Island_nation), [Coastal management](/source/Coastal_management), and [Coastal development hazards](/source/Coastal_development_hazards)

The Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management

More and more of the world's people live in coastal regions.[27] According to a [United Nations](/source/United_Nations) atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea.[6] Many major cities are on or near good [harbors](/source/Harbor) and have [port](/source/Port) facilities. Some [landlocked](/source/Landlocked) places have achieved port status by building [canals](/source/Canal).

Nations defend their coasts against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed [coastal defenses](/source/Coastal_defence_and_fortification) have long been erected in many nations, and coastal countries typically have a [navy](/source/Navy) and some form of [coast guard](/source/Coast_guard).

		- [Paddy fields](/source/Paddy_field) by the coast of [Fengbin, Hualien](/source/Fengbin%2C_Hualien)

		- Coastline of [Barcelona](/source/Barcelona) as viewed from Port Fòrum, with [Montjuïc](/source/Montju%C3%AFc) and [Port Vell](/source/Port_Vell) can also be seen.

#### Tourism

Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists often leading to the development of [seaside resort](/source/Seaside_resort) communities. In many [island nations](/source/Island_nation) such as those of the [Mediterranean](/source/Mediterranean), [South Pacific Ocean](/source/South_Pacific_Ocean) and [Caribbean](/source/Caribbean), [tourism is central to the economy](/source/Tourism). Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and [sunbathing](/source/Sun_tanning).

[Growth management](/source/Growth_management) and [coastal management](/source/Coastal_management) can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents, and poor management practices of construction often leave these communities and infrastructure vulnerable to processes like [coastal erosion](/source/Coastal_erosion) and [sea level rise](/source/Sea_level_rise). In many of these communities, management practices such as [beach nourishment](/source/Beach_nourishment) or when the coastal infrastructure is no longer financially sustainable, [managed retreat](/source/Managed_retreat) to remove communities from the coast.

		- A passenger car ferry arrives at the coast of [Mariehamn](/source/Mariehamn), [Åland](/source/%C3%85land).

		- [Amalfi Coast](/source/Amalfi_Coast), Italy, attracts international tourists of all classes annually[28] and is listed as a [UNESCO](/source/UNESCO) [World Heritage Site](/source/World_Heritage_Site).[29]

### Ecosystem services

See also: [Marine coastal ecosystem](/source/Marine_coastal_ecosystem)

This section is an excerpt from [Ecosystem service § Estuarine and coastal ecosystem services](/source/Ecosystem_service#Estuarine_and_coastal_ecosystem_services).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecosystem_service&action=edit)]

[Estuarine](/source/Estuary) and [marine coastal ecosystems](/source/Marine_coastal_ecosystem) are both [marine ecosystems](/source/Marine_ecosystem). Together, these ecosystems perform the four categories of ecosystem services in a variety of ways: The *provisioning services* include forest products, marine products, [fresh water](/source/Fresh_water), raw materials, biochemical and genetic resources. *Regulating services* include [carbon sequestration](/source/Carbon_sequestration) (contributing to [climate change mitigation](/source/Climate_change_mitigation)) as well as [waste treatment](/source/Waste_treatment) and disease regulation and buffer zones. *Supporting services* of coastal ecosystems include [nutrient cycling](/source/Nutrient_cycle), biologically mediated habitats and [primary production](/source/Primary_production). *Cultural services* of coastal ecosystems include inspirational aspects, [recreation](/source/Recreation) and [tourism](/source/Tourism), science and education.

Coasts and their adjacent areas on and offshore are an important part of a local ecosystem. The mixture of fresh water and [salt water](/source/Seawater) ([brackish water](/source/Brackish_water)) in estuaries provides many nutrients for [marine life](/source/Marine_life). [Salt marshes](/source/Salt_marsh), [mangroves](/source/Mangroves) and [beaches](/source/Beach) also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the [food chain](/source/Food_chain).[30] The high level of [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity) creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years. Coasts also create essential material for organisms to live by, including estuaries, [wetland](/source/Wetland), [seagrass](/source/Seagrass), [coral reefs](/source/Coral_reef), and mangroves. Coasts provide habitats for [migratory birds](/source/Bird_migration), sea turtles, marine mammals, and coral reefs.[31]

## Types

### Emergent coastline

Further information: [Emergent coastline](/source/Emergent_coastline) and [Submergent coastline](/source/Submergent_coastline)

According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline that has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea-level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal [landforms](/source/Landform), which are above the high tide mark, such as [raised beaches](/source/Raised_beach). In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea-level change, local [subsidence](/source/Subsidence), or [isostatic rebound](/source/Isostatic_rebound). Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or "drowned" landforms, such as [rias](/source/Ria) (drowned valleys) and [fjords](/source/Fjord)

### Concordant coastline

Further information: [Concordant coastline](/source/Concordant_coastline) and [Discordant coastline](/source/Discordant_coastline)

According to the second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying [resistance](/source/Geological_resistance), so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are [eroded](/source/Erosion) by the ocean [waves](/source/Wave). The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating [inlets](/source/Inlet) or [bay](/source/Bay); the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as [headlands](/source/Headland) or [outcroppings](/source/Outcrop).

### High and low energy coasts

Parts of a coastline can be categorised as high energy coast or low energy coast. The distinguishing characteristics of a high energy coast are that the average wave energy is relatively high so that erosion of small grained material tends to exceed deposition, and consequently landforms like cliffs, headlands and wave-cut terraces develop.[32] Low energy coasts are generally sheltered from waves, or in regions where the average wind wave and swell conditions are relatively mild. Low energy coasts typically change slowly, and tend to be depositional environments.[33]

High energy coasts are exposed to the direct impact of waves and storms, and are generally erosional environments.[33] High energy storm events can make large changes to a coastline, and can move significant amounts of sediment over a short period, sometimes changing a shoreline configuration.[34]

#### Destructive and constructive waves

Swash is the shoreward flow after the break, backwash is the water flow back down the beach. The relative strength of flow in the swash and backwash determines what size grains are deposited or eroded. This is dependent on how the wave breaks and the slope of the shore.[35] Depending on the form of the breaking wave, its energy can carry granular material up the beach and deposit it, or erode it by carrying more material down the slope than up it. Steep waves that are close together and break with the surf [plunging](/source/Plunging_breaker) down onto the shore slope expend much of their energy lifting the sediment. The weak swash does not carry it far up the slope, and the strong backwash carries it further down the slope, where it either settles in deeper water or is carried along the shore by a longshore current induced by an angled approach of the wave-front to the shore. These waves which erode the beach are called destructive waves.[36] Low waves that are further apart and break by [spilling](/source/Spilling_breaker), expend more of their energy in the swash which carries particles up the beach, leaving less energy for the backwash to transport them downslope, with a net constrictive influence on the beach.[36]

### Rivieras

The [Cinque Terre](/source/Cinque_Terre), along the [Italian Riviera](/source/Italian_Riviera)

*Riviera* is an Italian word for "shoreline",[37][38][39] ultimately derived from Latin *ripa* ("riverbank"). It came to be applied as a proper name to the coast of the [Ligurian Sea](/source/Ligurian_Sea), in the form *riviera ligure*, then shortened to *riviera*. Historically, the Ligurian Riviera extended from Capo Corvo (Punta Bianca) south of [Genoa](/source/Genoa), north and west into what is now [French](/source/France) territory past [Monaco](/source/Monaco) and sometimes as far as [Marseille](/source/Marseille).[37][40][41] Today, this coast is divided into the [Italian Riviera](/source/Italian_Riviera) and the [French Riviera](/source/French_Riviera), although the French use the term "Riviera" to refer to the Italian Riviera and call the French portion the "Côte d'Azur".[38]

As a result of the fame of the Ligurian rivieras, the term came into English to refer to any shoreline, especially one that is sunny, topographically diverse and popular with tourists.[37] Such places using the term include the [Australian Riviera](/source/Australian_Riviera) in [Queensland](/source/Queensland) and the [Turkish Riviera](/source/Turkish_Riviera) along the [Aegean Sea](/source/Aegean_Sea).[38]

### Other coastal categories

- A [cliffed coast](/source/Cliffed_coast) or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as [cliffs](/source/Cliff).

- A [flat coast](/source/Flat_coast) is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.

- A [graded shoreline](/source/Graded_shoreline) is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.

- A [primary coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Primary_coast&action=edit&redlink=1) isone which is mainly undergoing early stage development by major long-term processes such as tectonism and climate change A [secondary coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondary_coast&action=edit&redlink=1) is one where the primary processes have mostly stabilised, and more localised processes have become prominent.[33]

- An [erosional coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erosional_coast&action=edit&redlink=1) is on average undergoing erosion, while a [depositional coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Depositional_coast&action=edit&redlink=1) is accumulating material.[33]

- An [active coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Active_coast&action=edit&redlink=1) is on the edge of a tectonic plate, while a [passive coast](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Passive_coast&action=edit&redlink=1) is usually on a substantial continental shelf or away from a plate edge.[33]

## Landforms

The following articles describe some coastal landforms:

Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a [bay](/source/Bay) would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of [Britain](/source/Great_Britain), be called a [cove](/source/Cove). That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.

- [Barrier island](/source/Barrier_island)

- [Bay](/source/Bay)

- [Cove](/source/Cove)

- [Headland](/source/Headland)

- [Peninsula](/source/Peninsula)

### Cliff erosion

- Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding [cliff](/source/Cliff), or bluff. [Sea cliffs](/source/Cliffed_coast) retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate than a cliff made of bedrock.[25]

- A [natural arch](/source/Natural_arch) is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.

- [Sea caves](/source/Sea_cave) are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.

- A [stack](/source/Stack_(geology)) is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action or an arch collapses leaving an offshore remnant.

- A [stump](/source/Stack_(geology)) is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.

- Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.

- A [wave-cut platform](/source/Wave-cut_platform) forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further offshore.[25][*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*]

### Coastal features formed by sediment

- [Beach](/source/Beach)

- [Beach cusps](/source/Beach_cusps)

- [Cuspate foreland](/source/Cuspate_foreland)

- [Dune system](/source/Dune)

- [Mudflat](/source/Mudflat)

- [Raised beach](/source/Raised_beach)

- [Ria](/source/Ria)

- [Shoal](/source/Shoal)

- [Spit](/source/Spit_(landform))

- [Strand plain](/source/Strand_plain)

- [Surge channel](/source/Surge_channel)

- [Tombolo](/source/Tombolo)

### Coastal features formed by another feature

- [Estuary](/source/Estuary)

- [Lagoon](/source/Lagoon)

- [Salt marsh](/source/Salt_marsh)

- [Mangrove forests](/source/Mangrove)

- [Kelp forests](/source/Kelp_forest)

- [Coral reefs](/source/Coral_reef)

- [Oyster reefs](/source/Oyster_reef)

### Other features on the coast

- [Concordant coastline](/source/Concordant_coastline)

- [Discordant coastline](/source/Discordant_coastline)

- [Fjord](/source/Fjord)

- [Island](/source/Island)

- [Island arc](/source/Island_arc)

- [Machair](/source/Machair)

## Coastal waters

See also: [Eutrophication § Coastal waters](/source/Eutrophication#Coastal_waters)

Overview of different zones of coastal waters: Input, production, transport and storage pathway of carbon in marine waters, including movement across maritime zones of national jurisdiction: [territorial sea](/source/Territorial_waters), [Exclusive Economic Zone](/source/Exclusive_economic_zone) (EEZ), [continental shelf](/source/Continental_shelf), [high seas](/source/High_seas) (international waters), and [deep seabed](/source/Marine_sediment).

"Coastal waters" (or "coastal seas") is a term that carries different meanings depending upon the context, ranging from a geographic reference to the waters within a few kilometers of the coast, to describing the entire [continental shelf](/source/Continental_shelf) that may stretch for more than a hundred kilometers from land.[42] The term is used in a different manner when describing legal and economic boundaries, such as [territorial waters](/source/Territorial_waters)[43] and [international waters](/source/International_waters),[44] or when describing the geography of coastal landforms or the ecological systems operating through the continental shelf ([marine coastal ecosystems](/source/Marine_coastal_ecosystem)).

The dynamic fluid nature of the ocean means that all components of the whole ocean system are ultimately connected, although certain regional classifications are useful and relevant. The waters of the continental shelves represent such a region.[45] The term "coastal waters" has been used in a wide variety of different ways in different contexts. In [European Union](/source/European_Union) environmental management it extends from the coast to just a few nautical miles[46] while in the United States the [US EPA](/source/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency) considers this region to extend much further offshore.[47][48]

"Coastal waters" has specific meanings in the context of commercial [coastal shipping](/source/Maritime_transport), and somewhat different meanings in the context of naval [littoral warfare](/source/Littoral_warfare).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] [Oceanographers](/source/Oceanography) and [marine biologists](/source/Marine_biology) have yet other takes. Coastal waters have a wide range of [marine habitats](/source/Marine_habitats) from enclosed [estuaries](/source/Estuary) to the [open waters](/source/Pelagic_zone) of the continental shelf.

Similarly, the term [littoral zone](/source/Littoral_zone) has no single definition. It is the part of a [sea](/source/Sea), [lake](/source/Lake), or [river](/source/River) that is close to the [shore](/source/Shore).[49] In coastal environments, the littoral zone extends from the [high water mark](/source/High_water_mark), which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently [submerged](/source/Underwater).

Coastal waters can be threatened by [coastal eutrophication](/source/Coastal_eutrophication) and [harmful algal blooms](/source/Harmful_algal_blooms).[50][51][52]

## In geology

The identification of bodies of rock formed from sediments deposited in shoreline and nearshore environments (shoreline and nearshore *[facies](/source/Facies_(geology))*) is extremely important to geologists. These provide vital clues for reconstructing the geography of ancient continents (*[paleogeography](/source/Paleogeography)*). The locations of these beds show the extent of ancient seas at particular points in geological time, and provide clues to the magnitudes of tides in the distant past.[53]

Sediments deposited in the [shoreface](/source/Shoreface) are preserved as lenses of [sandstone](/source/Sandstone) in which the upper part of the sandstone is coarser than the lower part (a *coarsening upwards sequence*). Geologists refer to these are *[parasequences](/source/Parasequence)*. Each records an episode of retreat of the ocean from the shoreline over a period of 10,000 to 1,000,000 years. These often show [laminations](/source/Lamination_(geology)) reflecting various kinds of tidal cycles.[53]

Some of the best-studied shoreline deposits in the world are found along the former western shore of the [Western Interior Seaway](/source/Western_Interior_Seaway), a shallow sea that flooded central North America during the [late Cretaceous](/source/Late_Cretaceous) [Period](/source/Period_(geology)) (about 100 to 66 million years ago). These are beautifully exposed along the [Book Cliffs](/source/Book_Cliffs) of [Utah](/source/Utah) and [Colorado](/source/Colorado).[54]

### Geologic processes

The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:

- [Attrition](/source/Attrition_(weathering))

- [Currents](/source/Ocean_current)

- [Denudation](/source/Denudation)

- [Deposition](/source/Deposition_(geology))

- [Erosion](/source/Erosion)

- [Flooding](/source/Flood)

- [Longshore drift](/source/Longshore_drift)

- [Marine sediments](/source/Marine_sediments)

- [Saltation](/source/Saltation_(geology))

- [Sea level change](/source/Sea_level_change) - [eustatic](/source/Eustatic) - [isostatic](/source/Isostasy)

- [Sedimentation](/source/Sedimentation)

- [Coastal sediment supply](/source/Coastal_sediment_supply) - [sediment transport](/source/Sediment_transport) - [solution](/source/Solution_(chemistry)) - [subaerial](/source/Subaerial) processes - [suspension](/source/Suspension_(chemistry))

- [Tides](/source/Tide)

- [Water waves](/source/Wind_wave) - [diffraction](/source/Diffraction) - [refraction](/source/Refraction) - [wave breaking](/source/Wave_breaking) - [wave shoaling](/source/Wave_shoaling)

- [Weathering](/source/Weathering)

## Wildlife

See also: [Coastal ecology](/source/Coastal_ecology) and [Marine coastal ecosystem](/source/Marine_coastal_ecosystem)

### Animals

See also: [Seashore wildlife](/source/Seashore_wildlife)

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Larger animals that live in coastal areas include [puffins](/source/Puffin), [sea turtles](/source/Sea_turtle) and [rockhopper penguins](/source/Rockhopper_penguin), among many others. [Sea snails](/source/Gastropoda) and various kinds of [barnacles](/source/Barnacle) live on rocky coasts and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Some coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as [dolphins](/source/Dolphin) and [seagulls](/source/Seagulls) who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the [littoral zone](/source/Littoral_zone), there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast, including [sessile](/source/Sessility_(motility)) animals such as [corals](/source/Coral), sponges, starfish, mussels, seaweeds, fishes, and [sea anemones](/source/Sea_anemone).

There are many kinds of [seabirds](/source/Seabird) on various coasts. These include [pelicans](/source/Pelican) and [cormorants](/source/Cormorant), who join up with [terns](/source/Tern) and [oystercatchers](/source/Oystercatcher) to forage for fish and shellfish. There are [sea lions](/source/Sea_lion) on the coast of [Wales](/source/Wales) and other countries.

#### Coastal fish

This section is an excerpt from [Coastal fish](/source/Coastal_fish).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coastal_fish&action=edit)]

Schooling [threadfin](/source/Threadfin), a coastal species

[Coastal fish](/source/Coastal_fish), also called inshore fish or neritic fish, inhabit the sea between the [shoreline](/source/Shoreline) and the edge of the [continental shelf](/source/Continental_shelf). Since the continental shelf is usually less than 200 metres (660 ft) deep, it follows that [pelagic](/source/Pelagic_fish) coastal fish are generally [epipelagic fish](/source/Pelagic_fish#Epipelagic_fish), inhabiting the sunlit [epipelagic zone](/source/Epipelagic_zone).[55] Coastal fish can be contrasted with *oceanic fish* or *offshore fish*, which inhabit the deep seas beyond the continental shelves.

Coastal fish are the most abundant in the world.[56] They can be found in [tidal pools](/source/Tidal_pool), [fjords](/source/Fjord) and [estuaries](/source/Estuaries), near sandy shores and rocky coastlines, around [coral reefs](/source/Coral_reef) and on or above the continental shelf. Coastal fish include [forage fish](/source/Forage_fish) and the [predator fish](/source/Predator_fish) that feed on them. Forage fish thrive in inshore waters where high [productivity](/source/Primary_production) results from [upwelling](/source/Upwelling) and shoreline run off of nutrients. Some are partial residents that spawn in streams, estuaries and bays, but most complete their life cycles in the zone.[56]

### Plants

Many coastal areas are famous for their [kelp](/source/Kelp) beds. Kelp is a fast-growing [seaweed](/source/Seaweed) that can grow up to half a meter a day in ideal conditions. [Mangroves](/source/Mangroves), [seagrasses](/source/Seagrass), macroalgal beds, and [salt marsh](/source/Salt_marsh) are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.[3][4] [Restinga](/source/Restinga) is another type of coastal vegetation.

## Threats

See also: [Coastal development hazards](/source/Coastal_development_hazards) and [marine coastal ecosystem](/source/Marine_coastal_ecosystem)

Coasts also face many [human-induced environmental impacts](/source/Human_impact_on_the_environment) and [coastal development hazards](/source/Coastal_development_hazards). The most important ones are:

- Pollution which can be in the form of [water pollution](/source/Water_pollution), [nutrient pollution](/source/Nutrient_pollution) (leading to [coastal eutrophication](/source/Coastal_eutrophication) and [harmful algal blooms](/source/Harmful_algal_bloom)), [oil spills](/source/Oil_spill) or [marine debris](/source/Marine_debris) that is contaminating coasts with plastic and other trash.

- [Sea level rise](/source/Sea_level_rise), and associated issues like [coastal erosion](/source/Coastal_erosion) and [saltwater intrusion](/source/Saltwater_intrusion).

### Pollution

See also: [Human impact on marine life](/source/Human_impact_on_marine_life)

A settled coastline in [Marblehead, Massachusetts](/source/Marblehead%2C_Massachusetts). Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating. Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.

This stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.

[Dead zones](/source/Dead_zone_(ecology)) occur when phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers cause excessive growth of microorganisms, which depletes oxygen and kills fauna.

The pollution of coastlines is connected to [marine pollution](/source/Marine_pollution) which can occur from a number of sources: [Marine debris](/source/Marine_debris) (garbage and industrial debris); the [transportation of petroleum](/source/Petroleum_transport) in [tankers](/source/Tanker_(ship)), increasing the probability of large [oil spills](/source/Oil_spill); small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush [bilge](/source/Bilge) water into the ocean.

#### Marine pollution

This section is an excerpt from [Marine pollution](/source/Marine_pollution).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_pollution&action=edit)]

Marine [pollution](/source/Pollution) occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as [industrial](/source/Industrial_waste), [agricultural](/source/Agricultural_pollution), and [residential](/source/Municipal_solid_waste) [waste](/source/Waste); [particles](/source/Particle_(ecology)); [noise](/source/Noise); excess [carbon dioxide](/source/Carbon_dioxide); or [invasive organisms](/source/Invasive_organism) enter the [ocean](/source/Ocean) and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although [marine transportation](/source/Marine_Transportation) significantly contributes as well.[57] It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the [environment](/source/Natural_environment), to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.[58] Since most inputs come from land, via [rivers](/source/River), [sewage](/source/Sewage), or the [atmosphere](/source/Atmosphere), it means that [continental shelves](/source/Continental_shelf) are more vulnerable to pollution. [Air pollution](/source/Air_pollution) is also a contributing factor, as it carries iron, carbonic acid, [nitrogen](/source/Nitrogen), silicon, sulfur, [pesticides](/source/Pesticides), and dust particles into the ocean.[59] The pollution often comes from [nonpoint sources](/source/Nonpoint_source_pollution) such as agricultural [runoff](/source/Surface_runoff), wind-blown [debris](/source/Debris), and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.[60] Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, [ship pollution](/source/Environmental_effects_of_shipping), [bilge pollution](/source/Bilge_pollution), [dredging](/source/Dredging) (which can create [dredge plumes](/source/Dredge_plume)), atmospheric pollution and, potentially, [deep sea mining](/source/Deep_sea_mining).

Different types of marine pollution can be grouped as pollution from [marine debris](/source/Marine_debris), [plastic pollution](/source/Plastic_soup), including [microplastics](/source/Microplastics), [ocean acidification](/source/Ocean_acidification), [nutrient pollution](/source/Nutrient_pollution), toxins, and underwater noise. Plastic pollution in the ocean is a type of marine pollution by [plastics](/source/Plastic_pollution), ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to [microplastics](/source/Microplastics) formed from the fragmentation of plastic materials. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Plastic pollution is harmful to [marine life](/source/Marine_life).

#### Marine debris

This section is an excerpt from [Marine debris](/source/Marine_debris).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_debris&action=edit)]

[Marine debris](/source/Marine_debris), also known as marine litter, is human-created solid material that has deliberately or accidentally been released in [seas](/source/Sea) or the [ocean](/source/Ocean). Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of [gyres](/source/Gyre) and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as *beach litter* or tidewrack. Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is called *ocean dumping*. Naturally occurring debris, such as [driftwood](/source/Driftwood) and [drift seeds](/source/Drift_seed), are also present. With the increasing use of [plastic](/source/Plastic), human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do not [biodegrade](/source/Biodegradation) quickly, as would natural or organic materials.[61] The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10%) and majority of large plastic in the oceans is discarded and [lost nets](/source/Ghost_net) from the fishing industry.[62] Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to [fish](/source/Fish), [seabirds](/source/Seabird), [marine reptiles](/source/Marine_reptile), and [marine mammals](/source/Marine_mammal), as well as to boats and coasts.[63]

Dumping, container spillages, litter washed into [storm drains](/source/Storm_drain) and [waterways](/source/Waterway) and wind-blown [landfill](/source/Landfill) waste all contribute to this problem. This increased [water pollution](/source/Water_pollution) has caused serious negative effects such as discarded fishing nets capturing animals, concentration of plastic debris in massive [marine garbage patches](/source/Marine_garbage_patch), and increasing concentrations of contaminants in the [food chain](/source/Food_chain).

#### Microplastics

This section is an excerpt from [Marine plastic pollution § Microplastics](/source/Marine_plastic_pollution#Microplastics).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_plastic_pollution&action=edit)]

A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of [microplastics](/source/Microplastics). Microplastics are beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide,[64] and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants.[65] These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe exfoliates.

Because plastic is so widely used across the planet, microplastics have become widespread in the marine environment. For example, microplastics can be found on sandy beaches[66] and surface waters[67] as well as in the water column and deep sea sediment. Microplastics are also found within the many other types of marine particles such as dead biological material (tissue and shells) and some soil particles (blown in by wind and carried to the ocean by rivers). [Population density](/source/Population_density) and proximity to urban centers have been considered the main factors that influence the abundance of microplastics in the environment.

### Sea level rise due to climate change

This section is an excerpt from [Sea level rise](/source/Sea_level_rise).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit)]

The sea level has been rising since the end of the [Last Glacial Maximum](/source/Last_Glacial_Maximum), which was around 20,000 years ago.[68] Between 1901 and 2018, the average [sea level](/source/Sea_level) rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.[69]: 1216 This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.[69]: 1216 The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.[70] [Climate change](/source/Climate_change) due to human activities is the main cause of this persistent acceleration.[71]: 5, 8 Between 1993 and 2018, melting [ice sheets](/source/Ice_sheets) and [glaciers](/source/Glacier) accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting from [thermal expansion](/source/Thermal_expansion) of [water](/source/Water).[72]: 1576

Sea level rise lags behind changes in the [Earth](/source/Earth)'s temperature by decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened.[73] What happens after that depends on future human [greenhouse gas emissions](/source/Greenhouse_gas_emissions). If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow down between 2050 and 2100. It could then rise by between 30 cm (1 ft) and 1.0 m (3+1⁄3 ft) between the early 2020s and 2100, or by approximately 60 cm (2 ft) to 130 cm (4+1⁄2 ft) from the 19th century to 2100. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by 50 cm (1.6 ft) or even by 1.9 m (6.2 ft) by 2100.[74][71][69]: 1302 In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F).[71]: 21 The expected increase in flood hazard potential is often exceedingly large even for modest sea-level rise scenarios, ranging from 10 to 1000 for rises of 0.5 m or less.[75]

## Global goals

International attention to address the threats of coasts has been captured in [Sustainable Development Goal 14](/source/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14) "Life Below Water" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving [marine coastal ecosystems](/source/Marine_coastal_ecosystem) and supporting more [sustainable economic practices](/source/Sustainable_development) for coastal communities.[8] Likewise, the United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the [UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration](/source/UN_Decade_on_Ecosystem_Restoration), but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention.[9]

## See also

- [Geography portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Geography)
- [Oceans portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Oceans)

- [Bank (geography)](/source/Bank_(geography))

- [Beach cleaning](/source/Beach_cleaning)

- [Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation](/source/Coastal_and_Estuarine_Research_Federation)

- [European Atlas of the Seas](/source/European_Atlas_of_the_Seas)

- [Intertidal zone](/source/Intertidal_zone)

- [Land reclamation](/source/Land_reclamation)

- [List of countries by length of coastline](/source/List_of_countries_by_length_of_coastline)

- [List of U.S. states by coastline](/source/List_of_U.S._states_by_coastline)

- Offshore or [Intertidal zone](/source/Intertidal_zone)

- [Ballantine Scale](/source/Ballantine_Scale)

- [Coastal path](/source/Coastal_path)

- [Shorezone](/source/ShoreZone)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["coast"](https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=coast). *[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language](/source/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language)* (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 2024-07-19.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["coastline"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/coastline). *[Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary](/source/Merriam-Webster)*. Merriam-Webster. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1032680871](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871). Retrieved 2024-07-19.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_3-1) Nagelkerken, Ivan, ed. (2009). [*Ecological Connectivity Among Tropical Coastal Ecosystems*](http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-90-481-2406-0). [Dordrecht](/source/Dordrecht): [Springer Netherlands](/source/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-90-481-2406-0](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-2406-0). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-481-2405-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-2405-3).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:4_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:4_4-1) Nagelkerken, I.; Blaber, S.J.M.; Bouillon, S.; Green, P.; Haywood, M.; Kirton, L.G.; Meynecke, J.-O.; Pawlik, J.; Penrose, H.M.; Sasekumar, A.; Somerfield, P.J. (2008). ["The habitat function of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: A review"](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304377007001830). *[Aquatic Botany](/source/Aquatic_Botany)*. **89** (2): 155–185. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008AqBot..89..155N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AqBot..89..155N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.007](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aquabot.2007.12.007).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_7-1) ["Climate change and the coasts"](https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-5/climate-change-threats-and-natural-hazards/climate-change-and-the-coasts). *[World Ocean Review](/source/World_Ocean_Review)*. Retrieved 2020-12-19.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:17_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:17_8-1) United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_RES_71_313_E.pdf) ([A/RES/71/313](https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_9-1) Waltham, Nathan J.; Elliott, Michael; Lee, Shing Yip; Lovelock, Catherine; Duarte, Carlos M.; Buelow, Christina; Simenstad, Charles; Nagelkerken, Ivan; Claassens, Louw; Wen, Colin K-C; Barletta, Mario (2020). ["UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030—What Chance for Success in Restoring Coastal Ecosystems?"](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2020.00071). *Frontiers in Marine Science*. **7** 71. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020FrMaS...7...71W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020FrMaS...7...71W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fmars.2020.00071](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2020.00071). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2440/123896](https://hdl.handle.net/2440%2F123896). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2296-7745](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-7745).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Nelson, Stephen A. (2007). ["Coastal Zones"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130316085932/http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/coastalzones.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/coastalzones.htm) on 2013-03-16. Retrieved 2008-12-11.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Ocean Habitats"](https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/ocean-habitats.htm). *Oceans, Coasts & Seashores*. National Park Service. 1 December 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2021.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Richardson, L. F. (1961). "The problem of contiguity: An appendix to statistics of deadly quarrels". *General Systems Yearbook*. Vol. 6. pp. 139–187.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Davidson, Jon P. (2002). *Exploring earth: an introduction to physical geology*. Walter E. Reed, Paul M. Davis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-13-018372-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-018372-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [45917172](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45917172).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_25-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:2_25-2) Easterbrook, Don J. (1999). *Surface processes and landforms* (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-13-860958-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-860958-6). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [39890526](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39890526).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-uniq_28-0)** ["Bay of Naples & Amalfi Coast History"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111031120459/http://www.uniquecostiera.com/naplesAmalfiCoastHistory.html). *Unique Costiera*. Archived from [the original](http://www.uniquecostiera.com/naplesAmalfiCoastHistory.html) on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Guisado-Pintado_and_Jackson_2019_34-0)** Guisado-Pintado, E; Jackson, D.W.T. (2019). ["Coastal Impact From High-Energy Events and the Importance of Concurrent Forcing Parameters: The Cases of Storm Ophelia (2017) and Storm Hector (2018) in NW Ireland"](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeart.2019.00190). *Front. Earth Sci*. **7** (190) 190. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2019FrEaS...7..190G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019FrEaS...7..190G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/feart.2019.00190](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeart.2019.00190).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** The more common ones are *puntellare* and *litorale*.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Leeder2011_53-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Leeder2011_53-1) Leeder, M. R. (2011). *Sedimentology and sedimentary basins: from turbulence to tectonics* (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 436–437. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4051-7783-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7783-2).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Karlsson, Therese M.; Kärrman, Anna; Rotander, Anna; Hassellöv, Martin (2020). ["Comparison between manta trawl and in situ pump filtration methods, and guidance for visual identification of microplastics in surface waters"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7028838). *Environmental Science and Pollution Research*. **27** (5): 5559–5571. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020ESPR...27.5559K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ESPR...27.5559K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s11356-019-07274-5](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11356-019-07274-5). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [7028838](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7028838). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [31853844](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31853844).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** Scambos, Ted; Abdalati, Waleed (2022-12-31). ["How fast is sea level rising?"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15230430.2022.2047247). *Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research*. **54** (1): 123–124. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2022AAAR...54..123S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022AAAR...54..123S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/15230430.2022.2047247](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15230430.2022.2047247). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1523-0430](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1523-0430). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [9635006243](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9635006243).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_Fox-Kemper-2021_69-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_Fox-Kemper-2021_69-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_Fox-Kemper-2021_69-2) Fox-Kemper, B.; [Hewitt, Helene T.](/source/Helene_Hewitt); Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S. S.; Edwards, T. L.; Golledge, N. R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R. E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). ["Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change"](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter09.pdf) (PDF). *Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change*. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221024162651/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter09.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-24. Retrieved 2022-10-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_World_Meteorological_Organization-2023_70-0)** ["WMO annual report highlights continuous advance of climate change"](https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/wmo-annual-report-highlights-continuous-advance-of-climate-change). World Meteorological Organization. 21 April 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231217002918/https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/wmo-annual-report-highlights-continuous-advance-of-climate-change) from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2023. Press Release Number: 21042023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_71-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_71-2) IPCC, 2021: [Summary for Policymakers](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205522/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf) 2021-08-11 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). In: [Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change](https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230526182346/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter09.pdf) 2023-05-26 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US, pp. 3−32, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/9781009157896.001](https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009157896.001).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_WCRP_Global_Sea_Level_Budget_Group-2018_72-0)** WCRP Global Sea Level Budget Group (2018). ["Global sea-level budget 1993–present"](https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fessd-10-1551-2018). *Earth System Science Data*. **10** (3): 1551–1590. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2018ESSD...10.1551W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ESSD...10.1551W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5194/essd-10-1551-2018](https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fessd-10-1551-2018). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[20.500.11850/287786](https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F287786). This corresponds to a mean sea-level rise of about 7.5 cm over the whole altimetry period. More importantly, the GMSL curve shows a net acceleration, estimated to be at 0.08mm/yr2.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine-2011_73-0)** National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2011). ["Synopsis"](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/12877/chapter/3). *Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia*. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. p. [5](https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/12877/chapter/3#5). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.17226/12877](https://doi.org/10.17226%2F12877). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-309-15176-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-15176-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230630084322/https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/12877/chapter/3) from the original on 2023-06-30. Retrieved 2022-04-11. Box SYN-1: Sustained warming could lead to severe impacts

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Grandey, Benjamin S.; Dauwels, Justin; Koh, Zhi Yang; Horton, Benjamin P.; Chew, Lock Yue (2024). ["Fusion of Probabilistic Projections of Sea-Level Rise"](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF005295). *Earth's Future*. **12** (12) e2024EF005295. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2024EaFut..1205295G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024EaFut..1205295G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1029/2024EF005295](https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2024EF005295). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10356/181667](https://hdl.handle.net/10356%2F181667). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2328-4277](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2328-4277).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Taherkhani, Mohsen (April 16, 2020). ["Sea-level rise exponentially increases coastal flood frequency"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7162943). *Scientific Reports*. **10** (1) 6466. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020NatSR..10.6466T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..10.6466T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/s41598-020-62188-4](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-62188-4). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [7162943](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7162943). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [32300112](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32300112).

## Further reading

- Scheffers, Anja M.; Scheffers, Sander R.; Kelletat, Dieter H. (2012). *The Coastlines of the World with Google Earth: Understanding our Environment*. New York: Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-007-0737-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-0737-5).

## External links

- [Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution](https://www.whoi.edu/) - organization dedicated to ocean research, exploration, and education

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v t e Coastal geography Landforms Anchialine pool Archipelago Atoll Avulsion Ayre Barrier island Bay Bight Bodden Brackish marsh Cape Channel Cliff Coast Coastal plain Coastal waterfall Continental margin Continental shelf Coral reef Cove Dune cliff-top Estuary Firth Fjard Fjord Freshwater marsh Fundus Gat Geo Gulf Gut Hapua Headland Inlet Intertidal wetland Island Islet Isthmus Liman Lagoon Machair Mudflat Natural arch Peninsula Reef Ria Salt marsh Shoal Skerry Sound Spit Stack Strait Strand plain Submarine canyon Tidal island Tidal marsh Tide pool Tied island Tombolo Waituna Windwatt Beaches Beach cusps Beach evolution Beach ridge Beach wrack Beaches in estuaries and bays Beachrock Coastal morphodynamics Pocket beach Raised beach Recession Shell beach Shingle beach Storm beach Wash margin River mouths Debouch Mouth bar River delta mega regressive Processes Blowhole Cliffed coast Coastal biogeomorphology Coastal erosion Concordant coastline Current Cuspate foreland Discordant coastline Emergent coastline Feeder bluff Flat coast Graded shoreline Ingression coast Large-scale coastal behaviour Longshore drift Marine regression Marine transgression Raised shoreline Rip current Rocky shore Sea cave Sea foam Shoal peresyp Steep coast Submergent coastline Surf break Surf zone Surge channel Swash Undertow Volcanic arc Wave-cut platform Wave shoaling Wind fetch Wind wave Management Accretion Coastal management Integrated coastal zone management Submersion Related Bulkhead line Coastal engineering Grain size boulder clay cobble granule gravel pebble sand shingle silt Intertidal zone Littoral zone Physical oceanography Region of freshwater influence River plume Category

v t e Phytogeography: Vegetation classification Physiognomy Forests, tropical, seasonal tropical, woodlands, arboretum Shrublands, heath, scrubs, thickets, fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland, subshrublands, dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum Herbaceous communities, grasslands, steppes, prairies, velds, herbetum Savannas, parklands Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation (Desert, Barren vegetation) Latitude Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Climatic regime Pluvial, rainy, ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Altitude Montane Polonyna Tundra Submontane Lowland Coastal Leaves Loss of leaves Deciduous, caducifolious Semi-deciduous, semicaducifolious Evergreen, perennifolious Leaf hardness Sclerophyll, stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Leaf form Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Substrate Aquatic Riparian Mangrove Swampy Terrestrial Alpine Arctic See also Biogeographic realms Biomes Floristic kingdoms Plant habits Plant life-forms Vegetation

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