# Clojure

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Dialect of the Lisp programming language on the Java platform

Clojure Paradigm Multi-paradigm: agent-oriented[1] concurrent[2][3] functional[4] logic[5] macro[6] pipeline[7] Family Lisp Designed by Rich Hickey First appeared 2007; 19 years ago (2007) Stable release 1.12.4[8] / 10 December 2025; 6 months ago (2025-12-10) Typing discipline Dynamic, strong Memory management Garbage collection via a host (JVM, CLR, a JavaScript runtime such as V8 in case of ClojureScript or BEAM (see below) Platform Java JavaScript .NET License Eclipse Public Filename extensions .clj .cljs .cljr .cljc .cljd .edn Website clojure.org Dialects ClojureScript, ClojureDart Influenced by C# C++[9] Common Lisp Erlang Haskell[10] Java ML Prolog Racket[11] Ruby[12] Scheme Wolfram Language[13] Influenced Elixir Hy Janet[14] LFE Pixie[15] Rhine[16] Clojure Programming at Wikibooks

**Clojure** ([/ˈkloʊʒər/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English), like *closure*)[17][18] is a [dynamic](/source/Dynamic_programming_language) and [functional](/source/Functional_programming) [dialect](/source/Dialect_(computing)) of the [programming language](/source/Programming_language) [Lisp](/source/Lisp_(programming_language)) on the [Java platform](/source/Java_(software_platform)).[19][20]

Like most other Lisps, Clojure's [syntax](/source/Syntax_(programming_languages)) is built on [S-expressions](/source/S-expression) that are first [parsed](/source/Parsing) into [data structures](/source/Data_structure) by a [Lisp reader](/source/Lisp_reader) before being [compiled](/source/Compiler).[21][17] Clojure's reader supports literal syntax for [maps](/source/Hash_table), sets, and [vectors](/source/Array_(data_structure)) along with lists, and these are compiled to the mentioned structures directly.[21] Clojure treats [code as data](/source/Homoiconicity) and has a [Lisp macro](/source/Lisp_macro) system.[22] Clojure is a [Lisp-1](/source/Lisp-1) and is not intended to be code-compatible with other dialects of Lisp, since it uses its own set of data structures incompatible with other Lisps.[22]

Clojure advocates [immutability](/source/Immutable_object) and [immutable data structures](/source/Persistent_data_structure) and encourages programmers to be explicit about managing identity and its states.[23] This focus on programming with immutable values and explicit progression-of-time constructs is intended to facilitate developing more robust, especially [concurrent](/source/Concurrent_programming), programs that are simple and fast.[24][25][17] While its type system is entirely [dynamic](/source/Type_system), recent efforts have also sought the implementation of a [dependent type system](/source/Dependent_type).[26]

The language was created by [Rich Hickey](/source/Rich_Hickey) in the mid-2000s, originally for the Java platform; the language has since been ported to other platforms, such as the [Common Language Runtime](/source/Common_Language_Runtime) (.NET). Hickey continues to lead development of the language as its [benevolent dictator for life](/source/Benevolent_dictator_for_life).

## History

Rich Hickey, creator of Clojure

[Rich Hickey](/source/Rich_Hickey) is the creator of the Clojure language.[19] Before Clojure, he developed dotLisp, a similar project based on the [.NET](/source/.NET) platform,[27] and three earlier attempts to provide interoperability between Lisp and [Java](/source/Java_(programming_language)): a *Java foreign language interface for [Common Lisp](/source/Common_Lisp)* (jfli),[28] A *Foreign Object Interface for Lisp* (FOIL),[29] and a *Lisp-friendly interface to Java Servlets* (Lisplets).[30]

Hickey started working on Clojure in 2005[31][32] and spent about two and a half years working on Clojure before releasing it publicly in October 2007,[33] much of that time working exclusively on Clojure with no outside funding. Stephanie Hickey, his wife, helped to design the language by a being an active listener and participating in discussions without writing any code[32]. At the end of this time, Hickey sent an email announcing the language to some friends in the Common Lisp community.

Clojure's name, according to Hickey, is a [word play](/source/Word_play) on the programming concept "[closure](/source/Closure_(computer_programming))" incorporating the letters C, L, and J for [C#](/source/C_Sharp_(programming_language)), [Lisp](/source/Lisp_(programming_language)), and [Java](/source/Java_(programming_language)) respectively—three languages which had a major influence on Clojure's design.[18]

## Design

Rich Hickey developed Clojure because he wanted a modern [Lisp](/source/Lisp_(programming_language)) for [functional programming](/source/Functional_programming), symbiotic with the established [Java](/source/Java_(software_platform)) platform, and designed for [concurrency](/source/Concurrency_(computer_science)).[24][25][34][17][32] He has also stressed the importance of simplicity in programming language design and software architecture, advocating for [loose coupling](/source/Loose_coupling), [polymorphism](/source/Polymorphism_(computer_science)) via [protocols and type classes](/source/Type_class) instead of [inheritance](/source/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)), [stateless functions](/source/Pure_function) that are [namespaced](/source/Namespace) instead of [methods](/source/Method_(computer_programming)) or [replacing syntax with data](/source/Data-driven_programming).[35][36][31]

Clojure's approach to [state](/source/State_(computer_science)) is characterized by the concept of identities,[23] which are represented as a series of immutable states over time. Since states are immutable values, any number of workers can operate on them in parallel, and concurrency becomes a question of managing changes from one state to another. For this purpose, Clojure provides several mutable [reference types](/source/Reference_type), each having well-defined semantics for the transition between states.[23]

Clojure runs on the Java platform and as a result, integrates with Java and fully supports calling Java code from Clojure,[37][17] and Clojure code can be called from Java, too.[38] The community uses tools such as Clojure [command-line interface](/source/Command-line_interface) (CLI)[39] or [Leiningen](/source/Leiningen_(software)) for project automation, providing support for [Maven](/source/Apache_Maven) integration. These tools handle project package management and dependencies and are configured using Clojure syntax.

As a Lisp dialect, Clojure supports [functions](/source/Function_(programming)) as [first-class objects](/source/First-class_function), a [read–eval–print loop](/source/Read%E2%80%93eval%E2%80%93print_loop) (REPL), and a macro system.[6] Clojure's [Lisp macro](/source/Lisp_macro) system is very similar to that of [Common Lisp](/source/Common_Lisp) with the exception that Clojure's version of the [backquote](/source/Backtick) (termed "syntax quote") qualifies symbols with their [namespace](/source/Namespace). This helps prevent unintended name capture, as binding to namespace-qualified names is forbidden. It is possible to force a capturing macro expansion, but it must be done explicitly. Clojure does not allow user-defined reader macros, but the reader supports a more constrained form of syntactic extension.[40] Clojure supports [multimethods](/source/Multiple_dispatch)[41] and for [interface](/source/Software_Interface)-like abstractions has a [protocol](/source/Protocol_(object-oriented_programming))[42] based polymorphism and data type system using [records](/source/Record_(computer_science)),[43] providing high-performance and dynamic polymorphism designed to avoid the [expression problem](/source/Expression_problem).

Clojure has support for [lazy sequences](/source/Lazy_evaluation) and encourages the principle of [immutability](/source/Immutable_object) and [persistent data structures](/source/Persistent_data_structure). As a [functional language](/source/Functional_programming), emphasis is placed on [recursion](/source/Recursion) and [higher-order functions](/source/Higher-order_function) instead of side-effect-based looping. Automatic [tail call](/source/Tail_call) optimization is not supported as the JVM does not support it natively;[44][45][46] it is possible to do so explicitly by using the recur keyword.[47] For [parallel](/source/Parallel_computing) and [concurrent](/source/Concurrent_computing) programming Clojure provides [software transactional memory](/source/Software_transactional_memory),[48] a reactive [agent system](/source/Agent-based_model),[1] and [channel](/source/Communicating_sequential_processes)-based concurrent programming.[49]

Clojure 1.7 introduced reader conditionals by allowing the embedding of Clojure, ClojureScript and ClojureCLR code in the same namespace.[50][21] Transducers were added as a method for composing transformations. Transducers enable higher-order functions such as [map](/source/Map_(higher-order_function)) and [fold](/source/Fold_(higher-order_function)) to generalize over any source of input data. While traditionally these functions operate on [sequences](/source/List_(abstract_data_type)), transducers allow them to work on channels and let the user define their own models for transduction.[51][52][53]

## Extensible Data Notation

**Extensible Data Notation**, or **edn**,[54] is a subset of the Clojure language intended as a data transfer format. It can be used to serialize and deserialize Clojure data structures, and Clojure itself uses a superset of edn to represent programs.

edn is used in a similar way to [JSON](/source/JSON) or [XML](/source/XML), but has a relatively large list of built-in elements, shown here with examples:

- booleans: true, false

- strings: "foo bar"

- characters: \c, \tab

- symbols: name

- keywords: :key

- integers: 123

- floating point numbers: 3.14

- lists: (a b 42)

- vectors: [a b 42]

- maps: {:a 1, "foo" :bar, [1 2 3] four}

- sets: #{a b [1 2 3]}

- nil: nil (a [null-like](/source/Nullable_type) value)

In addition to those elements, it supports extensibility through the use of *tags*, which consist of the character # followed by a symbol. When encountering a tag, the reader passes the value of the next element to the corresponding handler, which returns a data value. For example, this could be a tagged element: #myapp/Person {:first "Fred" :last "Mertz"}, whose interpretation will depend on the appropriate handler of the reader.

This definition of extension elements in terms of the others avoids relying on either convention or context to convey elements not included in the base set.

## Alternative platforms

The primary platform of Clojure is [Java](/source/Java_(software_platform)),[20][37] but other target implementations exist. The most notable of these is ClojureScript,[55] which compiles to [ECMAScript](/source/ECMAScript) 3[56] (or newer ES5 or ES5-strict, up to ES-2021, and ES-next possible)[57] and ClojureCLR,[58] a full port on the [.NET](/source/.NET) platform, interoperable with its ecosystem.

Other implementations of Clojure on different platforms include:

- Babashka,[59] Native Clojure scripting language leveraging [GraalVM](/source/GraalVM) native image and Small Clojure Interpreter

- ClojureDart,[60] Extend Clojure's reach to mobile & desktop apps by porting Clojure to Dart and Flutter

- Clojerl,[61] Clojure on [BEAM](/source/BEAM_(Erlang_virtual_machine)), the [Erlang](/source/Erlang_(programming_language)) [virtual machine](/source/Virtual_machine)

- basilisp,[62] A Clojure-compatible(-ish) Lisp dialect targeting Python 3.8+

- ClojureRS,[63] Clojure on [Rust](/source/Rust_(programming_language))

- Ferret,[64] compiles to self-contained C++11 that can run on microcontrollers

- jank,[65] Native Clojure hosted in C++ on an LLVM-based JIT

- Joker,[66] an interpreter and [linter](/source/Lint_(software)) written in [Go](/source/Go_(programming_language))

## Tools

Tooling for Clojure development has seen significant improvement over the years. The following is a list of some popular [IDEs](/source/Integrated_development_environment) and [text editors](/source/Text_editor) with plug-ins that add support for programming in Clojure:[67]

- [Emacs](/source/Emacs), with CIDER[68]

- [IntelliJ IDEA](/source/IntelliJ_IDEA), with Cursive[69] (a free license is available for [non-commercial](/source/Non-commercial) use)

- [Sublime Text](/source/Sublime_Text), with Clojure Sublimed,[70] or Tutkain,[71]

- [Vim](/source/Vim_(text_editor)), with fireplace.vim,[72][73] vim-elin,[74] or Conjure (Neovim only)[75][76]

- [Visual Studio Code](/source/Visual_Studio_Code), with Calva[77]

- IDE-agnostic: clojure-lsp[78] as a [Language Server](/source/Language_Server_Protocol); clj-kondo[79] as a [linter](/source/Lint_(software)) (also used by clojure-lsp)

In addition to the tools provided by the community, the official Clojure [command-line interface](/source/Command-line_interface) (CLI) tools[39] have also become available on [Linux](/source/Linux), [macOS](/source/MacOS), and [Windows](/source/Windows) since Clojure 1.9.[80]

## Development

The development process is restricted to the Clojure core team, though issues are publicly visible at the Clojure [JIRA](/source/Jira_(software)) project page.[81] Anyone can ask questions or submit issues and ideas at ask.clojure.org.[82] If it's determined that a new issue warrants a JIRA ticket, a core team member will triage it and add it. JIRA issues are processed by a team of screeners and finally approved by Rich Hickey.[83][84]

## Impact

With continued interest in functional programming, Clojure's adoption by software developers using the Java platform has continued to increase.[85] The language has also been recommended by software developers such as Brian Goetz,[86][87][88] Eric Evans,[89][90] [James Gosling](/source/James_Gosling),[91] [Paul Graham](/source/Paul_Graham_(programmer)),[92] and [Robert C. Martin](/source/Robert_C._Martin).[93][94][95][96] [ThoughtWorks](/source/ThoughtWorks), while assessing functional programming languages for their Technology Radar,[97] described Clojure as "a simple, elegant implementation of Lisp on the JVM" in 2010 and promoted its status to "ADOPT" in 2012.[98]

In the "JVM Ecosystem Report 2018" (which was claimed to be "the largest survey ever of Java developers"), that was prepared in collaboration by Snyk and Java Magazine, ranked Clojure as the 2nd most used programming language on the JVM for "main applications".[99] Clojure is used in industry by firms[100] such as [Apple](/source/Apple_Inc.),[101][102] [Atlassian](/source/Atlassian),[103] [Funding Circle](/source/Funding_Circle),[104] [Netflix](/source/Netflix),[105] [Nubank](/source/Nubank),[106] [Puppet](/source/Puppet_(company)),[107] and [Walmart](/source/Walmart)[108] as well as government agencies such as [NASA](/source/NASA).[109] It has also been used for creative computing, including visual art, music, games, and poetry.[110]

In the 2023 edition of [Stack Overflow](/source/Stack_Overflow) Developer Survey, Clojure was the fourth most *admired* in the category of programming and scripting languages, with 68.51% of the respondents who have worked with it last year saying they would like to continue using it. In the *desired* category, however it was marked as such by only 2.2% of the surveyed, whereas the highest scoring [JavaScript](/source/JavaScript) was *desired* by 40.15% of the developers participating in the survey.[111]

## Release history

Version Release date Major features, improvements October 17, 2007 (2007-10-17)[33] Initial public release 1.0 May 4, 2009 (2009-05-04)[112] First stable release 1.1 December 31, 2009 (2009-12-31)[113] Futures 1.2 August 19, 2010 (2010-08-19)[114] Protocols 1.3 September 23, 2011 (2011-09-23)[115] Enhanced primitive support 1.4 April 15, 2012 (2012-04-15)[116] Reader literals 1.5 March 1, 2013 (2013-03-01)[117] Reducers 1.5.1 March 10, 2013 (2013-03-10)[118] Fixing a memory leak 1.6 March 25, 2014 (2014-03-25)[119] Java API, improved hashing algorithms 1.7 June 30, 2015 (2015-06-30)[50] Transducers, reader conditionals 1.8 January 19, 2016 (2016-01-19)[120] Additional string functions, direct linking, socket server 1.9 December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)[121] Integration with spec, command-line tools 1.10 December 17, 2018 (2018-12-17)[122] Improved error reporting, Java compatibility 1.10.1 June 6, 2019 (2019-06-06)[123] Working around a Java performance regression and improving error reporting from clojure.main 1.10.2 January 26, 2021 (2021-01-26)[124] Java interoperability/compatibility improvements and other important language fixes 1.10.3 March 4, 2021 (2021-03-04)[125] prepl support for reader conditionals 1.11.0 March 22, 2022 (2022-03-22)[126] New syntax for keyword argument invocation, new clojure.math namespace, namespace aliasing without loading, and new helper functions added to clojure.core 1.11.1 April 5, 2022 (2022-04-05)[127] Rolling back unintended change in binary serialisation of objects of types clojure.lang.Keyword and clojure.lang.ArraySeq. 1.11.2 March 8, 2024 (2024-03-08)[128] Fix for CVE-2024-22871 Denial of Service 1.12.0 September 5, 2024 (2024-09-05)[129] Java method values, params type hints, array class syntax, add-lib, clojure.java.process 1.12.1 June 2, 2025 (2025-06-02)[130] Includes bug fixes, improved interop, enhanced tool support, and metadata updates. 1.12.2 August 25, 2025 (2025-08-25)[131] Fixes for CLJ-2914, CLJ-1798, CLJ-2916 and CLJ-2917. 1.12.3 August 25, 2025 (2025-08-25)[132] Fix for CLJ-2919. Latest version: 1.12.4 December 10, 2025 (2025-12-10)[8] Fix for CLJ-2924. Legend: Unsupported Supported Latest version Preview version Future version

## See also

- [Free and open-source software portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software)
- [Computer programming portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Computer_programming)

- [List of JVM languages](/source/List_of_JVM_languages)

- [List of CLI languages](/source/List_of_CLI_languages)

- [Comparison of programming languages](/source/Comparison_of_programming_languages)

## References

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-about/state_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-about/state_23-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-about/state_23-2) ["Values and Change: Clojure's approach to Identity and State"](https://clojure.org/about/state). *Clojure.org*. Retrieved 2019-07-07.

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## Further reading

- Sotnikov, Dmitri (2020). [*Web Development with Clojure*](https://pragprog.com/titles/dswdcloj3/) (3rd ed.). [Pragmatic Bookshelf](/source/Pragmatic_Bookshelf). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-68050-682-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68050-682-2).

- Olsen, Russ (2018). [*Getting Clojure*](https://pragprog.com/titles/roclojure/). [Pragmatic Bookshelf](/source/Pragmatic_Bookshelf). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-68050-300-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68050-300-5).

- Miller, Alex; Halloway, Stuart; Bedra, Aaron (2018). [*Programming Clojure*](https://pragprog.com/titles/shcloj3/) (3rd ed.). [Pragmatic Bookshelf](/source/Pragmatic_Bookshelf). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-68050-246-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68050-246-6).

- Meier, Carin (2015). [*Living Clojure: An introduction and training plan for developers*](https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/living-clojure/9781491909270/) (1st ed.). [O'Reilly Media](/source/O'Reilly_Media). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-491-90904-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-491-90904-1).

- Rathore, Amit; Avila, Francis (2015). *Clojure in Action* (2nd ed.). [Manning Publications](/source/Manning_Publications). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-61729-152-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61729-152-4).

- Higginbotham, Daniel (2015). [*Clojure for the Brave and True*](https://www.braveclojure.com/clojure-for-the-brave-and-true/). [No Starch Press](/source/No_Starch_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59327-591-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59327-591-4).

- Gamble, Julian (2015). [*Clojure Recipes*](http://www.informit.com/store/clojure-recipes-9780321927736). [Pearson Publishing](/source/Pearson_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-32192-773-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-32192-773-6).

- Vandgrift, Ben; Miller, Alex (2015). [*Clojure Applied*](https://pragprog.com/titles/vmclojeco/). [Pragmatic Bookshelf](/source/Pragmatic_Bookshelf). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-68050-074-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68050-074-5).

- Rochester, Eric (2015). [*Clojure Data Analysis Cookbook*](https://www.packtpub.com/application-development/clojure-data-analysis-cookbook-second-edition) (2nd ed.). [Packt Publishing](/source/Packt_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78439-029-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78439-029-7).

- Fogus, Michael; Houser, Chris (2014). [*The Joy of Clojure*](https://web.archive.org/web/20181023083354/http://www.joyofclojure.com/) (2nd ed.). [Manning Publications](/source/Manning_Publications). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-617291-41-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-617291-41-8). Archived from [the original](http://www.joyofclojure.com/) on 2018-10-23. Retrieved 2018-11-05.

- Kelker, Ryan (2013). [*Clojure for Domain-specific Languages*](https://www.packtpub.com/application-development/clojure-domain-specific-languages). [Packt Publishing](/source/Packt_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78216-650-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78216-650-4).

- Rochester, Eric (2014). [*Mastering Clojure Data Analysis*](https://www.packtpub.com/big-data-and-business-intelligence/mastering-clojure-data-analysis). [Packt Publishing](/source/Packt_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78328-413-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78328-413-9).

- Emerick, Chas; Carper, Brian; Grand, Christophe (April 19, 2012). [*Clojure Programming*](http://www.clojurebook.com/). [O'Reilly Media](/source/O'Reilly_Media). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4493-9470-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4493-9470-7).

- VanderHart, Luke; Sierra, Stuart (June 7, 2010). [*Practical Clojure*](https://www.apress.com/us/book/9781430272311). [Apress](/source/Apress). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4302-7231-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4302-7231-1).

## External links

- [Official website](https://clojure.org/)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Clojure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clojure) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clojure?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.