# Christianity in Asia

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Christianity spread from West Asia to China between the 1st to the 14th century AD, and further to East Asia from the 16th century with the European [Age of Discovery](/source/Age_of_Discovery)

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**Christianity in Asia** has its roots in the very inception of [Christianity](/source/Christianity), which originated from the life and teachings of [Jesus](/source/Jesus) in 1st-century [Roman Judea](/source/Judea_(Roman_province)). Christianity then spread through the missionary work of his [apostles](/source/Twelve_Apostles), first in the [Levant](/source/Levant) and taking roots in the major cities such as [Jerusalem](/source/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Jerusalem) and [Antioch](/source/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Antioch). According to tradition, further eastward expansion occurred via the preaching of [Thomas the Apostle](/source/Thomas_the_Apostle), who established Christianity in the [Parthian Empire](/source/Parthian_Empire) (Iran) and [India](/source/Saint_Thomas_Christians). The very [First Ecumenical Council](/source/First_Ecumenical_Council) was held in the city of [Nicaea](/source/Nicaea) in [Asia Minor](/source/Asia_Minor) (325). The first nations to adopt Christianity as a state religion were [Armenia](/source/Armenia) in 301 and [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)) in 327. By the 4th century, Christianity became the dominant religion in all Asian provinces of the [Eastern Roman Empire](/source/Eastern_Roman_Empire).

After the [First Council of Ephesus](/source/First_Council_of_Ephesus) in 431 and the [Nestorian Schism](/source/Nestorian_Schism), the [Nestorian Christianity](/source/Church_of_the_East) developed. [Nestorians](/source/Nestorian_Church) began converting Mongols around the 7th century, and Nestorian Christianity was probably introduced into China during the [Tang dynasty](/source/Tang_dynasty) (618–907). Mongols tended to be tolerant of multiple religions, with several Mongol tribes being primarily Christian, and under the leadership of [Genghis Khan](/source/Genghis_Khan)'s grandson, the great khan [Möngke](/source/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan), Christianity was a small religious influence of the [Mongol Empire](/source/Mongol_Empire) in the 13th century.

The [Fourth Ecumenical Council](/source/Fourth_Ecumenical_Council) was held in Asian city of [Chalcedon](/source/Chalcedon) (451). Christological controversies and disputes that surrounded the Council and its aftermath gradually resulted in division between pro-Chalcedonian ([Eastern Orthodox](/source/Eastern_Orthodox)) and anti-Chalcedonian ([Oriental Orthodox](/source/Oriental_Orthodox)) Christianity.[1]

At the late 12th and 13th centuries, there was some effort to reunite Eastern and Western Christianity. There were also numerous missionary efforts from Europe to Asia, primarily by [Franciscan](/source/Franciscans), [Dominican](/source/Dominican_Order), or [Jesuit](/source/Jesuits) missionaries. In the 16th century, Spain began to convert [Filipinos](/source/Filipinos). In the 18th century, Catholicism developed more or less independently in [Korea](/source/Korea).

At present, Christianity continues to be the majority religion in the [Philippines](/source/Philippines), [East Timor](/source/Timor-Leste), [Armenia](/source/Armenia), [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)), [Cyprus](/source/Cyprus) and [Russia](/source/Russia). It has significant minority populations in [South Korea](/source/South_Korea), [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan), [China](/source/China), [India](/source/India), [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan), [Iran](/source/Iran), [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia), [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam), [Singapore](/source/Singapore), [Hong Kong](/source/Hong_Kong), [Japan](/source/Japan), [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia), [Kazakhstan](/source/Kazakhstan), [Kyrgyzstan](/source/Kyrgyzstan), [Israel](/source/Israel), [Palestine](/source/Palestine) (including the [West Bank](/source/West_Bank) and the [Gaza Strip](/source/Gaza_Strip)), [Lebanon](/source/Lebanon), [Syria](/source/Syria), [Iraq](/source/Iraq), [Jordan](/source/Jordan), and several other countries in Asia with a total Christian population of more than 295 million.[2]

Although [Eastern Christianity](/source/Eastern_Christianity) is commonly practiced in Asia, [Roman Catholicism](/source/Roman_Catholicism) also features prominently, with the Philippines having [the world's third-largest Roman Catholic population](/source/Catholic_Church_by_country).

## Early spread in Asia

Spread of Christianity to Asia, 1st century.

As of 2021, there are nearly 383 million Christians in Asia.[3]

### West Asia

See also: [Seven churches of Asia](/source/Seven_churches_of_Asia)

#### Levant

A 6th-century [Nestorian church](/source/Nestorian_church), St. John the Arab, in the [Assyrian](/source/Assyrian_people) village of [Geramon](/source/Andac).

Christianity spread through the [Levant](/source/Levant) (Eastern Mediterranean) from the 1st century AD. One of the key centers of Christianity became the city of [Antioch](/source/Antioch), previous capital of the [Hellenistic](/source/Hellenistic) [Seleucid Empire](/source/Seleucid_Empire), located in today what is modern Turkey. Antioch was evangelized perhaps by [Peter the Apostle](/source/Peter_the_Apostle), according to the tradition upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy,[4] and certainly by [Barnabas](/source/Barnabas) and [Paul](/source/Paul_of_Tarsus). Its converts were the first to be called *Christians*.[5] They multiplied rapidly, and by the time of [Theodosius](/source/Theodosius_I) (347–395) were reckoned by [Chrysostom](/source/Chrysostom) (347–407), Archbishop of Constantinople, at about 100,000 people. Between 252 and 300, ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch and it became the seat of one of the original [five patriarchates](/source/Pentarchy_(Christianity)), along with [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem), [Alexandria](/source/Alexandria), [Constantinople](/source/Constantinople), and Rome.

#### Caucasus

[Saint Nino](/source/Saint_Nino) (290–338) is credited with establishing Christianity as a state religion in [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)).

[Armenia](/source/Armenia) and [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)) were the first nations to adopt Christianity as a state religion, in 301 and 326 respectively.

Christianity had been preached in Armenia by two of Jesus' twelve [apostles](/source/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament) — [Thaddaeus](/source/Jude_the_Apostle) and [Bartholomew](/source/Bartholomew_the_Apostle) — between 40–60 AD. Because of these two founding apostles, the [Armenian Apostolic Church](/source/Armenian_Apostolic_Church) is considered to be the world's oldest national church. In Georgia, Christianity was first preached by the apostles [Simon](/source/Simon_the_Zealot) and [Andrew](/source/Saint_Andrew) in the first century. It became the state religion of [Kartli, Iberia](/source/Kartli%2C_Iberia) (the area of Georgia's capital) in 326. The conversion of Georgia to Christianity is credited to the efforts of [Saint Nino](/source/Saint_Nino) of [Cappadocia](/source/Cappadocia) (290–338).[6]

#### Parthian Empire

Main article: [Christianity in Iran](/source/Christianity_in_Iran)

Christianity further spread eastward under the [Parthian Empire](/source/Parthian_Empire), which displayed a high tolerance of religious matters.[7] According to tradition, Christian [proselytism](/source/Proselytism) in Central Asia, starting with [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia) and the Iranian plateau, was put under the responsibility of Saint [Thomas the Apostle](/source/Thomas_(apostle)), and started in the first century AD.[8] Saint Thomas is also credited with the establishment of [Christianity in India](/source/Christianity_in_India). The Christians of [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia) and [Iran](/source/Iran) were organized under several bishops, and were present at the [First Council of Nicaea](/source/First_Council_of_Nicaea) in 325 AD.[8]

### Expansion to Central Asia

The spread of Christianity in Central Asia seems to have been facilitated by the great diffusion of Greek in the region ([Seleucid Empire](/source/Seleucid_Empire), [Greco-Bactrian Kingdom](/source/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom), [Indo-Greek Kingdom](/source/Indo-Greek_Kingdom)), as well as [Aramaic](/source/Aramaic), the language of Jesus Christ. The spread of the Jews in Asia since the deportation from Babylon and the capture of [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem) by [Titus](/source/Titus) also seems to have been a contributing factor.[8]

The earliest known references to Christian communities in Central Asia is from a writing by [Bar Daisan](/source/Bar_Daisan) around 196 AD: "Nor do our sisters among the [Gilanians](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gilanians&action=edit&redlink=1) and [Bactrians](/source/Bactrians) have any intercourse with strangers".[9]

The [Sasanians](/source/Sasanians) also proved rather tolerant of the Christian faith until the persecution by the [Zoroastrian](/source/Zoroastrian) priest [Kartir](/source/Kartir) under [Bahram II](/source/Bahram_II) (276–93 AD). Further persecutions seem to have taken place under [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II) (310–379) and [Yazdegerd II](/source/Yazdegerd_II) (438–457), with events in 338 having brought significant damage to the faith.[8]

### India (1st century AD)

Main articles: [Christianity in India](/source/Christianity_in_India), [Christianity in Pakistan](/source/Christianity_in_Pakistan), and [Saint Thomas Christians](/source/Saint_Thomas_Christians)

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According to tradition, the [Indo-Parthian](/source/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom) king Gondophares was proselytized by [St Thomas](/source/Thomas_(apostle)), who continued on to southern India, and possibly as far as Malaysia or China.

According to [Eusebius' record](/source/Church_History_(Eusebius)), the apostles [Thomas](/source/Thomas_the_Apostle) and [Bartholomew](/source/Bartholomew_the_Apostle) were assigned to [Parthia](/source/Parthia) (modern Iran) and India.[10][11] By the time of the establishment of the Second Persian Empire (AD 226), there were bishops of the Church of the East in northwest India, Afghanistan and [Baluchistan](/source/Balochistan_(region)) (including parts of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan), with laymen and clergy alike engaging in missionary activity.[10]

An early third-century Syriac work known as the *[Acts of Thomas](/source/Acts_of_Thomas)*[10] connects the apostle's Indian ministry with two kings, one in the north and the other in the south. According to the *Acts*, Thomas was at first reluctant to accept this mission, but the Lord appeared to him in a night vision and compelled him to accompany an Indian merchant, Abbanes (or Habban), to his native place in northwest India. There, Thomas found himself in the service of the [Indo-Parthian](/source/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom) king, Gondophares. The Apostle's ministry resulted in many conversions throughout the kingdom, including the king and his brother.[10]

Thomas thereafter went south to [Kerala](/source/Kerala) and baptized the natives, whose descendants form the [Saint Thomas Christians](/source/Saint_Thomas_Christians) or the [Syrian Malabar Nasranis](/source/Syrian_Malabar_Nasrani).[12]

Piecing together the various traditions, the story suggests that Thomas left northwest India when invasion threatened, and traveled by vessel to the [Malabar Coast](/source/Malabar_Coast) along the southwestern coast of the Indian continent, possibly visiting southeast [Arabia](/source/Arabia) and [Socotra](/source/Socotra) en route, and landing at the former flourishing port of [Muziris](/source/Muziris) on an island near [Cochin](/source/Cochin) in 52. From there he preached the gospel throughout the Malabar Coast. The various Churches he founded were located mainly on the [Periyar River](/source/Periyar_River) and its tributaries and along the coast. He preached to all classes of people and had about 170 converts, including members of the four principal castes. Later, stone crosses were erected at the places where churches were founded, and they became pilgrimage centres. In accordance with apostolic custom, Thomas ordained teachers and leaders or elders, who were reported to be the earliest ministry of the Malabar church.

Thomas next proceeded overland to the [Coromandel Coast](/source/Coromandel_Coast) in southeastern India, and ministered in what is now the [Madras](/source/Madras) area, where a local King and many people were converted. One tradition related that he went from there to China via [Malacca](/source/Malacca) in Malaysia, and after spending some time there, returned to the Madras area.[13] Apparently his renewed ministry outraged the [Brahmins](/source/Brahmins), who were fearful lest Christianity undermine their social caste system. So according to the Syriac version of the *Acts of Thomas*, Mazdai, the local king at [Mylapore](/source/Mylapore), after questioning the Apostle condemned him to death about the year AD 72. Anxious to avoid popular excitement, the King ordered Thomas conducted to a nearby mountain, where, after being allowed to pray, he was then stoned and stabbed to death with a lance wielded by an angry Brahmin.[10][12]

## Sri Lanka

Main article: [Christianity in Sri Lanka](/source/Christianity_in_Sri_Lanka)

Christianity was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 1st century (72 AD). Possibly after the apostle [Thomas'](/source/Thomas_the_Apostle) visit to India.[14] The [Anuradhapura cross](/source/Anuradhapura_cross) is an ancient recorded symbol of Christianity in the island.[15] [Oriental Orthodoxy](/source/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches) was the majority branch of Christianity before the arrival of the Portuguese. Catholicism was introduced by the [Portuguese](/source/Portuguese_Empire) invasion of Ceylon in the 16th century. With the [Dutch](/source/Dutch_Empire) colonial period seeing a percentage of church members in excess of 10–20%.[16]

## Expansion of Nestorian Christianity (431–1360 AD)

Main article: [Nestorianism](/source/Nestorianism)

In 410, the [Sasanian](/source/Sasanian_Empire) emperor summoned the Persian church leaders to the [Synod of Seleucia](/source/Synod_of_Seleucia). His purpose was to make the [Catholicos](/source/Catholicos) of [Seleucia-Ctesiphon](/source/Seleucia-Ctesiphon) the minority leader of the Christians and personally responsible for their good conduct throughout the empire. The synod accepted the emperor's wish.

In 424, the bishops of Persia met in council under the leadership of Catholicos [Dadiso](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dadiso&action=edit&redlink=1) and determined that there would be no reference of their disciplinary or theological problems to any other power, especially not to any church council in the Roman Empire. The formal separation from the [See of Antioch](/source/Patriarch_of_Antioch) and the western Syrian Church under the Roman (Byzantine) Emperors, occurred at this synod in 424.

### Nestorianism

The eastern development of Christianity continued to separate from the west, pushed along by such events as 431's [Council of Ephesus](/source/First_Council_of_Ephesus), in which the Syrian bishop [Nestorius](/source/Nestorius), [Patriarch of Constantinople](/source/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople) since 428, was accused of [heresy](/source/Heresy) for preaching his brand of Christianity, labelled [Nestorianism](/source/Nestorianism) after him. He and his followers were banished from the Byzantine Empire, and other religious and political institutions gave him sanctuary. Eastern Christianity seceded to form the [Church of the East](/source/Church_of_the_East), though some historians refer to it with the catchall term [Nestorian Church](/source/Nestorian_Church) despite the fact that many eastern Christians were not following the doctrine preached by Nestorius.

### Expansion to Sogdiana and eastern Central Asia

Proselytism, combined with sporadic [Sassanian](/source/Sassanian) persecutions and the exiling of Christian communities in their own area, caused the spread of Christianity to the east.

The [Edict of Milan](/source/Edict_of_Milan) in 313, granted Christianity toleration by the [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire). After Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity, the indigenous Christians of Persia were considered a political threat to the Sassanians. They exiled Christian communities to the east, such as a community of Orthodox [Melkites](/source/Melkites) who were installed in Romagyri near [Tashkent](/source/Tashkent), or a community of [Jacobites](/source/Jacob_Baradaeus), who were sent to [Yarkand](/source/Yarkant_County) in the [Xinjiang](/source/Xinjiang) at the doorstep of China.[17] The [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites) are known to have been open somewhat to Christianity since 498, and they requested the Nestorian [Catholicos](/source/Catholicos) to establish a diocesan bishop in their lands in 549.[18]

By 650, there were 20 Nestorian dioceses east of the [Oxus river](/source/Oxus_river).[19] The development of Islam in the late 7th century further cut off Asian Christianity from the Western Christians, but eastern expansion of the faith continued nonetheless. Relations with Islam were good enough for the Catholicos to leave Seleucia-Ctesiphon to set up his seat in [Baghdad](/source/Baghdad) upon the establishment of the [Abbassids](/source/Abbassids) in 750.

From the 7th century onward, the nomadic [Turks](/source/Turkish_people) of Central Asia started to convert to [Nestorian Christianity](/source/Nestorian_Christianity). Mass conversions are recorded in 781−2 and later in 1007, when 200,000 Turks and Mongols reportedly became Christians.[20] The Turkish [Kipchaks](/source/Kipchaks) are also known to have converted to Christianity at the suggestion of the Georgians as they allied in their conflicts against the Muslims. A great number were baptized at the request of the Georgian king [David II](/source/David_IV_of_Georgia). From 1120, there was a Kipchak national Christian church and an influential clergy.[21]

### Early Christianity in China

Main articles: [Christianity in China](/source/Christianity_in_China) and [Church of the East in China](/source/Church_of_the_East_in_China)

See also: [Church of the East in Sichuan](/source/Church_of_the_East_in_Sichuan)

The [Nestorian Stele](/source/Nestorian_Stele) in China, erected in 781. The title is: [大秦](/source/%E5%A4%A7%E7%A7%A6)[景教](/source/%E6%99%AF%E6%95%99)流行[中國](/source/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B)碑 "Stele of the propagation of the luminous Roman faith in China"

Christianity may have existed earlier in China, but the first documented introduction was during the [Tang dynasty](/source/Tang_dynasty) (618–907) A Christian mission under the leadership of the priest [Alopen](/source/Alopen) (described variously as Persian, [Syriac](/source/Syriac_Christians), or [Nestorian](/source/Nestorianism)) was known to have arrived in 635, where he and his followers received an Imperial Edict allowing for the establishment of a church.[22] In China, the religion was known as the *Luminous Religion of the Romans* (大秦景教 *Dàqín Jǐngjiào*). "*[Daqin](/source/Daqin)*" was a Chinese term used to mean Rome and the Near East, though from the Western view, Nestorian Christianity was considered heretical by the Latin Christians.

Opposition arose to the Christians in 698–699 from the Buddhists, and then from the Daoists in 713, but Christianity continued to thrive, and in 781, a stone [stele](/source/Stele) (the [Nestorian Stele](/source/Nestorian_Stele)) was erected at the Tang capital of [Chang'an](/source/Chang'an), which recorded 150 years of Emperor-supported Christian history in China. The text of the stele describes flourishing communities of Christians throughout China, but beyond this and few other fragmentary records, relatively little is known of their history. In later years, other emperors were not as religiously tolerant. In 845, the Chinese authorities implemented an interdiction of foreign cults, and Christianity diminished in China until the time of the [Mongol Empire](/source/Mongol_Empire) in the 13th century.[22][23]

### Christianity among the Mongols

Main article: [Christianity among the Mongols](/source/Christianity_among_the_Mongols)

Overall, Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions, and typically sponsored several at the same time. They had been [proselytized](/source/Proselytism) by [Nestorian Christians](/source/Nestorian_Christians) since about the 7th century,[24] and several Mongol tribes, such as the [Kerait](/source/Kerait),[25] [Naimans](/source/Naimans), [Merkit](/source/Merkit), and to a large extent the [Kara Khitan](/source/Kara-Khitan_Khanate) (who practiced it side by side with Buddhism),[26] were also Christian.[27]

The founder of the Mongol Empire, [Genghis Khan](/source/Genghis_Khan) (1162–1227) was a [shamanist](/source/Shamanist), but showed great tolerance to other religions.[28] His sons were married to Christian princesses of the Kerait clan,[28] such as [Sorghaghtani Beki](/source/Sorghaghtani_Beki)[29] and [Doquz Khatan](/source/Doquz_Khatan), a remarkable Kerait noblewoman, the granddaughter of [Toghrul Khan](/source/Keraites#Khanate) and a passionate Christian who held considerable influence at the court of the Khan. She made no secret of her dislike of Islam and her eagerness to help Christians of every sect.[30]

Under the rule of Genghis's grandson [Möngke Khan](/source/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan) (1205–1259), son of Sorghaghtani, the main religious influence was that of the Christians, to whom Möngke showed special favour in memory of his mother.[31]

## East–West rapprochement

Following the [East–West Schism](/source/East%E2%80%93West_Schism) of 1054, various efforts, over several centuries, were made at reuniting eastern and western Christianity, with the objective of putting both under the rule of the Pope.

### Armenian Church

The [Armenian](/source/Armenia) king [Hetoum II](/source/Hetoum_II), as a Franciscan friar

In 1198, a Union was proclaimed between Rome and the [Armenian Church](/source/Armenian_Apostolic_Church) by the Armenian [catholicos](/source/Catholicos) of [Sis](/source/Sis%2C_Armenia), [Grigor VI Apirat](/source/Grigor_VI_Apirat). This was not followed in deeds however, as the local clergy and populace was strongly opposed to such a union. Again in 1441, the Armenian Catholicos of Sis [Grigor IX Musabekiants](/source/Grigor_IX_Musabekiants) proclaimed the union of the Armenian and Latin churches at the [Council of Florence](/source/Council_of_Florence), but this was countered by an Armenian schism under Kirakos I Virapetsi, which installed the Catholicos see at [Edjmiatzin](/source/Edjmiatzin), and marginalized Sis.[32]

Numerous Catholic missions were also sent to Cilician Armenia to help with rapprochement. The [Franciscans](/source/Franciscans) were put in charge of these missions. [William of Rubruck](/source/William_of_Rubruck) visited Cilicia in 1254, and [John of Monte Corvino](/source/John_of_Monte_Corvino) in 1288.[33] The Armenian king [Hethoum II](/source/Hethoum_II) (1266–1307) would himself become a Franciscan friar upon his multiple abdications. Another such monk was the historian [Nerses Balients](/source/Nerses_Balients), who was a member of the "Unitarian" movement advocating unification with the Latin Church.

### Byzantine Church

Various efforts were also made by the Byzantine Church to unite with Rome. In 1272, [John of Montecorvino](/source/John_of_Montecorvino) was commissioned by the [Byzantine emperor](/source/Byzantine_emperor) [Michael VIII Palaiologos](/source/Michael_VIII_Palaiologos) to communicate with [Pope Gregory X](/source/Pope_Gregory_X), to negotiate for the reunion of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. The objective was to drive a wedge between the pope and supporters of the Latin Empire, who had views on reconquering Constantinople. A tenuous union between the Greek and Latin churches was signed at the [Second Council of Lyons](/source/Second_Council_of_Lyons) in 1274. Michael VIII's concession was met with determined opposition at home, and prisons filled with many opponents to the union. At the same time the unionist controversy helped drive Byzantium's Orthodox neighbors [Serbia](/source/Serbia) and [Bulgaria](/source/Bulgaria) into the camp of Michael VIII's opponents. For a while the diplomatic intent of the union worked out in the West, but in the end [Pope Martin IV](/source/Pope_Martin_IV), an ally of [Charles of Anjou](/source/Charles_of_Anjou), excommunicated Michael VIII.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Catholic missions to the Mongols and China

Contacts between the Mongols and the West occurred in the 13th century, as the Mongol Empire expanded towards Europe and Palestine, coinciding with the latter part of the Crusades. Initial contacts showed that the Mongols had the impression that the Pope was the leader of the Europeans, and sent him messages insisting that he submit Europe to Mongol authority. In return, the Mongols stated that after they conquered [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem), they would return it to the Crusaders. The various popes, for their part, seemed to be unaware that Christianity already existed in the East, and tended to respond with messages insisting that the Mongols convert to Christianity and accept baptism. Later communications between the Mongols and Europe saw attempts to form a [Franco-Mongol alliance](/source/Franco-Mongol_alliance) against the Muslims.

In 1253, King [Louis IX](/source/Louis_IX) sent the Franciscan [William of Rubruck](/source/William_of_Rubruck) to the Mongol capital of [Karakorum](/source/Karakorum) to convert the Tartars. William visited the court of the great khan [Möngke](/source/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan) in 1254, and observed representatives of several religions there. He engaged in a famous debate set up by Möngke, with representatives of each religion debating (unsuccessfully) which was best. He left in August 1254, bearing Möngke's reply to King Louis.[34][10]

Niccolo and Maffeo [Polo](/source/Marco_Polo) remitting a letter from [Kublai Khan](/source/Kublai_Khan) to [Pope Gregory X](/source/Pope_Gregory_X) in 1271.

In 1268, [Marco Polo](/source/Marco_Polo)'s father and uncle returned from China with an invitation from [Kublai Khan](/source/Kublai_Khan) to the pope, imploring him that a hundred teachers of science and religion be sent to reinforce the Christianity already present in Kublai's empire. However, this came to naught due to the hostility of influential Nestorian Christians within the largely Mongol court.[10] Kublai did request Western assistance to secure Mongol rule over the Chinese [Yuan dynasty](/source/Yuan_dynasty). In 1289, [Pope Nicholas IV](/source/Pope_Nicholas_IV) sent the Franciscan [John of Monte Corvino](/source/John_of_Monte_Corvino) to China by way of India. Although Kublai had already died by the time John arrived in 1294, the court at [Khanbaliq](/source/Khanbaliq) received him graciously and encouraged him to settle there. John was China's first Catholic missionary, and he was significantly successful. He laboured largely in the [Mongol tongue](/source/Mongolian_language), translated the [New Testament](/source/New_Testament) and [Psalms](/source/Psalms), built a central church, and within a few years (by 1305) could report 6,000 baptized converts. He also established a lay training school of 150 students. Other priests joined him, John was consecrated a bishop, and centers were established in the coastal provinces of [Jiangsu](/source/Jiangsu) ([Yangzhou](/source/Yangzhou)), [Zhejiang](/source/Zhejiang) ([Hangzhou](/source/Hangzhou)) and [Fujian](/source/Fujian) ([Quanzhou](/source/Quanzhou), known to Europeans of the time as "Zaitun"). Under John's influence, many Mongols, such as those of the [Ongut](/source/Ongut) tribe, changed allegiance from the Eastern Nestorian (Syro-Oriental) Church, to Western Catholicism.[35]

Following the death of Monte Corvino, an embassy to the French [Pope Benedict XII](/source/Pope_Benedict_XII) in [Avignon](/source/Avignon) was sent by [Toghun Temür](/source/Toghun_Tem%C3%BCr) in 1336, requesting a new spiritual guide. The pope replied by appointing four ecclesiastics as his legates to the khan's court. In 1338, a total of 50 ecclesiastics were sent by the Pope to Peking, such as [John of Marignolli](/source/John_of_Marignolli), who arrived in Khanbaliq in 1342, and stayed until 1347, then returning to Avignon in 1353.[35]

However, the Mongol-established Yuan dynasty in China was in decline, and in 1368 was overthrown by the [Ming dynasty](/source/Ming_dynasty) founded by the native Chinese. The last Catholic bishop of Quanzhou, Giacomo da Firenze, was killed by the Chinese in 1362. By 1369 all Christians, whether Catholic or Nestorian (Syriac Orthodox, or Syro-Oriental), were expelled.[35]

## European voyages of exploration

The European voyages of exploration in the 16th century would create new opportunities for Christian proselytism.

### Christianity in the Philippines

Main articles: [Christianity in the Philippines](/source/Christianity_in_the_Philippines) and [Catholic Church in the Philippines](/source/Catholic_Church_in_the_Philippines)

[Basilica del Santo Niño](/source/Basilica_del_Santo_Ni%C3%B1o), [Cebu City](/source/Cebu_City)

[Ferdinand Magellan](/source/Ferdinand_Magellan)'s arrival in [Cebu](/source/Cebu) represents the first attempt by Spain to convert natives to [Christianity](/source/Christianity). According to a description of events,[*[according to whom?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions)*] Magellan met with [Raja Humabon of Cebu](/source/Humabon), who had an ill grandson whom the explorer, or one of his men, was able to help cure. Out of gratitude, Humabon and his chief consort allowed themselves to be christened "Carlos" and "Juana", with some 800 of his subjects also being baptised. Later, [Lapulapu](/source/Lapulapu), the monarch of neighbouring [Mactan Island](/source/Mactan_Island), had his men kill Magellan and routed the ill-fated Spanish expedition.

In 1564, [Luís de Velasco](/source/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Velasco), the [Viceroy](/source/List_of_viceroys_of_New_Spain) of [New Spain](/source/New_Spain), sent the [Basque](/source/Basque_people) explorer [Miguel López de Legazpi](/source/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi) to the Philippines. Legazpi's expedition, which included the [Augustinian](/source/Augustinian_Order) friar and circumnavigator [Andrés de Urdaneta](/source/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta), erected what is now [Cebu City](/source/Cebu_City) under the patronage of the [Holy Child](/source/Santo_Ni%C3%B1o_de_Cebu), and later conquered the [Kingdom of Maynila](/source/Kingdom_of_Maynila) in 1571 and the neighbouring [Kingdom of Tondo](/source/Kingdom_of_Tondo) in 1589. The colonisers then proceeded to proselytise as they explored and subjugated the remaining parts of what is now the Philippines until 1898, with the exception of parts of [Mindanao](/source/Mindanao), which had been [Muslim](/source/Islam_in_the_Philippines) since at latest the 10th century CE, and [the Cordilleras](/source/Cordillera_Administrative_Region), where [numerous mountain tribes](/source/Igorot_people) maintained their ancient beliefs as they resisted Western colonisation until the arrival of the [United States](/source/United_States) in the early 20th century.

### Christianity in Indonesia

Main article: [Christianity in Indonesia](/source/Christianity_in_Indonesia)

[Catholic](/source/Catholic) missionary [Saint Francis Xavier](/source/Saint_Francis_Xavier), who is the first [Christian missionary](/source/Christian_missionary) in [Islands of Maluku](/source/Maluku_Islands) in 16th century during Portuguese exploration around Asia.

[German](/source/German_people)-born [Protestant](/source/Protestant) [Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen](/source/Ludwig_Ingwer_Nommensen), which brought missionary project to [Sumatra](/source/Sumatra) and who also translated the New Testament into the native [Batak language](/source/Batak_language)

A 12th-century Christian Egyptian record of churches suggest that a church was established in [Barus](/source/Barus), on the west coast of [North Sumatra](/source/North_Sumatra), a trading post known to have been frequented by Indian traders, and therefore linked to the Indian [Saint Thomas Christians](/source/Saint_Thomas_Christians).[36]

The Portuguese arrived in the [Malacca Sultanate](/source/Malacca_Sultanate) (modern-day Malaysia) in 1509 seeking access to its wealth. Although initially well-received, the [capture of Goa](/source/Portuguese_Conquest_of_Goa_(1510)) as well as other Muslim–Christian conflicts convinced the Malaccan Muslims that the Portuguese Christians would be a hostile presence. The resulting [capture of Malacca](/source/Capture_of_Malacca_(1511)) is believed to have enhanced a sense of Muslim solidarity against the Christian Portuguese, and ongoing resistance against the Portuguese came from Muslim [Aceh](/source/Aceh) as well as from the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire). Although the Portuguese built some churches in [Portuguese Malacca](/source/Portuguese_Malacca) itself, their evangelical influence in neighbouring territories was perhaps more negative than positive in promulgating Christianity.

The first missionaries were sent by [Stamford Raffles](/source/Stamford_Raffles) in 1824, at which time Sumatra was under temporary British rule. They observed that the Batak seemed receptive to new religious thought, and were likely to fall to the first mission, either Islamic or Christian, to attempt conversion.[37]

A second mission that in 1834 of the [American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions](/source/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions) met with a brutal end when its two missionaries were killed by Batak resistant to outside interference in their traditional [adat](/source/Adat).

The first Christian community in North Sumatra was established in [Sipirok](/source/Sipirok), a community of (Batak) [Angkola people](/source/Angkola_people). Three missionaries from an independent church in [Ermelo](/source/Ermelo%2C_Netherlands), Netherlands arrived in 1857, and on 7 October 1861 one of the Ermelo missionaries united with the Rhenish Missionary Society, which had been recently expelled from Kalimantan as a result of the Banjarmasin War.

The mission was immensely successful, being well supported financially from Germany, and adopted effective evangelistic strategies led by [Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen](/source/Ludwig_Ingwer_Nommensen), who spent most of his life from 1862 until his death in 1918 in North Sumatra, successfully converting many among the [Simalungun](/source/Simalungun) and [Batak Toba](/source/Toba_Batak_people) as well as a minority of Angkola people.

### Jesuits in China

Main article: [Jesuit China missions](/source/Jesuit_China_missions)

Jesuits in China

The missionary efforts and other work of the [Society of Jesus](/source/Society_of_Jesus), or Jesuits, between the 16th and 17th century played a significant role in continuing the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West, and affected [Christian culture in Chinese society](/source/Christianity_in_China) today. Members of the Jesuit delegation to China were perhaps the most influential of the different Christian missionaries in that country between the earliest period of the religion up until the 19th century, when significant numbers of [Catholic](/source/Catholicism) and [Protestant](/source/Protestantism) missions developed. Prominent Jesuit missionaries included the [Navarrese](/source/Kingdom_of_Navarre) [St. Francis Xavier](/source/Francis_Xavier), and the Italian [Matteo Ricci](/source/Matteo_Ricci). At the time of their peak influence, members of the Jesuit delegation were considered some of the [emperor](/source/Emperor_of_China)'s most valued and trusted advisors, holding numerous prestigious posts in the imperial government. However, between the 18th and mid-19th century, nearly all Western missionaries in China were forced to conduct their teaching and other activities covertly.

## Independently formed Catholic movements in Korea

Main articles: [Catholic Church in South Korea](/source/Catholic_Church_in_South_Korea) and [Christianity in Korea § Growth of Christianity](/source/Christianity_in_Korea#Growth_of_Christianity)

The history of Catholicism in Korea began in 1784 when [Yi Sung-hun](/source/Yi_Sung-hun) was baptized while in China under the Christian name of Peter. He later returned home with various religious texts and baptized many of his fellow countrymen. The Church in Korea survived without any formal missionary priests until clergy from France (the [Paris Foreign Missions Society](/source/Paris_Foreign_Missions_Society)) arrived in 1836 for the ministry.[38]

During the 19th century, the Catholic Church suffered persecution by the government of the [Joseon dynasty](/source/Joseon_dynasty), chiefly for the religion's refusal to carry out ancestral worship, which it perceived to be a form of idolatry, but which the State prescribed as a cornerstone of culture. A century-long persecution produced thousands of martyrs – [103 of whom were canonized](/source/Korean_martyrs) by [Pope John Paul II](/source/Pope_John_Paul_II) in May 1984, including the first Korean priest, [St. Andrew Dae-gun Kim](/source/Andrew_Kim_Taegon), who was ordained in 1845 and martyred in 1846. Despite the persecution though, the Church in Korea expanded. The Apostolic Vicariate of Korea was formed in 1831, and after the expansion of Church structure for next century, the current structure of three Metropolitan Provinces each with an Archdiocese and several suffragan Dioceses was established in 1962.

Currently [Deokwon](/source/Wonsan) (덕원) in North Korea is the See of the only territorial abbey outside Europe. The abbey was vacant for more than 50 years until Fr. Francis Ri was appointed as abbot in 2005. The abbey was never united with or changed into a diocese presumably due to the lack of effective church activity in the area since the division of Korea at the end of World War II.

## Christianity in Asia today

Today, Christianity is the predominant faith in six Asian countries, the [Philippines](/source/Philippines), [East Timor](/source/East_Timor), [Cyprus](/source/Cyprus), [Russia](/source/Russia), [Armenia](/source/Armenia) and [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)). In both conservative (the UAE) and moderately liberal (Malaysia and Indonesia) Muslim states,[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Christians continue to enjoy freedom of worship, despite limits on their ability to spread their faith.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

A 2015 study estimates 6,968,500 Christian believers from a Muslim background in Asia, while about 483,500 Christian believers from a Muslim background in the Middle East, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.[39]

### Percentage and number of Christians per Asian country or territory

Country or region Percentage Christians Total population Christian population Dominant religious affiliation, percentage of total population Armenia 98.7% 3,299,000 3,256,113 Armenian Apostolic Church Timor-Leste 98% 1,108,777 1,086,601 Catholicism, 97% Philippines 91.5%[40] 109,035,343 92,746,021 Catholicism, 78.8%; Other Christian, 12.7% Georgia 88.6% 4,636,400 4,107,850 Georgian Orthodox Church, 83.9% Cyprus 79.3% 792,604 628,535 Cypriot Orthodox Church, 70% Russia[a] 73.6%[41][42][43][44] 142,200,000 58,800,000–120,000,000[45][46][47] Russian Orthodox Church, 70% Lebanon 41% 4,200,000 1,800,000 Shia Islam and Sunni Islam, each 27% Kazakhstan 25% 16,536,000 4,134,000 Sunni Islam, 69%–70% South Korea 23% 51,709,098 14,375,990 Irreligion (Including folk religion or Confucianism, 60%) Singapore 19% 5,638,700 1,060,016 Buddhism (various sects), 31.1%[48] Kuwait 17.9%[g] 4,621,638 837,87 (2020)[49] (incl. between 259 – 400 Christian Kuwaiti citizens)[50] Sunni Islam, 70% Kyrgyzstan 7% 5,587,443 949,865 Sunni Islam, 86.3% Bahrain 14.5%[g] 718,306 180,000[51] (incl. 1,000 Christian Bahraini citizens)[52] Shia Islam, 66–70% Qatar 13.8%[g] 928,635 240,000[51] Wahhabi Islam (Salafi Islam), 72.5% United Arab Emirates 12.6%[g] 4,621,399 940,000[51] Sunni Islam, 65% of residents, 85% of citizens Hong Kong[b] 11.7% 7,122,508 833,333 Irreligion, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism or Chinese folk religion, 57% – 80% Indonesia 10.73% 282,477,584 30,277,477[53] Sunni Islam, 83% Brunei 10% 381,371 40,000[51] Sunni Islam, 81% Syria 10% 19,747,586 1,974,759 Sunni Islam, 74% Malaysia 9.10% 33,938,222 3,091,000 Sunni Islam, 63% Macau[b] 9% 460,823 41,474 Irreligion, Mahayana Buddhism or Chinese folk religion, more than 75% Turkmenistan 9% 4,997,503 449,775 Islam (mainly Sunni Islam), 89% Uzbekistan 3% 28,128,600 2,531,574 Islam 90% Vietnam 8.3% 95,500,000 7,926,500 Irreligion and Vietnamese folk religion (86%)[54] Sri Lanka 8% 21,128,773 1,690,302 Theravada Buddhism, 70% Oman 4.3% – 6.5%[g] 3,311,640 120,000[55][56] – 180,000[51] Ibadi Islam, 75% Jordan 6% 6,198,677 371,921 Sunni Islam, 90% Azerbaijan 4.8% 8,845,127 424,566 Shia Islam, 81% Taiwan[b] 4.5% 22,920,946 1,031,443 Buddhism (various sects), 35.1% Myanmar (Burma) 6.2% 47,758,224 1,910,329 Theravada Buddhism, 89% China[b] 3% – 5% 1,322,044,605 39,661,338 – 67,070,000[57] Irreligion, 60% – 70% Palestine 3% [c] 4,277,000 128,310 Sunni Islam, 98% [h] India 2.3% 1,147,995,226 26,403,890 Hinduism, 79.8% Mongolia 2.1% 2,996,082 62,918 Tibetan Buddhism, 53% Israel 2% 7,112,359 161,000[58] Jewish (various sects), 75.4% Japan 1.5% 123,342,000 1,872,320 Folk Shinto, Buddhism/Irreligion, 70% – 84% North Korea 1.7% 25,368,620 431,266 Irreligion, 64.3% Laos 1.5% 6,677,534 100,163 Theravada Buddhism, 67% Pakistan 1.5% 167,762,049 2,516,431 Sunni Islam, 80% – 95% Nepal 1.4% 29,535,000 413,900 Hinduism, 80.6% Cambodia 1% 13,388,910 133,889 Theravada Buddhism, 95% Tajikistan 1% [d] 4,997,503 499,750 Sunni Islam, 93% Bhutan 0.9% 682,321 12,255[59] Vajrayana Buddhism, 67% – 76% Thailand 1.17% 65,493,298 787,589 Theravada Buddhism, 94.5% Iran 0.4% 70,472,846 300,000 Shia Islam, 90% – 95% Bangladesh 0.3% 153,546,901 460,641 Sunni Islam, 89.7% Turkey 0.2% 74,724,269 149,449 – 310,000[60] Sunni Islam, 70–80% Yemen 0.17% 23,013,376 3,000 – 41,000[55] Sunni Islam, 53% Afghanistan 0.02% – insignificant 32,738,775 500 – 8,000[61] Sunni Islam, 80% – 85% Iraq[j] 0.003% 46,523,657 ~150,000 Shia Islam, 60%–65% Maldives[e] 0% – insignificant 379,174 300 – 1,400[62] Sunni Islam, 100% Saudi Arabia[f] 0% – insignificant 23,513,330 expatriate Christians are around 1,200,000 (4.4%)[63] Sunni Islam, 85% – 90%

#### Table notes

Nations mentioned in the above list follow the list of countries and territories mentioned in the [United Nations geoscheme for Asia](/source/United_Nations_geoscheme_for_Asia). Areas which have not been recognised, such as [Abkhazia](/source/Abkhazia), are not mentioned in this list. The data included in the table above are per sources in linked articles when available, and the [CIA World Factbook](/source/CIA_World_Factbook) when not. The number of Christians mentioned per country is the result of applying the percentages to the total population. These results will deviate from actual counts where they are available. The dominant [religious affiliation](/source/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions) per country mentions the dominant [sect](/source/Sect). In the case of [Yemen](/source/Yemen) for instance, [Sunni Islam](/source/Sunni_Islam) is shown as having 53% of the total population as followers. It does not mention that of the remaining 47% of the total population, 45% of the total population belongs to the [Shia Islam](/source/Shia_Islam) sect.

**[^](#ref_a)** **a:** The provided data are for the whole of Russia as no separate data are known for Asian Russia ([Siberia](/source/Siberia)) **[^](#ref_b)** **b:** [Hong Kong](/source/Hong_Kong) and [Macau](/source/Macau) are [Special Administrative Regions](/source/Special_Administrative_Region_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China) (SAR) of China. [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan) (officially the Republic of China) is a *de facto* [state](/source/Sovereign_state) [claimed](/source/Political_status_of_Taiwan) by the PRC. Figures given for China do not include these areas. **[^](#ref_c)** **c:** Estimate, see [Palestinian Christians#Demographics and denominations](/source/Palestinian_Christians#Demographics_and_denominations) **[^](#ref_d)** **d:** Estimate, see [Tajikistan#Religion](/source/Tajikistan#Religion) **[^](#ref_e)** **e:** Islam is the official religion of the [Maldives](/source/Maldives) and open practice of any other religion is forbidden and liable to prosecution. Article nine of the revised constitution says that "a non-Muslim may not become a citizen". **[^](#ref_f)** **f:** [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia) allows Christians to enter the country as [foreign workers](/source/Foreign_worker) for [temporary work](/source/Temporary_work), but does not allow them to practice their [faith](/source/Faith) openly. **[^](#ref_g)** **g:** Mainly non-citizens: [expatriates](/source/Expatriates) **[^](#ref_h)** **h:** See [Freedom of religion in the Palestinian territories](/source/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_Palestinian_territories) **[^](#ref_i)** **i:** As no reliable percentages were found in the Wikipedia article [Religion in Russia](/source/Religion_in_Russia), this percentage is derived from the CIA World Factbook by subtracting the percentage of believers mentioned there from 100% **[^](#ref_j)** **j:** Prior to the [2003 invasion of Iraq](/source/2003_invasion_of_Iraq), 1.5 million Christians (primarily [Assyrians](/source/Assyrians)) lived in Iraq. Estimates of the current Christian population are hard to estimate, but it's known that there are less than 150,000 as of 2024. See [Christianity in Iraq](/source/Christianity_in_Iraq) for more info.

## See also

- [Christianity portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Christianity)

- [Christianity in the Middle East](/source/Christianity_in_the_Middle_East)

- [Chronology of European exploration of Asia](/source/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia)

- [List of Catholic dioceses of Asia](/source/List_of_Catholic_dioceses_of_Asia)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyendorff1989_1-0)** [Meyendorff 1989](#CITEREFMeyendorff1989).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [The Global Religious Landscape: Christians](https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-christians/)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["Status of Global Christianity, 2021, in the Context of 1900–2050"](https://www.gordonconwell.edu/center-for-global-christianity/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2020/12/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2021.pdf) (PDF). *gordonconwell.edu*. 13 December 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** cf. *Acts* xi.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** *[Acts](/source/Acts_of_the_Apostles)* 11:26

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** ["Saint Nina Orthodox Christian Mission :: Vancouver, BC, Canada"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070712213603/http://www.stnina.ca/stnina_life.html). Archived from [the original](http://stnina.ca/stnina_life.html) on 12 July 2007. Retrieved 3 January 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [Richard Foltz](/source/Richard_Foltz), *Religions of the Silk Road*, Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition, 2010, p. 65 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-62125-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-62125-1)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-roux-216_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-roux-216_8-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-roux-216_8-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-roux-216_8-3) Roux, *L'Asie Centrale*, p. 216

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Foltz, *Religions of the Silk Road*

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-AFM_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-AFM_10-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-AFM_10-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-AFM_10-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-AFM_10-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-AFM_10-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-AFM_10-6) A. E. Medlycott, *India and The Apostle Thomas*, pp. 18–71; M. R. James, *Apocryphal New Testament*, pp. 364–436; A. E. Medlycott, *India and The Apostle Thomas*, pp. 1–17, 213–97; Eusebius, *History*, chapter 4:30; [J. N. Farquhar](/source/J._N._Farquhar), *The Apostle Thomas in North India*, chapter 4:30; V. A. Smith, *Early History of India*, p. 235; L. W. Brown, *The Indian Christians of St. Thomas*, p. 49-59.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** ["Thomas the Apostole"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110208073816/http://stthoma.com/). Archived from [the original](http://www.stthoma.com/) on 8 February 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2010.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-James,_M._R._1966_pp._365_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-James,_M._R._1966_pp._365_12-1) James, M. R. (1966) "The Acts of Thomas" in *The Apocryphal New Testament*, pp. 365–77; 434–8. Oxford.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** *Breviary of the Mar Thoma Church in Malabar*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ["A Brief History Of Christianity In Sri Lanka"](https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/). *Colombo Telegraph*. 20 September 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["Features | Online edition of Daily News – Lakehouse Newspapers"](http://archives.dailynews.lk/2011/04/22/fea32.asp). *archives.dailynews.lk*. Retrieved 8 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** ["Mar Aprem Metropolitan Visits Ancient Anuradhapura Cross in Official Trip to Sri Lanka | Assyrian Church News"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150226144609/http://news.assyrianchurch.org/2013/08/06/mar-aprem-metropolitan-visits-ancient-anuradhapura-cross-in-official-trip-to-sri-lanka/4480). *Assyrian Church News*. 26 February 2015. Archived from [the original](http://news.assyrianchurch.org/2013/08/06/mar-aprem-metropolitan-visits-ancient-anuradhapura-cross-in-official-trip-to-sri-lanka/4480) on 26 February 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Roux, *L'Asie Centrale*, p. 217.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Roux, *L'Asie Centrale*, p. 218.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Foltz, p. 68.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Foltz, p. 70.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Roux, *L'Asie Centrale*, p. 242.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-autogenerated1_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-autogenerated1_22-1) Roux, p. 220.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Uhalley, p. 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** *The Silk Road*, [Frances Wood](/source/Frances_Wood), p. 118.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Runciman, p. 238.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Grousset, *Empire*, p. 165

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** *Les Croisades, origines et conséquences*, p. 74.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Runciman-246_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Runciman-246_28-1) Runciman, p. 246.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** "Sorghaqtani, a Kerait by birth and, like all her race, a devout Nestorian Christian", Runciman, p. 293.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Runciman, p. 299.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Runciman, p. 296.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Mahé, p. 71-72.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Luisetto, p. 98.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Grousset, *Empire*, pp. 280–281.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-uhalley-14_35-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-uhalley-14_35-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-uhalley-14_35-2) Uhalley, pp. 14–16

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Adolf Heuken. *Ensiklopedi Gereja* (2005). See Also Adolf Heuken, "Chapter One: Christianity in Pre-Colonial Indonesia", in *A History of Christianity in Indonesia*, eds. Jan Aritonang and Karel Steenbrink, pgs. 3–7, Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2008, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-17026-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17026-1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** History of Christianity in Indonesia, p. 530.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** *The Liturgy of the Hours Supplement* (New York: Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1992), pp. 17–18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Johnstone, Patrick; Miller, Duane (2015). ["Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census"](https://www.academia.edu/16338087). *IJRR*. **11**: 14. Retrieved 20 November 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Philippine_Statistics_Authority_40-0)** ["Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing)"](https://psa.gov.ph/content/religious-affiliation-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing). *psa.gov.ph*. Retrieved 26 May 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pewforum.org_41-0)** ["Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population"](https://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/). [Pew Research Center](/source/Pew_Research_Center). 19 December 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-wciom.ru_42-0)** [http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365](http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200929201730/http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365) 29 September 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) VTSIOM

1. **[^](#cite_ref-fgi-tbff.org_43-0)** [http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf#page=40](http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf#page=40) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013643/http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf) 17 January 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Ipsos MORI

1. **[^](#cite_ref-fom.ru_44-0)** [http://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953](http://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953) Public Opinion Foundation

1. **[^](#cite_ref-levada.ru_45-0)** [http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman](http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121231020830/http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman) 31 December 2012 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Levada Center

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Members of the Russian Orthodox Church; 4% — 5,900,000 people identifying as Christians without belonging to any church; 1.5% — 2,100,000 people believing in Orthodox Christianity without belonging to any Orthodox church or belonging to non-Russian churches; 0.2% — 400,000 Old Believers 0.2% — 300,000 Protestants; 0.1% — 140,000 members of the Catholic Church

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Плотность_населения_47-0)** ["Главная страница проекта "Арена" : Некоммерческая Исследовательская Служба "Среда""](http://sreda.org/arena). *Арена Атлас религий и национальностей России*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2020Religion_48-0)** ["20% of Singapore residents have no religion, an increase from the last population census"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210616140325/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/census-2020-more-residents-no-religion-15023964). *CNA*. 16 June 2021. Archived from [the original](https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/census-2020-more-residents-no-religion-15023964) on 16 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-PACI_49-0)** ["PACI Statistics"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140313222900/http://stat.paci.gov.kw/englishreports/#DataTabPlace:ColumnChartEduAge). *Kuwait Public Authority for Civil Information*. Archived from [the original](http://stat.paci.gov.kw/englishreports/#DataTabPlace:ColumnChartEduAge) on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-rel_50-0)** ["Nationality By Religion and Nationality"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180814154256/http://stat.paci.gov.kw/arabicreports/#DataTabPlace:ColumnChartEduAge) (in Arabic). Government of Kuwait. Archived from [the original](http://stat.paci.gov.kw/arabicreports/#DataTabPlace:ColumnChartEduAge) on 14 August 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Pew2010_51-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Pew2010_51-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Pew2010_51-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Pew2010_51-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Pew2010_51-4) ["Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population"](https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf) (PDF). Pew Research Center.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2010-Census_52-0)** ["2010 Census Results"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120320104234/http://www.census2010.gov.bh/results_en.php). Archived from [the original](http://www.census2010.gov.bh/results_en.php) on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** ["Map of the distribution of religions 2024"](https://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/). *gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id 31 December 2024: Muslim 236.000.000 (83.19), Christian 21.436.506 (7.59), Catholic 8.840.971 (3.13), Irreligion 10.931.988 (3,93%), Hindu 4.692.548 (1.74), Buddhist 1.693.833 (0.77), Confucianism 74.899 (0.03), Others/Traditional faiths 117.412 (0.04), Jewish 20.000 (0,0) Total 282.477.584*. Retrieved 10 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** ["Completed results of the 2019 Viet Nam population and housing census"](https://www.gso.gov.vn/en/data-and-statistics/2020/11/completed-results-of-the-2019-viet-nam-population-and-housing-census/). *National Statistics Office of Vietnam*.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-bbc.com_55-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-bbc.com_55-1) [Guide: Christians in the Middle East](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15239529)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** ["Operation World"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050905172804/http://www.24-7prayer.com/ow/country.php?country_id=190&lang=FR). Archived from [the original](http://www.24-7prayer.com/ow/country.php?country_id=190&lang=FR) on 5 September 2005.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Global_Christianity_57-0)** ANALYSIS (19 December 2011). ["Global Christianity"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181226061838/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx). Pewforum.org. Archived from [the original](https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx) on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** [CBS: 161,000 Christians live in Israel](http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4469209,00.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** [Bhoutan, *Aide à l'Église en détresse*, "Appartenance religieuse"](https://archive.today/20120604090557/http://www.aed-france.org/observatoire/pays/bhoutan/).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** ["Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population"](https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf) (PDF). Pew Research Center.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-state2009_61-0)** ["International Religious Freedom Report 2021"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031916/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm). USSD Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2009. Archived from [the original](https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm) on 30 November 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Wilfred, Felix (2014). *The Oxford Handbook of Christianity in Asia*. Oxford University Press. p. 45. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780199329069](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199329069).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-state.gov_63-0)** [International Religious Freedom Report 2008 – Saudi Arabia](https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108492.htm)

## References

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- Brown, Bernardo; Chambon, Michel (4 February 2022). ["Catholicism's Overlooked Importance in Asia"](https://thediplomat.com/2022/02/catholicisms-overlooked-importance-in-asia/). *The Diplomat*. Retrieved 15 February 2024.

- Corbon, Jean (1998). ["The Churches of the Middle East: Their Origins and Identity, from their Roots in the Past to their Openness to the Present"](https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ). *Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future*. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 92–110. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-829388-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829388-0).

- Ding, Wang (2006). "Remnants of Christianity from Chinese Central Asia in Medieval Ages". In Malek, Roman; Hofrichter, Peter L. (eds.). [*Jingjiao: The Church of the East in China and Central Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ck0KAQAAMAAJ). Institut Monumenta Serica. pp. 149–162. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783805005340](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783805005340).

- Evers, Georg (1999), "Asia", in Fahlbusch, Erwin (ed.), [*Encyclopedia of Christianity*](https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/134), vol. 1, Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, pp. [134–140](https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/134), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8028-2413-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2413-7)

- Farag, Lois (2011). ["The Middle East"](https://books.google.com/books?id=nfva8m7UOboC&pg=PA233). *Christianities in Asia*. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 233–254. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781444392609](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444392609).

- [Foltz, Richard](/source/Richard_Foltz), *Religions of the Silk Road*, Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition, 2010 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-62125-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-62125-1)

- *Histoire des Croisades III, 1188−1291*, René Grousset, editions Perrin, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [2-262-02569-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-262-02569-X)

- [Grousset, René](/source/Ren%C3%A9_Grousset) (1970). [*The Empire of the Steppes*](https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou). Translated by Walford, Naomi. New Brunswick: [Rutgers University Press](/source/Rutgers_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8135-1304-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-1304-1). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [90972](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/90972).

- Hunter, Erica (1996). ["The church of the East in central Asia"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031352/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403). *The Bulletin of the John Rylands Library*. **78** (3): 129–142. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7227/BJRL.78.3.10](https://doi.org/10.7227%2FBJRL.78.3.10). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [161756931](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161756931). Archived from [the original](https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403) on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 15 March 2021.

- Jackson, Peter (2005). *The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410*. Longman. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-582-36896-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-36896-5)

- Luisetto, Frédéric, *Arméniens et autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination Mongole*, Geuthner, 2007, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-7053-3791-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7053-3791-9)

- Mahé, Jean-Pierre, *L'Arménie à l'épreuve des siècles*, [Découvertes Gallimard](/source/D%C3%A9couvertes_Gallimard) (n° 464), Paris: Gallimard, 2005, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-07-031409-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-07-031409-6)

- [Meyendorff, John](/source/John_Meyendorff) (1989). [*Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ) The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780881410556](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780881410556).

- Moffett, Samuel Hugh. *A History of Christianity in Asia, Vol. II: 1500-1900* (2003) [excerpt vol 2](https://www.amazon.com/History-Christianity-Asia-Vol-1500-1900/dp/1570757011/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=1519541778&sr=1-1)

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- [Neill, Stephen](/source/Stephen_Neill) (2004) [1984]. [*A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780521548854](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521548854).

- [Neill, Stephen](/source/Stephen_Neill) (2002) [1985]. [*A History of Christianity in India: 1707-1858*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780521893329](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521893329).

- O'Mahony, Anthony (2006). ["Syriac Christianity in the modern Middle East"](https://books.google.com/books?id=1xUV-nMxNGsC&pg=PA511). *The Cambridge History of Christianity: Eastern Christianity*. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 511–536. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780521811132](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521811132).

- [Ostrogorsky, George](/source/George_Ostrogorsky) (1956). [*History of the Byzantine State*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

- [Roux, Jean-Paul](/source/Jean-Paul_Roux) (1997), *L'Asie Centrale, Histoire et Civilization*, Librairie Arthème-Fayard, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-213-59894-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-213-59894-9)

- Weatherford, Jack (2004). *Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World*. Three Rivers Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-609-80964-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-609-80964-4).

- Wilmshurst, David (2011). [*The Martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East*](https://books.google.com/books?id=zfxNtwAACAAJ). London: East & West Publishing Limited. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781907318047](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781907318047).

- Winkler, Dietmar W. (2013). ["Christianity in the Middle East: Some historical remarks and preliminary demographic figures"](https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463235864-011). *Syriac Christianity in the Middle East and India: Contributions and Challenges*. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. pp. 107–125. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.31826/9781463235864-011](https://doi.org/10.31826%2F9781463235864-011). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781463235864](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781463235864).

- Uhalley, Stephen; Wu, Xiaoxin (2001). *China and Christianity: burdened past, hopeful future*. M.E. Sharpe. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7656-0661-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0661-7).

## External links

- [European Centre for Law and Justice (2011): The Persecution of Oriental Christians, what answer from Europe?](http://www.eclj.org/pdf/ECLJ_ReportantiChristianpersecution20110120.pdf)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Christianity in Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Asia) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Asia?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.