# Christian democracy

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Christian socioeconomic model

For other uses, see [Christian democracy (disambiguation)](/source/Christian_democracy_(disambiguation)).

A gathering of supporters of the [Christian Democratic Union](/source/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany) in [Dessau](/source/Dessau), Germany, 1990

Part of a series on Christian democracy Principles Catholic social teaching Christian corporatism Common good Communitarianism Confessionalism Consistent life ethic Culture of life Distributism Human dignity Neo-scholasticism Option for the poor Person Dignity Theory Personalism Pillarisation Popolarismo Social Gospel Social justice Social market economy Ecological Solidarity Sphere sovereignty Subsidiarity Catholic Welfare state Intellectuals Arizmendiarrieta Belloc Dooyeweerd Gebhardt Gilson Görres Groen Ketteler Kurth Leo XIII Lima Maritain Mounier Pesch Rohrmoser Schuman Stomma Sturzo Vialatoux Politicians Adenauer Andreotti Antall Bayrou Beel Bondevik Bryan Busch Buzek Caldera Carroll Clerides Cosgrave Daul De Gasperi Dehaene Donnelly Dzurinda Erhard Erzberger Fenech Adami Frei Gemayel Groen Haller Joseph Juncker Kaas Kaiser Kennedy (John) Kennedy (Robert) Ketteler Klausener Kohl Komorowski Korfanty Kramp-Karrenbauer Kurz Kuyper Lacalle Pou Laschet Letta Lubbers Martens Mattarella Mazowiecki Merkel Metsola Mikołajczyk Moro Pastrana Peterle Pethrus Popiel Portas Pöttering Prodi Quadros Schäffer Seipel Söder Stegerwald Strauss Sturzo Tindemans Vogelsang von der Leyen Wałęsa Weber Werner Windthorst Parties American Solidarity Party Austrian People's Party Christian Democracy Christian Democratic Appeal Christian Democratic and Flemish Christian Democratic Party Christian Democratic Party of Uruguay Christian Democratic People's Party Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party Christian Democratic Union of Germany Christian Social People's Party Christian Social Union in Bavaria Christian Union Centre Party Centrists for Europe Civic Platform Croatian Democratic Union Democratic Rally Democrats European Christian Political Party Fianna Fáil Fine Gael Kataeb Party National Action Party National Party Nationalist Party New Democracy Patriotic Union People's Party Polish People's Party Popular Republican Movement Prohibition Party The Centre VMRO-DPMNE Organizations Catholic Action Centrist Democrat International Center for Public Justice Christian Democrat Organization of America European People's Party Konrad Adenauer Foundation Young Union Documents Rerum novarum (1891) Graves de communi re (1901) Quadragesimo anno (1931) Populorum progressio (1967) Centesimus annus (1991) Related topics Catholic Church and politics Christian left Christian anarchism Christian communism Christian socialism Evangelical left Christian libertarianism Christian right Christian nationalism Clerical philosophers Ethical socialism Integralism Progressive Christianity Religious democracy Buddhist Islamic Jewish Mormon Social democracy Christianity portal Politics portal v t e

**Christian democracy** is an [ideology](/source/Ideology) inspired by [Christian social teaching](/source/Christian_ethics#Politics) to respond to the challenges of contemporary society and politics.[1][2]

Christian democracy has drawn mainly from [Catholic social teaching](/source/Catholic_social_teaching)[3][4] and [neo-scholasticism](/source/Neo-scholasticism),[5][6][7] as well as the [Neo-Calvinist](/source/Neo-Calvinism) tradition within Christianity;[8][9] it later gained ground with [Lutherans](/source/Lutheran) and [Pentecostals](/source/Pentecostal),[nb 1] among other [denominational](/source/List_of_Christian_denominations) traditions of [Christianity](/source/Christianity) in various parts of the world.[nb 2][11] During the nineteenth century, its principal concerns were to reconcile Catholicism with democracy,[6][7] to answer the "[social question](/source/Social_question)" surrounding [capitalism](/source/Capitalism) and the [working class](/source/Working_class),[12][13] and to resolve the tensions between church and state.[14][15] In the twentieth century, Christian democrats led postwar [Western](/source/Western_Europe) and [Southern Europe](/source/Southern_Europe) in building modern [welfare states](/source/Welfare_state) and constructing the [European Union](/source/European_Union).[16] Furthermore, in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century, Christian democracy has gained support in [Eastern Europe](/source/Eastern_Europe) among former [communist states](/source/Communist_state) suffering from corruption and stagnation.[17][18]

On the European left-right political spectrum, Christian democracy has been difficult to pinpoint, as Christian democrats have often rejected [liberal economics](/source/Liberal_economics) and [individualism](/source/Individualism) and advocated state intervention, while simultaneously defending [private property rights](/source/Private_property_rights) against excessive state intervention.[19] This has meant that Christian democracy has historically been considered [centre-left](/source/Centre-left_politics) on economics and [centre-right](/source/Centre-right_politics) on many [social](/source/Social_issue) and [moral issues](/source/Moral_issues).[20] More recently, Christian democrats have positioned themselves as the centre-right, as with both the [European People's Party](/source/European_People's_Party) and [European Christian Political Party](/source/European_Christian_Political_Party), with which many Christian democratic parties in Europe are affiliated.[21] Christian democrats support a "slightly regulated [market economy](/source/Market_economy)", featuring an effective [social security](/source/Social_security) system,[22] thus a [social market economy](/source/Social_market_economy).[23]

Worldwide, many Christian democratic parties are members of the [Centrist Democrat International](/source/Centrist_Democrat_International). Examples of major Christian democratic parties include the [Christian Democratic Union of Germany](/source/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany), the Dutch [Christian Democratic Appeal](/source/Christian_Democratic_Appeal), [The Centre](/source/The_Centre_(political_party)) in Switzerland, the Spanish [People's Party](/source/People's_Party_(Spain)), the Mexican [National Action Party](/source/National_Action_Party_(Mexico)), the [Austrian People's Party](/source/Austrian_People's_Party), and the [Christian Democratic Party of Chile](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_of_Chile).[24] Many Christian democratic parties in the Americas are affiliated with the [Christian Democrat Organization of America](/source/Christian_Democrat_Organization_of_America).[25]

Christian democracy continues to be influential in Europe and Latin America, although it is also present in other parts of the world.[26]

## Overview of political viewpoints

As a generalization, it can be said that Christian democratic parties in Europe tend to be moderately [conservative](/source/Conservative) and, in several cases, form the main conservative party in their respective countries (e.g., in Germany, Spain, Belgium, and Switzerland), such as the [Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland](/source/Christian_Democratic_People's_Party_of_Switzerland), the [Christian Social Party](/source/Christian_Social_Party_(Switzerland)), the [Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland](/source/Evangelical_People's_Party_of_Switzerland) and the [Federal Democratic Union of Switzerland](/source/Federal_Democratic_Union_of_Switzerland). By contrast, Christian democratic parties in Latin America tend to vary in their position on the political spectrum depending on the country they are in, being either more left-leaning,[27][28] as in the case of the [Christian Democratic Party](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_(Chile)) in [Chile](/source/Chile), or more right-leaning, as in the case of the [National Action Party](/source/National_Action_Party_(Mexico)) in [Mexico](/source/Mexico). Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood have noted that "Christian democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles."[29]

Christian democrats are usually [socially conservative](/source/Socially_conservative)[30] and generally have a relatively skeptical stance towards [abortion](/source/Abortion) and [same-sex marriage](/source/Same-sex_marriage), although some Christian democratic parties have accepted the limited legalization of both. They advocate for a [consistent life ethic](/source/Consistent_life_ethic) concerning their opposition to [capital punishment](/source/Capital_punishment) and [assisted suicide](/source/Assisted_suicide).[31][32] Christian democrats have also supported the [prohibition of drugs](/source/Prohibition_of_drugs).[nb 3] Christian democratic parties are often likely to assert their country's [Christian](/source/Christianity) heritage and explicitly affirm [Christian ethics](/source/Christian_ethics) rather than adopting a more liberal or secular stance;[nb 4] at the same time, Christian democratic parties enshrine [confessional liberty](/source/Confessional_liberty).[36] Christian democracy fosters an "[ecumenical](/source/Ecumenical) unity achieved on the religious level against the [atheism](/source/State_atheism) of the government in the Communist countries."[nb 5]

Christian democrats' views include traditional moral values (on marriage, abortion, prohibition of drugs, etc.),[38] opposition to [secularization](/source/Secularization), opposition to [state atheism](/source/State_atheism), a view of the evolutionary (as opposed to revolutionary) development of society, an emphasis on law and order, and a rejection of [communism](/source/Marxism-Leninism).[37][10] Christian democrats are open to change (for example, in the structure of society) and not necessarily supportive of the social status quo, and have an emphasis on human rights and individual initiative. A rejection of [secularism](/source/Secularism) and an emphasis on the fact that the individual is part of a community and has duties towards it. Christian democrats hold that the various sectors of society (such as education, family, economy, and state) have autonomy and responsibility over their sphere, a concept known as [sphere sovereignty](/source/Sphere_sovereignty).[39] One sphere ought not to dictate the obligations of another social entity; for example, the sphere of the state is not permitted to interfere with raising children, a role that belongs to the sphere of the family.[39] Within the sphere of government, Christian democrats maintain that civil issues should first be addressed at the lowest level of government before being examined at a higher level, a doctrine known as [subsidiarity](/source/Subsidiarity).[22] These concepts of sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity are considered cornerstones of Christian democracy political ideology.[40]

Christian democrats emphasize community, social justice, and solidarity, alongside supporting a [welfare state](/source/Welfare_state), [labor unions](/source/Labor_unions), and support for regulation of market forces.[41] Most European Christian democrats reject the concept of [class struggle](/source/Class_struggle) and instead prefer [co-determination](/source/Co-determination),[42][43] while US Christian democrats support a [distributist](/source/Distributism) economic system containing widespread distribution of [productive property](/source/Means_of_production), in particular increased [worker ownership (workplace democracy)](/source/Workplace_democracy) and [management (workers' self-management)](/source/Workers'_self-management) of their production.[44][45][46]

The Christian democratic welfare state aims at supporting families and often relies on intermediary institutions to deliver social services and [social insurance](/source/Social_insurance), often with the support of the state.[47]

Christian democrats support the principle of [stewardship](/source/Stewardship_(theology)), which upholds the idea that humans should safeguard the planet for future generations of life.[22] Christian democrats also tend to have a conciliatory view concerning immigration.[48]

## Political philosophy

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No single author has been recognized by all Christian democrats as the leading Christian democratic thinker, but [Jacques Maritain](/source/Jacques_Maritain) comes closest.[49] Thus, in terms of impact, he is in no way akin to what [John Locke](/source/John_Locke) is for [liberalism](/source/Liberalism), [Edmund Burke](/source/Edmund_Burke) for [conservatism](/source/Conservatism), or [Karl Marx](/source/Karl_Marx) for [socialism](/source/Socialism).[49] Other authors critical to forming Christian democratic ideology include [Pope Leo XIII](/source/Pope_Leo_XIII),[50] [Pope Pius XI](/source/Pope_Pius_XI),[51] [Emmanuel Mounier](/source/Emmanuel_Mounier),[52] [Heinrich Pesch](/source/Heinrich_Pesch),[53] [Abraham Kuyper](/source/Abraham_Kuyper),[54] and [Luigi Sturzo](/source/Luigi_Sturzo).[55]

### General inspiration

#### Neo-scholasticism

Christian democracy can trace its philosophical roots to [Thomas Aquinas](/source/Thomas_Aquinas) and his thoughts on [Aristotelian](/source/Aristotle) [ontology](/source/Ontology) and the [Christian](/source/Christianity) tradition.[5] According to Aquinas, [human rights](/source/Human_rights) are based on [natural law](/source/Natural_law) and are defined as the things humans need to function correctly. For example, food is a human right because, without food, humans cannot function properly. Aquinas affirmed that humans are images of the divine, which follows human dignity and equality; all humans are equal because they all share that nature.[56] Aquinas also affirmed the natural reality of family and household, based on the lifelong commitment of husband and wife, perfected with children, a unit that has priority over other communities.[57] Aquinas also argued that public power could legitimately appropriate private owners of their resources for the common good when used for people in genuine need.[58] When Leo XIII became pope, he issued the Papal Encyclical [Aeterni Patris](/source/Aeterni_Patris), which [rehabilitated scholastic](/source/Neo-scholasticism) philosophy.[59] The pope highlighted Aquinas's views on liberty, authority, laws, justice, and charity in this encyclical.[60]

Aquinas's ideas would later be the foundation for the idea of subsidiarity, alongside the ideas that the state is to serve the people and that there is universal solidarity amongst humanity.[61] A significant Neo-Scholastic was Jacques Maritain, who attempted to reconcile democracy and human rights with [Thomist](/source/Thomist) natural law.[62] Maritain argued that human rights are based on natural law and that democracy needs Christianity to succeed.[63] Jacques Maritain would use Thomist ideas of property to reduce inequality, arguing that the state should be involved if individuals do not use their property correctly.[64] Jacques Maritain and Emmanuel Mounier would also use Thomist thinking in developing their idea of personalism.[65]

#### Neo-Calvinism

Another intellectual element of Christian democracy was [neo-Calvinism](/source/Neo-Calvinism).[8] The neo-Calvinist political ideas relied on John Calvin's ideas of the [sovereignty of God](/source/Sovereignty_of_God_in_Christianity) and common grace.[66] God's sovereignty was particularly useful in light of the French revolution and notions of individual and state sovereignty.[66] It was the basis of [sphere sovereignty](/source/Sphere_sovereignty), which helped the interests of [Reformed Christians](/source/Reformed_Christian), which have historically been a minority. In sphere sovereignty, each sphere has its activity area related to God.[66] Within this view of sphere sovereignty, it was the state's role to pursue public justice.[67] Another element was that life is religious, and politics should reflect this.[68]

#### Orthodoxy

The development of Orthodox Christian democracy has been held back by the fact that Orthodox Politics has not received church support in the way that *Rerum Novarum* encouraged Christian democracy, or how early Christian democrats such as Luigi Sturzo received tacit consent for his political activities.[69] Russian Christian democrats, for example, have had to develop a doctrine of democracy.[70]

### Political thought

Academics have noted a few ideas key to Christian democracy, including [personalism](/source/Personalism#Mounier's_personalism),[71][72][73][74] [solidarity](/source/Solidarity#Catholic_social_teaching)[71][75] (or some variant of [social capitalism](/source/Social_capitalism)[76][77]), [popularism](/source/Popolarismo)[78][79] (or some variant of its [catch-all nature](/source/Catch_all_(political_party))[73][80]), notions of "pluralism"[71][81][82] (which in a vertical sense relates to [subsidiarity](/source/Subsidiarity_(Catholicism)),[83][84] and in a horizontal sense denotes [sphere sovereignty](/source/Sphere_sovereignty))[85][86] and stewardship.[87][88][89]

#### Personalism

Personalism is a political doctrine generally linked to [Emmanuel Mounier](/source/Emmanuel_Mounier).[90] It focuses on the person, their intellect, responsibilities, and value.[91] It stresses that humans are free beings with dignity and political rights, but these rights must be used for the common good.[71] It also stresses that true human freedom is used in line with God's will.[92] It is against the individualist and collectivist notions of humanity.[71] It also stresses that people become full when they are members of their communities.[74] In practical policy, it leads to a few conclusions:

- Human life is sacred and is an end in itself. It is, therefore, against abortion and euthanasia.[93]

- The family unit is an essential part of society and must be defended.[94]

- Traditional gender roles must be respected; this leads to a rejection of same-sex marriages.[95]

- Freedom is not a license for Moral permissiveness.[96]

Personalism has generally been the underlying basis in Christian democracy that leads to human rights, especially in relation to a right to life, a right to family and a right to aid, a right to suffrage, freedom of conscience, and freedom of religion.[97]

Modern personalist views also are inspired by ecologist values. [Rowan Williams](/source/Rowan_Williams) contrasts personalism, which he describes as a relation between humans and God, to modern-day capitalism, which is focused only on endless economic growth, which is harmful to the natural environment.[98]

#### Solidarity and social capitalism

The Christian democratic political economy has not tethered itself to one "third way" between capitalism and socialism, but rather various ways between capitalism and socialism.[99] Over time, Christian democrats moved from solidarism to a social market economy.[100]

Initially, many Catholic political movements in the 19th century opposed [capitalism](/source/Capitalism) and [socialism](/source/Socialism) equally, as both were based on materialism and social conflict.[101] Initially, the system that Catholics advocated was one of corporatism, based on bringing back a guild-organized economy.[101][102] The idea was a society where individuals were organized by their economic position.[103] In these corporatist systems, the fathers were the head of families.[103] One of these conceptions was that of [Franz von Baader](/source/Franz_Xaver_von_Baader), who advocated for proletariat enfranchisement in the corporatist system.[104] Baader is recognized as the first person to advocate for workplace [codetermination](/source/Co-determination).[105] Codetermination would become a key point of unity amongst the Christian democratic trade unions.[106] In the 19th century and early 20th century, the Lutheran social Christians advocated an authoritarian view of corporatism,[107] and the Neo-Calvinist corporatist idea has been credited as an inspiration for the [polder system](/source/Polder_model) that currently exists in the Netherlands.[108] Many of these corporatisms would advance the idea of replacing the elected parliament with corporative parliament recognizing the various corporate estates of the nation; industrialists, small businesses, peasants, landowners, workers, etc.[108][103] The papal encyclical *Rerum Novarum* would recognize some of the principles behind corporatism.[109]

The Christian democratic notion of corporatism was found within [Heinrich Pesch](/source/Heinrich_Pesch)'s [solidarism](/source/Solidarism).[53] Pesch's solidarism argued for international solidarity based on shared humanity, national solidarity based on shared nationality, familiar solidarity for family members, and class and cross-class solidarity based on shared interests in the workplace.[110] This latter solidarity focused on occupational associations advancing collective interests, codetermination,[110] and a "third house of parliament" that would advise on economic matters.[111] Heinrich Pesch's idea of corporatism would be a qualified notion of subsidiarity.[111] Pesch's ideas would be influential in the Papal Encyclical *Quadragesimo Anno*, given that Pesch's disciple [Oswald von Nell-Breuning](/source/Oswald_von_Nell-Breuning) would draft the document.[112][113] *Quadragesimo Anno* was significant in legitimatizing the push for a corporatist system and subjected it to the notion of subsidiarity.[114] Around this time, corporatism became increasingly prominent among young Catholics frustrated with parliamentary politics[115] and, in many instances, would inspire authoritarian and fascist regimes movements in Austria, France, Spain, Portugal,[114] and Germany.[116][107] Eventually, corporatism fell out of the political debate due to this association with authoritarian and fascist regimes.[117]

Another economic idea within Christian democracy is the [social market economy](/source/Social_market_economy), which is widely influential across much of continental Europe. The social market is an essentially free market economy based on a [free price system](/source/Free_price_system) and private property. However, it supports government activity to promote competitive markets with a comprehensive [social welfare system](/source/Social_welfare) and effective public services to address social inequalities resulting from free market outcomes.[118] The market is seen not as an end but as a means of generating wealth to achieve broader social goals and maintain societal cohesion.[119] The basis of the social market economy is [ordoliberalism](/source/Ordoliberalism),[120] or German neoliberalism,[121] an idea related to thinkers such as [Walter Eucken](/source/Walter_Eucken), [Franz Böhm](/source/Franz_B%C3%B6hm), [Ludwig Erhard](/source/Ludwig_Erhard), [Wilhelm Röpke](/source/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke) and [Alfred Müller-Armack](/source/Alfred_M%C3%BCller-Armack).[122][123] Ordoliberals viewed the concentration of power as a significant danger to liberty.[124] They desired an economic constitution that would ensure competition in markets and free decisions, where people are uninfluenced by the government.[125] As a result of the economic constitution, this model is mildly corporatist.[126] This model of capitalism, sometimes called Rhine–Alpine capitalism or *social capitalism*, is contrasted with [Anglo-American capitalism](/source/Anglo-Saxon_model) or *enterprise capitalism*. Whereas the Anglo-capitalist model aims to remove restrictions on capitalism and enable individual prosperity, the Rhinish Model embeds the market into the social framework, with the goals of nation-building and of taking care of citizens.[127]

Beginning in the 1980s, European Christian democratic parties have partially adopted "neo-liberal" policies.[128][129] However, Christian democrats in the American Solidarity Party instead adopted [distributism](/source/Distributism). The promotion of the Christian democratic concepts of [sphere sovereignty](/source/Sphere_sovereignty) and [subsidiarity](/source/Subsidiarity) led to the creation of corporatist welfare states throughout the world that continue to exist to this day.[nb 6] In keeping with the Christian democratic concepts of the [cultural mandate](/source/Cultural_mandate) and the [preferential option for the poor](/source/Preferential_option_for_the_poor), Christian justice is viewed as demanding that the welfare of all people, especially the poor and vulnerable, must be protected because every human being has dignity, being made in the image of God.[22][131] In many countries, Christian democrats organized labor unions that competed with communist and social democratic unions, in contrast to conservatism's stance against worker organizations. In solidarity with these labor unions, in Belgium, for example, Christian democrats have lobbied for Sunday [blue laws](/source/Blue_laws) that guarantee workers and civil servants a day of rest in line with historic [Christian Sabbath principles](/source/Sabbatarianism).[132] Another example of a Christian-inspired workers' movement is the [Catholic Worker Movement](/source/Catholic_Worker_Movement) established by [Dorothy Day](/source/Dorothy_Day), which not only fought for better working standards, but also contributed to promoting the idea of pacifism and a [just war](/source/Just_war_theory).[133]

#### Popularism

*Popolarismo* (or popularism) is a political doctrine conceived by Don [Luigi Sturzo](/source/Luigi_Sturzo),[nb 7] however in reality this was Christian democracy in the political sphere.[135] The papal encyclical *[Graves de communi re](/source/Graves_de_communi_re)* prohibited Christian democracy to be a political ideology, and so Sturzo used the term *popularism* instead.[136] Popularism helped European Catholics come to accept democracy,[137] and so the idea has been linked to Christian democratic ideas of democracy,[138] which Sturzo Defined as:

The political and social system resting on the free, organic participation of the whole people in the common good.[139]

Academics have tied the idea of popularism to the way Christian democratic parties encompass sections of the whole population.[140] This results from the inherent religious center allowing cut across class divisions.[141] In realization of this, Christian democratic parties tend to invoke the title "People's Parties".[142] Academic Carlo Invernizzi Accetti links the idea of popularism to [proportional representation](/source/Proportional_representation), [pillarization](/source/Pillarisation), and [consociational democracy](/source/Consociationalism).[143]

#### Pluralism

The Christian democratic notion of pluralism is about how humans are generally embedded in a social framework. [John Witte](/source/John_Witte_Jr.), explaining the origin of Christian democracy, describes pluralism thus:

Both Protestant and Catholic parties inveighed against the reductionist extremes and social failures of liberal democracies and social democracies. Liberal democracies, they believed, had sacrificed the community for the individual; social democracies had sacrificed the individual for the community. Both parties returned to a traditional Christian teaching of "social pluralism" or "subsidiarity", which stressed the dependence and participation of the individual in family, church, school, business, and other associations. Both parties stressed the responsibility of the state to respect and protect the "individual in community".[5]

Sphere sovereignty stresses the horizontal element; social communities have roles they must uphold and certain liberty and autonomy.[86] Here the government had the role of policing the spheres.[86] Subsidiarity is the vertical element,[84] where the state has the role of protecting and regulating the spheres.[144] The state must not interfere if these communities are behaving effectively.[145] This also means that a state can intervene when these communities are not competent.[84] In practice, subsidiarity has been used to justify the creation of international organizations, as higher international authorities need to exist to police nation-states.[146]

#### Stewardship

The idea of stewardship has traditionally been linked to managerial skills regarding property and income;[147] Stewardship can be found in neo-Calvinist Abraham Kuyper's works, where it relates to a person's responsibilities over what is entrusted to them, especially their property.[148] In Social Catholic circles in the 1970s, stewardship was explicitly linked to environmental matters.[147] Stewardship was found in the first programs of the [Christian Democratic Appeal](/source/Christian_Democratic_Appeal), and from here alongside the works of American bishops, the idea would spread to other Christian democratic parties.[89] They view competent and efficient government as emblematic of a "just steward", which includes just stewardship over environmental matters.[88][*[dubious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement) – [discuss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Christian_democracy#Talk:Christian_democracy#Stewardship)*] Pope Francis took a firm stance on environmentalism in the papal encyclical [Laudato Si](/source/Laudato_si') in 2015.[88] Here, the idea of stewardship comes from the correct translation of Genesis, where God entrusts man with stewardship of the earth.[88][*[disputed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement) – [discuss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Christian_democracy#Stewardship)*]

## History

### 19th century

See also: [Integralism](/source/Integralism)

The origins of Christian democracy go back to the [French Revolution](/source/French_Revolution), where initially, French republicanism and the Catholic Church were deeply hostile to one another as the revolutionary governments had attacked the church, confiscated the church's lands, persecuted its priests, and attempted to establish new religions, first the [Cult of Reason](/source/Cult_of_Reason) and then the [Cult of the Supreme Being](/source/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being).[149] After the decades following the French Revolution, the Catholic Church saw the rise of [liberalism](/source/Liberalism) as a threat to Catholic values. The rise of capitalism and the resulting industrialization and urbanization of society were seen to be destroying traditional communal and family life. According to the Catholic Church, [liberal economics](/source/Economic_liberalism) promoted selfishness and materialism with the liberal emphasis on individualism, tolerance, and free expression, enabling all kinds of self-indulgence and permissiveness to thrive.[149] Consequently, for much of the 19th century, the Catholic Church was hostile to democracy and liberalism.

This hostility to democracy and liberalism would be challenged by [liberal Catholics](/source/Liberal_Catholicism) who believed the alliance between the church and aristocracy was a barrier to the church's mission.[150] Initially, this group desired to reconcile the Catholics with the state of modern politics, getting Catholics involved in parties, public action, and parliamentarianism.[151] This, however, was not an endorsement of democracy, and the liberal Catholics maintained they did not adhere to liberalism.[152] Eventually, the movement's leading figures, such as [Félicité de La Mennais](/source/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais), would become more accepting of democracy.[153] The group came to be associated with a desire for a free press, freedom of association and worship, and free education.[150][154]

Around this time, [Catholic social thought](/source/Catholic_social_teaching) developed, with social Catholic theologians and activists advocating the interests of workers in society. Some activists, such as [Frédéric Ozanam](/source/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Ozanam), the [Society of St Vincent de Paul](/source/Society_of_Saint_Vincent_de_Paul) founder, were more amenable to liberal democracy.[155] Ozanam criticized economic liberalism and the commodification of labor and argued that charity was insufficient to deal with these problems and that labor associations and state intervention were needed.[156] Italian Popular Party leader [Luigi Sturzo](/source/Luigi_Sturzo) credits Ozanam as the first Christian democrat.[157] One of the more influential theologians in Germany was [Wilhelm von Ketteler](/source/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler), who encouraged Catholics to accept the modern state.[158] Ketteler argued for productive associations with profit sharing, Christian trade unions, and general workers' rights.[159]

In the 1870s, Catholic political movements arose independently of the Catholic Church to defend Catholic interests from the liberal states. In Europe, generally, the liberal states desired to wrestle control over the Catholic education system; however, in Germany and Italy, this was a direct attack against the church.[160] The Catholic political movements specifically opposed liberal secularism and state control of education; the parties that came out of these movements include the [Centre Party (Germany)](/source/Centre_Party_(Germany)), the [Catholic Party (Belgium)](/source/Catholic_Party_(Belgium)), [various Catholic parties in the Netherlands](/source/General_League_of_Roman_Catholic_Caucuses), and the [Christian Social Party (Austria)](/source/Christian_Social_Party_(Austria)). Initially, most of these parties accepted the anti-liberal beliefs of the Catholic Church at the time; many Catholics behind these movements believed all spheres of life should be regulated by religion.[161] These movements were initially built by [ultramontanes](/source/Ultramontane),[162] were against the liberal view that church and state must be separated,[101] and used the term "Christian democracy" in opposition to liberal democracy.[16] The Centre Party in Germany seems to be an exception to this trend in that they defended the Catholic Church through an appeal to liberal freedoms and democracy. Additionally, the Centre Party, inspired by Ketteler, supported social legislation.[158][163]

Despite the thoroughly pro-Catholic position of these movements, the church itself resisted the movements, seeing them as a challenge to the church's control of the laity.[16] Over time, the impact of electoral politics on these parties pushed them to be more accepting of liberal democracy. To form effective political coalitions, these parties evolved from Catholic parties to parties inspired by Christianity and turned to voters, not the Catholic Church, for legitimacy.[164] During this time, the Catholic parties took an inter-class nature, such that they comprised trade unionists, landlords, industrialists, peasants, and artisans,[165] which academics have linked to the notion of [popularism](/source/Popolarismo).[166]

[Protestant](/source/Protestant) [confessional politics](/source/Confessionalism_(politics)) was more wide and varied. The most significant movement was in the Netherlands, where [Reformed](/source/Calvinism), [neo-Calvinist](/source/Neo-Calvinist) Protestants founded the [Anti-Revolutionary Party](/source/Anti-Revolutionary_Party). Similarly to the Catholics, this party was formed out of similar concerns with liberal control of education.[167][168] The party was against the ideas of the French revolution,[167] and its founder, [Abraham Kuyper](/source/Abraham_Kuyper), held that the government derived its authority from God, not from the people.[169] However, Kuyper and the Anti-Revolutionary Party did support organic democratic representation and promoted universal household suffrage.[170] In Germany, this element came from the Lutheran [Adolf Stoecker](/source/Adolf_Stoecker), who established the [Christian Social Party](/source/Christian_Social_Party_(Germany)), and those who followed him. The Christian social movement aimed to challenge Marxist socialism, so Stoecker supported pro-worker economic policies to win over the working class. However, when this failed, Stoecker turned to anti-Semitism.[171] In Switzerland, Stoecker and his fellow allies generated some interest in Protestant political organization, but Protestants largely accepted the predominance of liberalism, so there was only minor growth of a Protestant political movement.[172]

### Between *Rerum novarum* and World War II

See also: [International Secretariat of Democratic Parties of Christian Inspiration](/source/International_Secretariat_of_Democratic_Parties_of_Christian_Inspiration)

The papacy of [Pope Leo XIII](/source/Pope_Leo_XIII) was a turning point in the development of Christian democracy,[173] and he attempted to infuse democracy and liberalism with Catholic values.[174] In the [papal](/source/Pope) encyclical *[Rerum novarum](/source/Rerum_novarum)* in 1891, [Pope Leo XIII](/source/Pope_Leo_XIII) recognized workers' misery and argued for means to improve workers' conditions. He also attacked economic liberalism and condemned the rise of [socialism](/source/Socialism), and generally encouraged a corporatist approach to labor relations.[175] *[Rerum novarum](/source/Rerum_novarum)* would provide Catholic labor movements with an intellectual platform and would coincide with the rise of Christian trade unions across Europe.[176][175] It was the catalyst for the beginning of Christian democracy in France,[177] Italy, and Austria.[178] The same year as the release of Rerum Novarum, Abraham Kuyper organized the Christian Social Congress alongside the Protestant workers' movement, where Kuyper outlined their social principles and policy. These actions reinforced the push for Christian social action in the Netherlands.[179] In *[Graves de communi re](/source/Graves_de_communi_re)*, the pope would protest against using Christian democracy as a political label, preferring it to describe a social movement.[178]

Some academics consider the Catholic political parties around this time to be essentially Catholic and not Christian democratic.[180][181] However, others consider the new [Italian People's Party](/source/Italian_People's_Party_(1919)) and the [Popular Democratic Party (France)](/source/Popular_Democratic_Party_(France)) Christian democratic.[182][183] These parties advocated political liberties, religious liberties, economic reform, and social partnership, policies to support democracy and internationalism.[184][185] The Italian People's Party also advocated for regionalism and proportional representation.[186] At the beginning of the [Weimar Republic](/source/Weimar_Republic), [Adam Stegerwald](/source/Adam_Stegerwald) attempted to reform the Centre Party into a Christian democratic party, uniting Catholics and Protestants.[187] In Belgium, the rising workers' movement came to form the increasingly powerful Christian democratic faction of the Catholic Party.[188] This period also saw other Catholic parties forming; Bavarian Catholics broke away and formed the [Bavarian People's Party](/source/Bavarian_People's_Party) due to the Centre Party's participation in establishing the [Weimar Republic](/source/Weimar_Republic).[189] In Switzerland, Catholics formed the [Swiss Conservative People's Party](/source/Christian_Democratic_People's_Party_of_Switzerland), which, as a party, was divided between three competing demographics; rural Catholics who wanted greater regional independence, Catholic workers who wanted economic reform, and the more conservative groups who opposed democracy.[190] Overall, the party was held together by the Catholic faith and anti-socialist and anti-liberal tendencies.[191] In Ireland, Fianna Fáil was founded as a Catholic political party.[192] Fine Gael, Fianna Fáil, and Labor would all be avenues for Christian democracy in the post-war period.[193]

In the early 20th century, Protestant confessional politics developed further. In Weimar Germany, Stoecker's Christian social party joined the [German National People's Party](/source/German_National_People's_Party) as its labor wing in 1918.[187] The Christian social parliamentarians from this party would then leave in 1929 to form the [Christian Social People's Service](/source/Christian_Social_People's_Service) (CSVD).[194] Protestant workers' movements in Switzerland gradually developed mutual aid funds into an independent trade union movement. Around this time, Swiss Protestants formed the [Evangelical People's Party](/source/Evangelical_People's_Party_of_Switzerland). The 1930s saw the rise of the [Christian People's Party](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_(Norway)) in Norway. It was built on the work of [Pietist Lutherans](/source/Pietism), and the party was initially founded to defend the country's Christian heritage against the rise of secularization.[195] There was cooperation between the Protestant and Catholic parties during this period. The Catholic and Protestant parties would form joint governments in the Netherlands and Germany.[196][197] However, this cooperation did not challenge the underlying differences between the movements; in Germany, there was tension from cooperation with Protestants,[198] while in the Netherlands, the Anti-Revolutionaries would not support pro-Vatican policies.[197]

A significant factor that helped Christian democracy during this period was the lay [Catholic Action](/source/Catholic_Action) movements. These organizations stress the apostolate of the laity, which is the role of everyday Catholics in spreading the faith.[199] In practice, these movements helped support the Christian trade unions and Christian democratic parties across Europe.[200] In Italy, Catholic Action supported the Italian Popular Party, and the rise of Mussolini would act as an anti-fascist force.*[201]* Catholic Action would later help the post-war Christian democracy.*[202]* Likewise, Catholic Action would work in the resistance in France and help found the MRP.*[201]*

In 1931, [Pope Pius XI](/source/Pope_Pius_XI) released the encyclical *Quadragesimo anno*, which was released on the 40th anniversary of *Rerum novarum*, and aimed to clarify the subsequent social doctrine of the church. The encyclical doubled down on the pronouncements of *Rerum novarum* on economic liberalism and socialism.[203] The attack against socialism was broadened to include moderate socialism,[204] and within the encyclical, the pope outlined a corporatist structure of society based on the notion of "subsidiarity".[205][206] However, the pope would stress the autonomy of this corporatist system to distinguish it from fascism.[207] This Quadragesimo Anno would come to influence the economic programs of Catholic parties of the time, such as the Popular Democratic Party,[208] and the Dutch [Roman Catholic State Party](/source/Roman_Catholic_State_Party),[209] alongside influencing Belgian Catholics.[210] The Centre Party, Christian Social Party, and Swiss Conservative People's Party already advocated corporatism based on economists such as [Heinrich Pesch](/source/Heinrich_Pesch), [Oswald von Nell-Breuning](/source/Oswald_von_Nell-Breuning), and [Karl von Vogelsang](/source/Karl_Freiherr_von_Vogelsang).[211] In Germany and Austria, *Quadragesimo anno* renewed the vigor for corporatism.[212] In Ireland, Political Catholics would pursue a policy of vocationalism taken directly from *Quadragesimo anno*. This vocationalism was most evident in the corporatist nature of the [Irish upper house](/source/Seanad_%C3%89ireann).*[213]*

Across Europe, the Catholic and Protestant parties faced the threat of fascism. Amidst the rise of [Fascism](/source/Italian_fascism) in Italy, the [Italian People's Party](/source/Italian_People's_Party_(1919)), under [Sturzo](/source/Luigi_Sturzo), attempted to challenge [Mussolini](/source/Mussolini) by forming a coalition with the [socialist party](/source/Italian_Socialist_Party).[214] Sturzo was ordered by the Catholic Church in 1923 to disband his party and exit politics.[215] Poor electoral performance in 1924 would make Sturzo give party leadership to [Alcide De Gasperi](/source/Alcide_De_Gasperi) and go into exile.[216][217] Once in power, the fascists disbanded the Italian People's Party. This would precede the signing of the [Lateran Treaty](/source/Lateran_Treaty) between the Catholic Church and the [Italian fascists](/source/National_Fascist_Party) in 1929.[218] The [Centre Party](/source/Centre_Party_(Germany)) and the [CSVD](/source/Christian_Social_People's_Service) would face the rise of the [Nazi Party](/source/Nazi_Party) in Germany. Once the Nazis attained power in 1933, they attempted to take total power with the [Enabling Act](/source/Enabling_Act_of_1933). Internally, the Centre Party was divided on the Enabling Act, but many became persuaded that [Hitler](/source/Adolf_Hitler) would not eliminate the Reichstag.[219][220] Comparatively, the historical anti-Semitism of the Protestant Christian Social movement left the Christian Socials susceptible to Nazism. The Nazi Party would infiltrate the Protestant unions linked to CSVD in 1931.[221] Eventually, both parties would sign the [Enabling Act](/source/Enabling_Act_of_1933), and both parties would summarily dissolve. In Austria, the Christian Socials would have already disbanded before Germany annexed Austria.[222] In Austria, a short civil war between authoritarians and social democrats would divide the Christian Socials, many of which would help build the authoritarian state. Outside of Italy, Germany and, Austria, many Catholic and Protestant parties would ultimately be dissolved when Nazi Germany invaded the rest of Europe in [World War II](/source/World_War_II). Many Christian democrats would assist in the resistance in France.[223]

### The post-war period

After [World War II](/source/World_War_II), "both Protestant and Catholic political activists helped to restore democracy to war-torn Europe and extend it overseas".[5] Christian resistors were significant in establishing post-war Christian democracy movements in France,[224] Germany,[225] and Italy.[226] The collapse of fascism led to the discrediting of the radical right.[227] In Germany, conservatism was associated with reactionary and anti-democratic attitudes. The Christian democrats could claim to be untainted by fascism and thereby draw together conservative Catholics and bourgeois Protestants.[228] In both Germany and Italy, the Christian democratic parties encompassed former conservatives.[227] The Christian democratic parties dominated the post-war scene. In Italy, the new [Christian Democratic Party](/source/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)) led the coalition government under [Alcide De Gasperi](/source/Alcide_De_Gasperi), and in France, the [Popular Republican Movement](/source/Popular_Republican_Movement) became the largest party in parliament in 1946.[229] In Germany, France, and Italy, the Christian democratic parties helped establish their respective countries' constitutions. Between the 1940s and 1990s, Christian democratic parties were in power across western Europe; "In Germany they were in power for 36 years out of 50, in Italy for 47 years out of 52, in Belgium 47 years out of 53, and in Netherlands for 49 years of 53; even in France they were influential up to 1962".[230] After the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the U.S.S.R., Christian democratic parties made electoral strides in Central and Eastern Europe, with developments in Poland paralleling a resurgence of Christian democracy in other Central and Eastern European countries with Catholic majorities or significant Catholic minorities.[231]

In the post-war period, Christian democratic parties became more conservative, partially in response to communism and secularism.[232] The Christian democrats also won the women's vote in their respective countries due to the pro-family policies of Christian democrats.[233] Christian democrats pursued decentralization policies during this time, encouraging regionalism in Germany, Italy, and Belgium. This was sought with increased favor as a result of experiencing fascism.[234] Christian democratic parties were also crucial in pushing for codeterminative [works councils](/source/Works_council) and workers on boards during this time.[42][43] Despite this initial power, cracks started to appear; Christian democracy in France declined substantially, as Popular Republican Movement and its successors quickly fell apart.[235] French Christian democrats would ultimately become subsumed into Gaullist parties.

Similarly, minor Christian democratic parties such as the [People's Democratic Party](/source/People's_Democratic_Party_(Spain)) (PDP) would rise in post-Franco Spain. However, these movements were too divided and lacked the political necessity of religious cleavages to play a dominant role in Spanish democracy. These Christian democratic parties would fail, and the Christian democrats would join the Spanish Popular Party.[236]

Protestant Christian democracy developed in multifaceted ways in the post-war period. In Germany, it arose amongst the Lutheran [ordoliberals](/source/Ordoliberal). These Lutherans looked to Christian theologians such as [Karl Barth](/source/Karl_Barth) and [Dietrich Bonhoeffer](/source/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer) to path a way that obeyed worldly authority but also challenged the Nazi regime.[237][238] The core of the ordoliberal ideology was a strong state that enabled market competition.[239] During the war, the ordoliberals worked with Bonhoeffer to develop a political and socio-economic plan for the post-war period,[240] and after the war, they joined with Catholics to form the Christian Democratic Union.[241] The ordoliberals termed their vision a "[social market economy](/source/Social_market_economy)",[242] a vision the Catholics would also come to champion.[243] In Sweden, it arose amongst the Pentecostals, where it coalesced in the [Christian Democrats](/source/Christian_Democrats_(Sweden)), founded in 1964 as a reaction to secularization.[10][244] The Finnish [Christian Democrats](/source/Christian_Democrats_(Finland)), formed in 1957, and the Danish [Christian People's Party](/source/Christian_Democrats_(Denmark)), formed in 1970, defended Christian schooling and dissented against secular trends such as atheism and liberal abortion policies.[245] The Nordic Christian democratic parties did not represent the Lutheran state church but non-conformist Christians and lay activists within the Lutheran state church.[246] In the Netherlands, the Protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party and [Christian Historical Union](/source/Christian_Historical_Union) joined the [Catholic People's Party](/source/Catholic_People's_Party) to form Christian Democratic Appeal.[89]

European Christian democrats were a significant force in the creation of the [European Union](/source/European_Union). At the beginning of the European project, three significant men were [Konrad Adenauer](/source/Konrad_Adenauer), [Robert Schuman](/source/Robert_Schuman), and [Alcide De Gasperi](/source/Alcide_De_Gasperi), all Christian democrats.[247] When the [Rome Treaty](/source/Treaty_of_Rome) was signed, Christian democrats were the leading governments in four of the six countries, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Luxembourg, and were a part of the coalition government in the Netherlands at the time.[247] At least until the mid-1980s, social democrats were hostile to the institutions of the [European Communities](/source/European_Communities) – even in the 1970s, Swedish Prime Minister [Olof Palme](/source/Olof_Palme) called the [European Commission](/source/European_Commission) "conservative", "capitalist", "clerical", and "colonialist".[248] Indeed, the European Union has the ideas of [subsidiarity](/source/Subsidiarity_(European_Union)) and [personalism](/source/Personalism#Mounier's_personalism) embedded within it.[249] The influence of Christian democracy on the European Union is such that one academic has called the European Union a "Christian democracy".[250] Alongside the European Union was the development of European Christian democratic parties. This appeared in the 1940s with the Nouvelles Equipes Internationales,[251] which would evolve into the [European Union of Christian Democrats](/source/European_Union_of_Christian_Democrats) in 1965,[252] and, finally, the [European People's Party](/source/European_People's_Party) in 1976.[253]

### 21st century

Christian democratic parties no longer have as much power in European politics.[254] Indeed, in Italy, the [Christian democratic party](/source/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)) collapsed.[255] The reasons for the decline in Christian democracy are multifaceted, partly due to European secularization and the loss of a voting base.[256] The death of communism and the rise of neo-liberalism have also dented the movement, and the [2008 financial crisis](/source/2008_financial_crisis) has also shown flaws in Christian democratic welfare.[256] Furthermore, immigration and the rise of populism have further put pressure on Christian democracy, as it is torn between the right's call for restrictions, the businesses' call for an open labor market, and the religious call for more charity to immigrants.[256]

Some Christian democratic parties, particularly in Europe, no longer emphasize religion and have become much more [secular](/source/Secular) in recent years.[257][258] Recently, many minor Christian democratic parties, such as the [Christian Union](/source/Christian_Union_(Netherlands)), and others across Europe, did not feel represented in the existing political establishment, so they formed a political organization in the [European Christian Political Movement](/source/European_Christian_Political_Movement).[259] These parties stressed the Christian history of Europe alongside advocating for traditional Christian values and economic and [environmental justice](/source/Environmental_justice).[260]

Many Muslim parties in Muslim countries have looked to the Christian democratic tradition for inspiration. The most notable is Turkey's ruling [Justice and Development Party](/source/Justice_and_Development_Party_(Turkey)) (usually known by the [Turkish](/source/Turkish_language) acronym AKP, for *Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi*), which is Islamic and has moved towards the tradition.[261] However, this link is questioned, given that AKP's movement toward Christian democracy may be to curry the favor of European parties in European integration, something the European Christian democrats ultimately shot down.[262] Other Islamic groups that have been linked include the Democratic League of Kosovo[263] and Mohammad Morsi in Egypt.[264] Some Muslim democratic parties embraced by Christian democrats are the [National Awakening Party (Indonesia)](/source/National_Awakening_Party) and the [Lakas–Christian Muslim Democrats (Philippines)](/source/Lakas%E2%80%93CMD), who have joined the [Centrist Democrat International](/source/Centrist_Democrat_International).

## Outside Western Europe

Main article: [List of Christian democratic parties](/source/List_of_Christian_democratic_parties)

The international organization of Christian democratic parties, the [Centrist Democrat International](/source/Centrist_Democrat_International) (CDI), formerly known as the Christian Democratic International, is the second-largest international political organization in the world, after the [Socialist International](/source/Socialist_International). European Christian democratic parties have a regional organization, the [European People's Party](/source/European_People's_Party), which forms the largest group in the [European Parliament](/source/European_Parliament): the [European People's Party Group](/source/European_People's_Party_Group).

### Latin America

Early Christian democracy in Latin America formed in the early 20th century, and these parties were generally conservative, and their main aim was to protect the interests of the Catholic church.[265] These parties viewed Christianity as the origin and soul of democratic values and advocated an organic conception of society, decentralization, and corporatism.[266] Christian democrats would become more progressive in the 1960s and 1970s, partially due to the consequences of the [Second Vatican Council](/source/Second_Vatican_Council) between 1961 and 1963.[267] This led to the growth of liberation theology in Latin American Catholicism, which stressed class conflict over the Christian democratic class mediation.[267] Furthermore, due to the US policy against socialism in Latin America, Christian democratic parties could position themselves as progressive and demand social reforms.[27]

Furthermore, Christian democrats accepted modernism and technocracy and began to advocate centralized planning.[268] In the 1980s, due to international trends such as the Washington consensus, Christian democrats accepted neoliberal policies in their nations, leading to future electoral losses.[269] Throughout this period, Christian democratic parties have played a force for democracy, such as [COPEI](/source/COPEI), which helped establish Democratic Venezuela,[270] and the PDC in Chile, the main opposition to Pinochet.[271] In the 1980s, there had been multiple Christian democratic presidents including [Vinicio Cerezo](/source/Vinicio_Cerezo) in Guatemala (1986–1991; [DCG](/source/Guatemalan_Christian_Democracy)), [José Napoleón Duarte](/source/Jos%C3%A9_Napole%C3%B3n_Duarte) in El Salvador (1984–1989; [PDC](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_(El_Salvador))) [Luis Herrera Campins](/source/Luis_Herrera_Campins) in Venezuela (1979–1984; COPEI) and [Osvaldo Hurtado](/source/Osvaldo_Hurtado) (1981–1984; [DP](/source/Christian_Democratic_Union_(Ecuador))) and [León Febres Cordero](/source/Le%C3%B3n_Febres_Cordero) (1984–1988; [PSC](/source/Christian_Social_Party_(Ecuador))) in Ecuador.

Christian democracy has been especially important in [Chile](/source/Politics_of_Chile) *(see [Christian Democratic Party of Chile](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_of_Chile))* and Venezuela (see [COPEI](/source/COPEI) – Christian Democratic Party of Venezuela), among others, and partly also in [Mexico](/source/Politics_of_Mexico), starting with the ascendancy of [President](/source/President_of_Mexico) [Vicente Fox](/source/Vicente_Fox) in 2000, followed by [Felipe Calderón](/source/Felipe_Calder%C3%B3n) *(see [National Action Party (Mexico)](/source/National_Action_Party_(Mexico)))*. Cuba counts several Christian democratic political associations on the island and in exile. Perhaps the most significant is Movimiento Cristiano de Liberación (MCL), led by Cuban dissident [Oswaldo Payá](/source/Oswaldo_Pay%C3%A1), who was killed in a tragic automobile accident in the summer of 2012 and has been nominated for the [Nobel Peace Prize](/source/Nobel_Peace_Prize). In Uruguay, the [Christian Democratic Party of Uruguay](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_of_Uruguay), although numerically small, was instrumental in creating the leftist [Broad Front](/source/Broad_Front_(Uruguay)) in 1971.

### Central and Eastern Europe

#### Poland

Christian democratic movements in Poland formed in 1890 and gained increasing prominence from 1916, such that various Christian democratic movements coalesced into the [Christian Democratic Party](/source/Polish_Christian_Democratic_Party) in 1919.[272] The party's economic program drew from *[Rerum Novarum](/source/Rerum_novarum)* and later *[Quadragesimo anno](/source/Quadragesimo_anno)*. The party would encourage cross-class solidarity, co-ownership, and co-determination.[273] For the first half of the 1920s, the party had considerable influence in government, providing cabinet members and a prime minister.[274] After the coup d'état in 1926, the party's influence worsened. The party would eventually side with the [opposition centre-left](/source/Centrolew) and unite with [National Workers' Party](/source/National_Workers'_Party) to form the [Labour Party](/source/Labour_Faction_(1937)) in 1937.[275] [Wojciech Korfanty](/source/Wojciech_Korfanty), [Karol Popiel](/source/Karol_Popiel) and [Józef Haller](/source/J%C3%B3zef_Haller) were the most significant members of the Christian democratic movement.

During World War II many politicians of the Labour Party organised a resistance movement known as [The Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_National-Catholic_Organisations_%22Union%22&action=edit&redlink=1) [[pl](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federacja_Organizacji_Narodowo-Katolickich_%E2%80%9EUnia%E2%80%9D)], which was later integrated with [Home Army](/source/Home_Army) in 1942. The Labour Party continued to exist in exile till the fall of communism (its prominent member [Stanisław Gebhart](/source/Stanis%C5%82aw_Gebhardt) was active in organising the [European](/source/European_People's_Party) and [international](/source/Centrist_Democrat_International) Christian democratic movement), procommunist faction existed in Poland until 1950.[276][277][278][279]

After World War II, the agrarian [Polish People's Party](/source/Polish_People's_Party_(1945%E2%80%931949)), the only opposition party in [communist Poland](/source/Polish_People's_Republic) had large Christian democratic factions, which had lost their influence after the party was defeated and forced to [unite](/source/United_People's_Party_(Poland)) with communist peasant parties. Progovernmental organizations referring to Christian values, like [PAX association](/source/PAX_Association) represented interests of the communist block rather than Christian democratic values.[280]

The Christian democratic movement experienced a revival during the [Solidarity](/source/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)) uprising. [Lech Wałęsa](/source/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa) and [Tadeusz Mazowiecki](/source/Tadeusz_Mazowiecki) were considered as Christian democratic leaders within the Solidarity movement.[281][282] The democratic opposition was openly supported by the Catholic Church led by [John Paul II](/source/Pope_John_Paul_II), but also by Christian organisations like the [Club of Catholic Intelligentsia](/source/Klub_Inteligencji_Katolickiej).[283] After the fall of communism, many Christian democratic parties were emerged on the right (like [Centre Agreement](/source/Centre_Agreement), [Christian-Peasant Party](/source/Christian-Peasant_Party), [Conservative People's Party](/source/Conservative_People's_Party_(Poland)) or the revived [Labour Party](/source/Labour_Party_(Poland))), while more centre-oriented Christian factions teamed up with liberals to form the [Democratic Union](/source/Democratic_Union_(Poland)), later the [Freedom Union](/source/Freedom_Union_(Poland)). In the late 1990s, conservative and Christian democratic parties formed [Solidarity Electoral Action](/source/Solidarity_Electoral_Action).[284]

Since 2005, the Polish political scene has been dominated by two major parties, liberal conservative [Civic Platform](/source/Civic_Platform) and right-wing [Law and Justice](/source/Law_and_Justice), both with significant Christian democratic factions.[285] With the Civic Platform shifting over time to social-liberal positions and Law and Justice towards right-wing populism, the agrarian [Polish People's Party](/source/Polish_People's_Party) became a significant Christian-oriented voice.[286][287] The [Polish People's Party](/source/Polish_People's_Party) has abandoned its former left-wing policy to form Christian democratic and conservative political projects like [Polish Coalition](/source/Polish_Coalition) and [Third Way](/source/Third_Way_(Poland)).[288]

#### Romania

Christian democracy has developed in countries with Eastern Orthodox majorities in unique and disparate ways. Romania has seen small Christian parties – such as the [National Peasants' Party](/source/National_Peasants'_Party) in 1926, which promoted Christian morality, democracy and social justice.[289] In the 1980s, Corneliu Coposu, would affiliate the party with the CDI, and on the fall of Communism, would re-enroll the party as the [Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party](/source/Christian_Democratic_National_Peasants'_Party) in 1990. This new party advocated market economies with social protection, subsidiarity and citizens liberties. Corneliu Coposu, hoped Romania would become "the Capital of Orthodox Christian-Democracy".[290]

After the fall of communism Christian democratic tendencies are mostly visible in the platform of the centre-right [National Liberal Party](/source/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania)) and the eurofederalist, national conservative [People's Movement Party](/source/People's_Movement_Party).[291][292]

#### Russia

Russian Christian democracy was beset by personality clashes between leaders, and Russian Christian democracy was bifurcated into two ideological camps.[293] The first wanted to import a carbon copy of Western Christian democracy into the Russian political scene, such as the RCDU, CDUR and [RCPD](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_of_Russia).[294] The Christians that make up these groups are not from Orthodoxy themselves – they are newly Orthodox Christians or Protestants.[295] The largest party of the other group was the Russian Christian Democratic Movement, which attempted to unify democracy with orthodoxy on the basis of statism and patriotism (73–74).[296] In practice they acted as democrats or patriots, depending on circumstances.[297] It would gradually move to the right, adopt and ally with orthodox-monarchists and national-republicans.[298] The party would eventually leave the democratic group.[299]

#### Post-Iron Curtain and former Yugoslavia

After the end of the socialist experience in [Central and Eastern Europe](/source/Central_and_Eastern_Europe), and especially with [European integration](/source/European_integration), many parties from former socialist countries become members of the Christian democratic umbrella organization, the [European People's Party](/source/European_People's_Party) (EPP). Examples include the [KDU-ČSL](/source/KDU-%C4%8CSL) in the Czech Republic, the [Croatian Democratic Union](/source/Croatian_Democratic_Union) in Croatia, the [Civic Platform](/source/Civic_Platform) in Poland, etc. Hungary's [Fidesz](/source/Fidesz) was part of the EPP from 2004 to 2021; its leader, [Viktor Orbán](/source/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n), claimed [Hungary](/source/Hungary) to be a "Christian democracy".[300] Many of those parties pushed for a re-traditionalization of society, pro-family policies, a Bismarckian [welfare state](/source/Welfare_state), and identity politics based on Christianity while maintaining a pro-European integration attitude.[301] The ideals of Christian democracy also inspire other [Euroskeptic](/source/Euroscepticism) parties, and they are grouped under the umbrella of the [European Conservatives and Reformists Party](/source/European_Conservatives_and_Reformists_Party); an example is [Law and Justice](/source/Law_and_Justice) in Poland.

### Greece

In Greece, [New Democracy](/source/New_Democracy_(Greece)) is deemed to be a Christian democratic party – though it often moves back and forth from Christian democracy to [liberal conservatism](/source/Liberal_conservatism) intermittently.[302]

### United Kingdom

Christian democracy in the UK was sporadic and un-unified. One group was the Catholic Social Guild, established in 1909 to propagate a Catholic alternative to socialism. They encouraged Catholics to work within the [Labour Party](/source/Labour_Party_(UK)) and push policies for families, a living wage, social partnership in industry, and property diffusion.[303] Another group was the People and Freedom Group, established during Sturzo's exile in the UK.[217] They were a largely middle-class organization set up in response to pain felt by Catholics during the [Spanish Civil War](/source/Spanish_Civil_War). They published their manifesto, "For Democracy" in 1939.[304] The Catholic Worker was another Christian democratic group at the time.[304] In general, British Christian democrats, especially those in the People and Freedom Group, attempted to push the Labour Party towards Christian democracy, and they made a significant attempt to portray Christian democracy as left-wing.[305] Ultimately the People and Freedom Group failed to do so and became disillusioned with the Labour Party.[306] On the other hand, the Catholic Worker aimed to make Labour policies acceptable to Catholics.[307] More recently, [Christian Peoples Alliance](/source/Christian_Peoples_Alliance) is a Christian democratic party that emphasizes the country's Christian heritage and advocates for the principles of "active compassion, respect for life, social justice, wise stewardship, empowerment, and reconciliation."[308]

### Australia

Christian democratic parties in Australia include the [Democratic Labor Party](/source/Democratic_Labour_Party_(Australia%2C_1980)) and, arguably, the disbanded [Christian Democratic Party](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_(Australia)).

The Democratic Labor Party was formed in 1955 as a split from the [Australian Labor Party](/source/Australian_Labor_Party) (ALP). In [Victoria](/source/Victoria_(Australia)) and [New South Wales](/source/New_South_Wales), state executive members, parliamentarians, and branch members associated with the Industrial Groups or [B. A. Santamaria](/source/B._A._Santamaria) and "The Movement" (and therefore strongly identified with [Roman Catholicism](/source/Roman_Catholicism)) were expelled from the party. They formed the [Democratic Labor Party](/source/Democratic_Labor_Party_(Australia%2C_1955)) (DLP). Later in 1957, a similar split occurred in [Queensland](/source/Queensland), with the resulting group joining the DLP. The party also had sitting members from [Tasmania](/source/Tasmania) and [New South Wales](/source/New_South_Wales) at various times, though it was much stronger in the states mentioned above. The Democratic Labor Party (DLP) did not claim to be a Christian democratic party, but it has been considered such by historian Michael Fogarty.[309] The party's goals were [anti-communism](/source/Anti-communism), the decentralization of industry, population, administration, and ownership.[310] In its view that the ALP was filled with communists, the party decided it would [prefer](/source/Ranked_voting) the ruling conservative [Liberal](/source/Liberal_Party_of_Australia) and [Country](/source/National_Party_of_Australia) parties over the ALP.[311] However, it was more morally conservative, militantly anti-communist, and socially compassionate than the Liberals. The DLP heavily lost ground in the federal election of 1974, which saw its primary vote cut by nearly two-thirds and the election of an ALP government.

The DLP never regained its previous support in subsequent elections and formally disbanded in 1978, but a small group within the party refused to accept this decision and created a small, reformed successor party (now the [Democratic Labour Party](/source/Democratic_Labour_Party_(Australia%2C_1980))). In 2006, the new DLP experienced a resurgence. The successor party struggled through decades of Victorian elections before finally gaining a parliamentary seat when the Victorian upper house was redesigned. Nevertheless, its electoral support is still minimal in Victoria (around 2%). It has recently reformed state parties in Queensland and New South Wales. In the [2010 Australian federal election](/source/2010_Australian_federal_election), the DLP won the sixth senate seat in Victoria, giving it representation in the [Australian Senate](/source/Australian_Senate).[312]

The former [Christian Democratic Party](/source/Christian_Democratic_Party_(Australia)), initially known as the "Call to Australia (Fred Nile) Group",[313] was a strongly religious conservative party in Australia.[314] It is a [Christian right](/source/Christian_right) party, akin to the Canadian [Christian Heritage Party](/source/Christian_Heritage_Party_of_Canada) and New Zealand [Christian Heritage Party](/source/Christian_Heritage_Party_of_New_Zealand).[315][316] In 2011, the Victorian and Western Australian branches of the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) voted to form a new party, [Australian Christians](/source/Australian_Christians_(political_party)),[317] while the former Christian Democratic Party was wound up due to governance issues in 2022, and its leader, [Fred Nile](/source/Fred_Nile), moved onto a new party: "Christ in Government (Fred Nile Alliance)".[318]

### United States

Historically, there has been no major Christian democratic movement in the [United States](/source/United_States). This is potentially a result of the two-party system in the US.[319] However, for European Christian democrats, the United States has been a source of inspiration for how Christianity and democracy can work together.[320] Indeed, for Jacques Maritain, America was the realization of the Christian democratic ideal.[321] Thus, Invernizzi Accetti opined that "from the point of view of Christian Democrats themselves, the United States didn't need a Christian Democratic party or movement because it already was a Christian Democracy."[322] However, there have been some Christian democratic Groups in the US; inspired by the "People and Freedom Group" in the United Kingdom, US Catholics set up similar groups in American cities.[323] The [American Solidarity Party](/source/American_Solidarity_Party) is a minor third party in the United States that identifies as a Christian democratic party.[324] Based in the United States, the [Center for Public Justice](/source/Center_for_Public_Justice) is a Christian democratic public policy organization that desires to "bring the principles of a Christian worldview to bear on the political realm."[325]

### Canada

The platform of the [Christian Heritage Party of Canada](/source/Christian_Heritage_Party_of_Canada), which was founded by Catholic politicians Bill and [Heather Stilwell](/source/Heather_Stilwell), as well as Reformed politicians Ed and Audrey Vanwoudenberg, resonates with Christian democratic political ideology.[326][327]

**Asia**

**South Korea**

Although Christian democratic movements are not prevalent in the [East Asia](/source/East_Asia) as [Christianity](/source/Christianity) is not a main religion there, liberal parties in [South Korea](/source/South_Korea), the only country in the East Asia where Christianity is the main religion, tend to have Christian democratic tendencies. [Democratic Party of Korea](/source/Democratic_Party_(South_Korea%2C_2015)), which is the main liberal party of South Korea, supports building universal [welfare state](/source/Welfare_state).[328] However they tend to be conservative on social issues due to the influence of Christianity. [Democratic Party of Korea](/source/Democratic_Party_(South_Korea%2C_2015)) oppose [anti-discrimination law](/source/Anti-discrimination_law), [gay marriage](/source/Same-sex_marriage), [civil union](/source/Civil_union) and [abortion](/source/Abortion).[329][330][331][332]

Some researchers have placed the DPK's position on the political spectrum to the right of Christian democracy, saying that the DPK is "more [economically and socially] conservative than the centre-right German [Christian Democratic Union of Germany](/source/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany) (CDU)" in particular.[333] The Democratic Party's [LGBT](/source/LGBT)+ policy is more conservative than CDU.[334] Because of this, some left-leaning researchers have placed the party more [right-wing](/source/Right-wing) than Western European conservative parties.[335] Also, many members of the Democratic Party, such as [Lee Hae-chan](/source/Lee_Hae-chan), [Moon Jae-in](/source/Moon_Jae-in), and [Lee Jae-myung](/source/Lee_Jae-myung), define the party's de facto identity as 'true conservative', 'moderate conservative' or 'centre-right'.[336][337] In his book titled *1219 The end is beginning*, Moon Jae-in writes, "it is only a backward political reality unique to South Korea that political forces which are centre-right in nature are attacked for being attacked for being left-wing."[338]

## See also

- [Christianity portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Christianity)
- [Politics portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics)
- [Religion portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Religion)
- [Economics portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Economics)

- [List of Christian democratic parties](/source/List_of_Christian_democratic_parties) around the world

### International Christian democratic organizations

- [Centrist Democrat International](/source/Centrist_Democrat_International) (CDI) – formerly Christian Democratic International

- [Christian Democratic Organization of America](/source/Christian_Democratic_Organization_of_America) (ODCA) – a CDI regional organization for the Americas

- [European Christian Political Movement](/source/European_Christian_Political_Movement) (ECPM) – a European party (non-CDI)

- [European Democratic Party](/source/European_Democratic_Party) (EDP) – a European party (non-CDI)

- [European People's Party](/source/European_People's_Party) (EPP) – the largest transnational European party of Christian democratic and conservative parties (a CDI and IDU regional)

### Related concepts

- [Catholic social teaching](/source/Catholic_social_teaching)

- [Centrism](/source/Centrism)

- [Christian corporatism](/source/Christian_corporatism)

- [Christian left](/source/Christian_left)

- [Christian libertarianism](/source/Christian_libertarianism)

- [Christian nationalism](/source/Christian_nationalism)

- [Christian reconstructionism](/source/Christian_reconstructionism)

- [Christian republic](/source/Christian_republic)

- [Christian right](/source/Christian_right)

- [Christian socialism](/source/Christian_socialism)

- [Christian state](/source/Christian_state)

- [Christian values](/source/Christian_values)

- [Christianity and politics](/source/Christianity_and_politics)

- [Communitarianism](/source/Communitarianism)

- [Compassionate conservatism](/source/Compassionate_conservatism)

- [Corporatism](/source/Corporatism)

- [Cultural conservatism](/source/Cultural_conservatism)

- [Distributism](/source/Distributism)

- [Dominion Theology](/source/Dominion_Theology)

- [Georgism](/source/Georgism)

- [Islamic democracy](/source/Islamic_democracy)

- [Liberation theology](/source/Liberation_theology)

- [Moderation theory](/source/Moderation_theory)

- [Neo-Calvinism](/source/Neo-Calvinism)

- [One-nation conservatism](/source/One-nation_conservatism)

- [Ordoliberalism](/source/Ordoliberalism)

- [Paleolibertarianism](/source/Paleolibertarianism)

- [Political Catholicism](/source/Political_Catholicism)

- [Radical centrism](/source/Radical_centrism)

- [Social conservatism](/source/Social_conservatism)

- [Social credit](/source/Social_credit)

- [Social democracy](/source/Social_democracy)

- [Social market economy](/source/Social_market_economy)

- [Theodemocracy](/source/Theodemocracy)

- [Third Way](/source/Third_Way)

## References

### Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Pentecostals have also secured parliamentary representation in countries such as Australia, Colombia, Nicaragua, and Peru, and have helped form Christian political parties that have won parliamentary seats. A noteworthy case is Sweden's Christian Democrats party, not only because it is in a continent where Pentecostals have struggled to make political headway but also because its Pentecostal founder, Lewi Pethrus, who challenged secularization by creating institutions to foster a Christian counterculture, was active at a time when Pentecostals in Sweden or the United States shunned politics.[10]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** "Concurrent with this missionary movement in Africa, both Protestant and Catholic political activists helped to restore democracy to war-torn Europe and extend it overseas. Protestant political activism emerged principally in England, the Lowlands, and Scandinavia under the inspiration of both social gospel movements and neo-Calvinism. Catholic political activism emerged principally in Italy, France, and Spain under the inspiration of both Rerum Novarum and its early progeny and of neo-Thomism. Both formed political parties, which now fall under the general aegis of the Christian Democratic Party movement. Both Protestant and Catholic parties inveighed against the reductionist extremes and social failures of liberal democracies and social democracies.[5]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Conservatives, including the Christian democrats, favor an abstinence strategy that aims at a controlled use of legal drugs such as alcohol, nicotine, and medical drugs, on the one hand, and prohibiting the use of illegal drugs (whether soft or hard), on the other.[33][34]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** The main ideological and integrative theme present from the start concerned an emphasis on general Christian values, both as a moral rejection of the atheist, immoral and materialist Nazism and as a manner of distinction vis à vis social democracy. The thrust of the Christian democratic argument was that politics had to be founded in Christianity and that a moral recovery was a prerequisite for social and economic recuperation. It was imperative to concede the importance of Christian ethics after an epoch of such inhuman and atheist cruelty. (Heidenheimer 1960:33–34; Mintzel 1982:133)[35]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** European Christian democracy after the Second World War really represented a common political front against the People's Democracies, that is, Christian democracy was a kind of ecumenical unity achieved on the religious level against the atheism of the government in the Communist countries.[37]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** The Christian democrats promoted a corporatist welfare state, based on the principles of the so-called "sphere sovereignty" and "subsidiarity" in social policy.[130]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** Sturzo outlined his conception of popularism as follows: "Popularism is democratic, but it differs from liberal democracy in that it denies the individualist and centralising system of the State and wishes the State to be organic and decentralised. It is liberal (in the wholesome sense of the word) because it takes its stand on the civil and political liberties, which it upholds as equal for all, without party monopolies and without persecution of religion, races or classes. It is social in the sense of a radical reform of the present capitalist system, but it parts company with Socialism because it admits of private property while insisting on the social function of such property. It proclaims its Christian character because to-day there can be no ethics or civilisation other than Christian. Popularism was the antithesis of the totalitarian State."[134]

### Citations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaciagliRobeckYong2008165,_169_1-0)** [Caciagli, Robeck & Yong 2008](#CITEREFCaciagliRobeckYong2008), pp. 165, 169.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti201919,_24_2-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), pp. 19, 24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeywood201283_3-0)** [Heywood 2012](#CITEREFHeywood2012), p. 83.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaletti2011283.4_4-0)** [Galetti 2011](#CITEREFGaletti2011), p. 28, 3.4.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitte19939_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitte19939_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitte19939_5-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitte19939_5-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitte19939_5-4) [Witte 1993](#CITEREFWitte1993), p. 9.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaciagliRobeckYong2008165_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaciagliRobeckYong2008165_6-1) [Caciagli, Robeck & Yong 2008](#CITEREFCaciagliRobeckYong2008), p. 165.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti201919_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti201919_7-1) [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), p. 19.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENijhoff201118–22_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENijhoff201118–22_8-1) [Nijhoff 2011](#CITEREFNijhoff2011), pp. 18–22.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeden200413_9-0)** [Freeden 2004](#CITEREFFreeden2004), p. 13.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobeckYong2014178_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobeckYong2014178_10-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobeckYong2014178_10-2) [Robeck & Yong 2014](#CITEREFRobeckYong2014), p. 178.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeden200482_13-0)** [Freeden 2004](#CITEREFFreeden2004), p. 82.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty19573_14-0)** [Fogarty 1957](#CITEREFFogarty1957), p. 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019139–140_15-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), pp. 139–140.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitte199349_16-0)** [Witte 1993](#CITEREFWitte1993), p. 49.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty1957149–166_17-0)** [Fogarty 1957](#CITEREFFogarty1957), pp. 149–166.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalyvasvan_Kersbergen2010185_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalyvasvan_Kersbergen2010185_18-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalyvasvan_Kersbergen2010185_18-2) [Kalyvas & van Kersbergen 2010](#CITEREFKalyvasvan_Kersbergen2010), p. 185.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** [*Christian Democracy and the Fall of Communism*](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvrnfq4r). Leuven University Press. 2019. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctvrnfq4r](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvrnfq4r). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-6270-216-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6270-216-5). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctvrnfq4r](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvrnfq4r).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Karatnycky, Adrian (1998). ["Christian Democracy Resurgent: Raising the Banner of Faith in Eastern Europe"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/20048358). *Foreign Affairs*. **77** (1): 13–18. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/20048358](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20048358). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0015-7120](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7120). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [20048358](https://www.jstor.org/stable/20048358).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Munro, André. ["Christian democracy"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christian-democracy). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica)*. Retrieved 5 November 2022. For this reason, Christian democracy does not fit squarely in the ideological categories of left and right.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKte'pi2009p._131:_"The_basic_tenets_of_Christian_democracy_call_for_applying_Christian_principles_to_public_policy;_Christian_democratic_parties_tend_to_be_socially_conservative_but_otherwise_left_of_centre_with_respect_to_economic_and_labour_issues,_civil_rights,_and_foreign_policy"_22-0)** [Kte'pi 2009](#CITEREFKte'pi2009), p. 131: "The basic tenets of Christian democracy call for applying Christian principles to public policy; Christian democratic parties tend to be socially conservative but otherwise left of centre with respect to economic and labour issues, civil rights, and foreign policy".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Geest2017_23-0)** Geest, Fred Van (2017). *Introduction to Political Science: A Christian Perspective*. InterVarsity Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8308-9086-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-9086-6). In fact, there are scores of Christian Democratic parties throughout Europe and the world. In the European Parliament, they aer the dominant group, joining together in a pan-European party called the European People's Party, as well as in another party called the European Christian Political Movement. ... many Christian Democratic parties would be considered on the center-right of the ideological spectrum. ... What is distinctive about many of these parties is their explicit Christian identity.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervliet200948–51_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervliet200948–51_24-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervliet200948–51_24-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervliet200948–51_24-3) [Vervliet 2009](#CITEREFVervliet2009), pp. 48–51.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabow201124–25_25-0)** [Grabow 2011](#CITEREFGrabow2011), pp. 24–25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_HeckeGerard2004_26-0)** [Van Hecke & Gerard 2004](#CITEREFVan_HeckeGerard2004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Papini1997_27-0)** Papini, Roberto (1997). *The Christian Democrat International*. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 276. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8476-8300-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8300-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüller2014_28-0)** [Müller 2014](#CITEREFMüller2014).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019291–292_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019291–292_29-1) [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), pp. 291–292.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzulc1965102_30-0)** [Szulc 1965](#CITEREFSzulc1965), p. 102.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsHogwood1997_31-0)** [Roberts & Hogwood 1997](#CITEREFRobertsHogwood1997).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComelli2021_32-0)** [Comelli 2021](#CITEREFComelli2021).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngeliVarone2012109_33-0)** [Engeli & Varone 2012](#CITEREFEngeliVarone2012), p. 109.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECimmino2017_34-0)** [Cimmino 2017](#CITEREFCimmino2017).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKerboStrasser2000101_35-0)** [Kerbo & Strasser 2000](#CITEREFKerboStrasser2000), p. 101.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColemanKerboRamos2001413_36-0)** [Coleman, Kerbo & Ramos 2001](#CITEREFColemanKerboRamos2001), p. 413.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Kersbergen200363_38-0)** [van Kersbergen 2003](#CITEREFvan_Kersbergen2003), p. 63.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeffernan_Schindler2008144_40-0)** [Heffernan Schindler 2008](#CITEREFHeffernan_Schindler2008), p. 144.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDussel1981217_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDussel1981217_41-1) [Dussel 1981](#CITEREFDussel1981), p. 217.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoppa201012_43-0)** [Poppa 2010](#CITEREFPoppa2010), p. 12.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonsma2012133_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonsma2012133_44-1) [Monsma 2012](#CITEREFMonsma2012), p. 133.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELamberts1997401_45-0)** [Lamberts 1997](#CITEREFLamberts1997), p. 401.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatlaryVeidenHansen2011_46-0)** [Matlary, Veiden & Hansen 2011](#CITEREFMatlaryVeidenHansen2011).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty195766_47-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty195766_47-1) [Fogarty 1957](#CITEREFFogarty1957), p. 66.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019163–165_48-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019163–165_48-1) [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), pp. 163–165.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Rosa, Michelle La (16 July 2021). ["The American Solidarity Party is growing. Can it succeed?"](https://www.pillarcatholic.com/p/the-american-solidarity-party-is). *[The Pillar](/source/The_Pillar)*. Retrieved 14 December 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** ["Solidarity? In America"](https://www.theamericanconservative.com/dreher/solidarity-america-american-solidarity-party/). [The American Conservative](/source/The_American_Conservative). 16 October 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** ["Patrick Harris The state of American solidarity SDP Talks"](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5i0DPkhA88&t=964s). Social Democratic Party. 28 March 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2021 – via [YouTube](/source/YouTube).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsping-Andersen199059–61_52-0)** [Esping-Andersen 1990](#CITEREFEsping-Andersen1990), pp. 59–61.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmeida2012117–_53-0)** [Almeida 2012](#CITEREFAlmeida2012), pp. 117–.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti201923_54-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti201923_54-1) [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), p. 23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKselmanButtigieg20034_55-0)** [Kselman & Buttigieg 2003](#CITEREFKselmanButtigieg2003), p. 4.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKselmanButtigieg200369_56-0)** [Kselman & Buttigieg 2003](#CITEREFKselmanButtigieg2003), p. 69.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPombeni2000_57-0)** [Pombeni 2000](#CITEREFPombeni2000).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty1957427_58-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty1957427_58-1) [Fogarty 1957](#CITEREFFogarty1957), p. 427.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty1957172_59-0)** [Fogarty 1957](#CITEREFFogarty1957), p. 172.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKselmanButtigieg20036–7_60-0)** [Kselman & Buttigieg 2003](#CITEREFKselmanButtigieg2003), pp. 6–7.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradleyBrugger201913_61-0)** [Bradley & Brugger 2019](#CITEREFBradleyBrugger2019), p. 13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradleyBrugger201913–14_62-0)** [Bradley & Brugger 2019](#CITEREFBradleyBrugger2019), pp. 13–14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradleyBrugger201914_63-0)** [Bradley & Brugger 2019](#CITEREFBradleyBrugger2019), p. 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradleyBrugger201947_64-0)** [Bradley & Brugger 2019](#CITEREFBradleyBrugger2019), p. 47.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradleyBrugger201915_65-0)** [Bradley & Brugger 2019](#CITEREFBradleyBrugger2019), p. 15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradleyBrugger201926–33_66-0)** [Bradley & Brugger 2019](#CITEREFBradleyBrugger2019), pp. 26–33.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeynickx201840_67-0)** [Heynickx 2018](#CITEREFHeynickx2018), p. 40.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeynickx201841_68-0)** [Heynickx 2018](#CITEREFHeynickx2018), p. 41.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeynickx201827_69-0)** [Heynickx 2018](#CITEREFHeynickx2018), p. 27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGehlerKaiser2004a88_70-0)** [Gehler & Kaiser 2004a](#CITEREFGehlerKaiser2004a), p. 88.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeest200750_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeest200750_71-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeest200750_71-2) [Geest 2007](#CITEREFGeest2007), p. 50.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeest200751_72-0)** [Geest 2007](#CITEREFGeest2007), p. 51.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeest200752_73-0)** [Geest 2007](#CITEREFGeest2007), p. 52.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShchipkov1994a306_74-0)** [Shchipkov 1994a](#CITEREFShchipkov1994a), p. 306.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShchipkov1994a307_75-0)** [Shchipkov 1994a](#CITEREFShchipkov1994a), p. 307.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmond1948753–754_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmond1948753–754_76-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmond1948753–754_76-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmond1948753–754_76-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmond1948753–754_76-4) [Almond 1948](#CITEREFAlmond1948), pp. 753–754.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti201953–79_77-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), pp. 53–79.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty195727–40_78-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogarty195727–40_78-1) [Fogarty 1957](#CITEREFFogarty1957), pp. 27–40.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalyvasvan_Kersbergen2010196_79-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalyvasvan_Kersbergen2010196_79-1) [Kalyvas & van Kersbergen 2010](#CITEREFKalyvasvan_Kersbergen2010), p. 196.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019139–168_81-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), pp. 139–168.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti201980–110_83-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), pp. 80–110.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitte199355–56_84-0)** [Witte 1993](#CITEREFWitte1993), pp. 55–56.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmond1948739_162-0)** [Almond 1948](#CITEREFAlmond1948), p. 739.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaciagliRobeckYong2008166–167_165-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaciagliRobeckYong2008166–167_165-1) [Caciagli, Robeck & Yong 2008](#CITEREFCaciagliRobeckYong2008), pp. 166–167.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFelice2001235_224-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFelice2001235_224-1) [Felice 2001](#CITEREFFelice2001), p. 235.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanley1994125–126_252-0)** [Hanley 1994](#CITEREFHanley1994), pp. 125–126.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanley1994126_253-0)** [Hanley 1994](#CITEREFHanley1994), p. 126.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019250_254-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019250_254-1) [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), p. 250.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaleKrouwel201320_263-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaleKrouwel201320_263-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaleKrouwel201320_263-2) [Bale & Krouwel 2013](#CITEREFBaleKrouwel2013), p. 20.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKandur2016_270-0)** [Kandur 2016](#CITEREFKandur2016).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-320)** Australian Electoral Commission (2011). ["Call to Australia (Fred Nile) Group"](https://www.aec.gov.au/Parties_and_Representatives/Party_Registration/Deregistered_parties/cta.htm). *Australian Electoral Commission*. Retrieved 7 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-cdp.org.au_321-0)** ["Christian Democratic Party"](http://www.cdp.org.au/). *Christian Democratic Party*. Retrieved 20 October 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-322)** Robinson, Geoffrey (12 April 2018). ["Why the Australian Christian right has weak political appeal"](https://theconversation.com/why-the-australian-christian-right-has-weak-political-appeal-93735). *The Conversation*. Retrieved 14 September 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreston201662_323-0)** [Freston 2016](#CITEREFFreston2016), p. 62.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lauder2012_324-0)** Lauder, Simon (16 July 2012). ["Church leaders upset over 'Australian Christians' name"](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-07-16/church-leaders-upset-over-australian-christians-party-name/4134380). [ABC News](/source/ABC_News_(Australia)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-325)** Eternity News (29 March 2022). ["Fred Nile says the Christian Democratic Party is officially dead – Eternity News"](https://www.eternitynews.com.au/australia/fred-nile-says-the-christian-democratic-party-is-officially-dead/,%20https://www.eternitynews.com.au/australia/fred-nile-says-the-christian-democratic-party-is-officially-dead/). Retrieved 7 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019312_326-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), p. 312.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019313_327-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), p. 313.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019315_328-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), p. 315.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInvernizzi_Accetti2019316_329-0)** [Invernizzi Accetti 2019](#CITEREFInvernizzi_Accetti2019), p. 316.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGehlerKaiser2004a223_330-0)** [Gehler & Kaiser 2004a](#CITEREFGehlerKaiser2004a), p. 223.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongenecker2016_331-0)** [Longenecker 2016](#CITEREFLongenecker2016):In 2011 the Christian Democratic Party USA was formed, and after the 2012 election it was re-named as the American Solidarity Party. Small political parties in the United States do not have a great track record, but given the choices available to Christians, the American Solidarity Party may offer a way to vote according to one's conscience and according to their simple motto: Common Good. Common Ground. Common Sense.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-332)** Domenico, Roy Palmer; Hanley, Mark Y. (2006). *Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics*. Greenwood Publishing Group. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-32362-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32362-1). The Center for Public Justice is a public policy organization, now located in Annapolis, Maryland, which undertakes to bring the principles of a Christian worldview to bear on the political realm. It is rooted in the European Christian democratic tradition, particularly as developed in the Netherlands by Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer (1801–1876), Abraham Kuyper (137–1920), and Herman Dooyeweerd (1894–1977).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sherratt2007_333-0)** Sherratt, Timothy (2007). "Book Reviews". *The Evangelical Review of Theology and Politics*. **1** (2): 53–68.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MacKenzie2005_334-0)** MacKenzie, Chris (2005). *Pro-Family Politics and Fringe Parties in Canada*. UBC Press. p. 95.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-335)** 기자, 김윤나영 (17 August 2022). ["민주당 강령 '포용적 복지국가→보편적 복지국가'로 수정"](https://m.khan.co.kr/article/202208171756001). *경향신문* (in Korean). Retrieved 24 April 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-336)** ["기사 인쇄 | "차별금지법, 내가 가장 센 반대론자···결정은 우리 민주당이 하는 것" 정치권과 개신교의 '반동성애' 결탁"](https://www.khan.co.kr/print.html?art_id=202202271611001). *www.khan.co.kr*. Retrieved 24 April 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-337)** ["이재명 대표 "21대 국회서 차별금지법 통과 않겠다""](http://www.igoodnews.net/news/articleView.html?idxno=73214). *아이굿뉴스* (in Korean). 1 June 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-338)** ["지방선거 앞둔 주요 정당들 "동성애·동성혼 반대""](https://www.newsnjoy.or.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=217924). *뉴스앤조이* (in Korean). 31 May 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-339)** ["이재명 후보, '생명존중의날' 제정 등 기독교계 8대 공약 내놓아"](https://n.news.naver.com/article/079/0003615090). *n.news.naver.com* (in Korean). Retrieved 24 April 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-340)** 조성은 (20 July 2018). [독일 정치 우리의 대안](https://books.google.com/books?id=YpirDwAAQBAJ&dq=%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%98%EB%8B%B9+%EC%A4%91%EB%8F%84%EC%A2%8C%ED%8C%8C&pg=PT125) (in Korean). e지식의 날개. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788920032370](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788920032370). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230130140456/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpirDwAAQBAJ&dq=%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%98%EB%8B%B9+%EC%A4%91%EB%8F%84%EC%A2%8C%ED%8C%8C&pg=PT125) from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023 – via Google Books.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-341)** [경찰도, 집권당도 부스 차리고 응원...서울과 사뭇 다른 베를린 성소수자 축제](https://m.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/A2022071803560004078) [The police and the ruling party also set up booths and cheer... Berlin's sexual minority festival, which is quite different from Seoul]. [Hankook Ilbo](/source/Hankook_Ilbo). 19 July 2022. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230227153949/https://m.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/A2022071803560004078) from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023. . 보수색이 짙은 기독교민주연합(기민련)의 부스도 보였다. 서울광장에서 집권여당인 국민의힘과 제1야당인 더불어민주당 차원의 움직임은 없었다. 지지세가 크지 않은 진보당·녹색당이 부스를 차렸을 뿐이었다... [There was also a booth of the conservative Christian Democratic Union (Kiminryon). In Seoul Plaza, there was no movement at the level of the People's Power, the ruling party, and the Democratic Party, the first opposition party. Only the Progressive Party and the Green Party, which did not have much support, set up booths..'.]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-342)** 홍세화 (21 April 2020). [결 : 거칢에 대하여](https://books.google.com/books?id=0NjdDwAAQBAJ) (in Korean). [Hankyoreh](/source/The_Hankyoreh) publisher. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9791160403787](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9791160403787). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230524203616/https://books.google.com/books?id=0NjdDwAAQBAJ) from the original on 24 May 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2023 – via Google Books.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-343)** [이해찬 "민주당 진보적인 당 아니다…중도 우파 정도"](https://www.joongang.co.kr/article/23048528#hom) [Lee Hae-chan "Democratic Party is not a progressive party... about the center-right"]. [JoongAng Ilbo](/source/JoongAng_Ilbo). 17 October 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230116151852/https://www.joongang.co.kr/article/23048528#hom) from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023. . 이 대표는 "유럽의 개혁적인 정당에 비하면 (민주당) 정강·정책이 훨씬 더 보수적"이라며 "보수적일 수밖에 없는 환경 속에서 활동을 해왔기 때문에 그렇다고 보고 이제는 조금 더 개혁적으로 가야 한다고 생각한다"고 설명했다.. [.Representative Lee said, "Compared to reformist parties in Europe, (Democratic Party) is much more conservative in its platform and policies.""Because I have been active in an environment that has no choice but to be conservative, Seeing that, I think we need to go a little more reformative now.".]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-344)** 김경태 (21 December 2016). [이재명 "보수 가치 제대로 서는 나라 만들고 싶어"](https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20161221066400061). *연합뉴스*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230418155156/https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20161221066400061) from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-345)** ['가짜 보수'가 문재인 대통령을 '진보'라고 하는 이유](https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/politics/polibar/867675.html) [Why 'fake conservatives' call President Moon Jae-in 'progressive']. [The Hankyoreh](/source/The_Hankyoreh). 28 October 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230428131056/https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/politics/polibar/867675.html) from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2023. .문재인 대통령은 2013년 펴낸 <1219 끝이 시작이다>라는 책에서 김대중 노무현 정부를 줄곧 '민주정부 10년'으로 표현하고 있습니다. "좌파는커녕 중도에도 미치지 못하는 한국의 중도우파 노선 정치세력이 극우 세력으로부터 '종북좌파'로 몰리는 건, 한국만의 후진적 정치 현실일 뿐"이라는 내용도 들어 있습니다.. [President Moon Jae-in, in his 2013 book titled <1219 The End Is the Beginning>, has consistently referred to the Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun administrations as "10 years of democratic government." It also contains the content that "it is only a backward political reality unique to South Korea that the political forces of the center-right line in Korea, which are not even left-wing, fall short of the center, from the far-right forces to the 'pro-North Korea leftist'.".]

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- Krarup, Troels (2019a). ["'Ordo' versus 'Ordnung': Catholic or Lutheran roots of German ordoliberal economic theory?"](https://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/239513043/Krarup_2019_Ordo_versus_Ordnung_IREW_POSTPRINT.pdf) (PDF). *[International Review of Economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Review_of_Economics&action=edit&redlink=1)*. **66** (3): 305–323. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s12232-019-00323-y](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12232-019-00323-y). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [159196045](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159196045).

- Krarup, Troels (2019b). ["German political and economic ideology in the twentieth century and its theological problems: The Lutheran genealogy of ordoliberalism"](https://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/1p4u0res30997bsgjhr02kdu6i). *[European Journal of Cultural and Political Sociology](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Journal_of_Cultural_and_Political_Sociology&action=edit&redlink=1)*. **6** (3): 317–342. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/23254823.2018.1559745](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23254823.2018.1559745). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [159307359](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159307359).

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- Kselman, Thomas; Buttigieg, Thomas, eds. (2003). [*European Christian democracy: historical legacies and comparative perspectives*](https://archive.org/details/europeanchristia0000unse). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.

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- Longenecker, Dwight (12 May 2016). ["Is It Time for a US Christian Democracy Party?"](http://aleteia.org/2016/05/12/is-it-time-for-an-american-christian-democracy-party/). Aleteia. Retrieved 5 July 2016.

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- Mainwaring, Scott (2003). [*Christian Democracy in Latin America: Electoral Competition and Regime Conflicts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ppe20kevrzgC&pg=PA181). Stanford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8047-4598-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4598-7).

- Marinescu, Cristian; Bodislav, Dumitru-Alexandru; Belingher, Daniel (2013). "The Social Market Economy – The Ordoliberal Doctrine Situated Between Classic Liberalism and Social Economy". *Calitatea*. **14**: 519–522.

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- Monsma, Stephen V. (2012). [*Pluralism and Freedom: Faith-based Organizations in a Democratic Society*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Tuy97nvRJXYC&pg=PA133). Rowman & Littlefield. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4422-1430-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-1430-9).

- Moody, Joseph N (1953). *Church and society: Catholic social and political thought and movements, 1789–1950*. New York: Arts, Inc.

- Müller, Jan-Werner (15 July 2014), ["The End of Christian Democracy"](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/western-europe/2014-07-15/end-christian-democracy), *Foreign Affairs*

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- Poppa, Terrence E. (2010). [*Drug Lord: A True Story: The Life and Death of a Mexican Kingpin*](https://books.google.com/books?id=K6uY3F5Gv3AC&pg=PA12). Cinco Puntos Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-935955-00-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-935955-00-9).

- Pollard, John (2017). *Corporatism and Fascism*. Routledge.

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- Roberts, Geoffrey K.; Hogwood, Patricia (1997). [*European Politics Today*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCANAQAAIAAJ). Manchester University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7190-4363-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4363-5).

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- Schiffino, Nathalie; Ramjoué, Celina; Varone, Frédéric (2009). "Biomedical Policies in Belgium and Italy: From Regulatory Reluctance to Policy Changes". *West European Politics*. **32** (3): 559–585. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/01402380902779097](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402380902779097). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144580727](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144580727).

- Heffernan Schindler, Jeanne (2008). [*Christianity and Civil Society: Catholic and Neo-Calvinist Perspectives*](https://books.google.com/books?id=E1P7aTXJkRkC). Lexington Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7391-0884-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0884-0).

- Shchipkov, Aleksandr (1994a). ["Some Observations on Orthodoxy and Christian Democracy"](https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/22-3_305.pdf) (PDF). *Religion, State and Society*. **22** (3): 305–308. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/09637499408431650](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09637499408431650).

- Shchipkov, Aleksandr (1994b). "The Evolution of our Christian Democracy". *Russian Studies in Philosophy*. **33** (1): 67–77. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2753/RSP1061-1967330167](https://doi.org/10.2753%2FRSP1061-1967330167).

- Sturzo, Luigi (1939). [*Church and State*](https://archive.org/details/churchstate0000stur). New York: Longmans, Green and Co.

- Sturzo, Luigi (1947). "The Philosophic Background of Christian Democracy". *The Review of Politics*. **9** (1): 3–15. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0034670500037918](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034670500037918). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0034-6705](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6705). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145618036](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145618036).

- Sturzo, Luigi (1926). [*Italy and Fascismo*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.178423/mode/2up). Translated by Carter, Barbara. Raber and Gwyer Limited.

- Swan, Donald A (2013). "The Ideological Background to the German Corporate Tradition". *[The Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies](/source/The_Journal_of_Social%2C_Political%2C_and_Economic_Studies)*. **38** (2): 148–173.

- Szulc, Tad (1965). "Communists, Socialists, and Christian Democrats". *The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science*. **360** (1): 99–109. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/000271626536000109](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000271626536000109). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-7162](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7162). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145198515](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145198515).

- Turner, Rachel S. (2008). *Neo-Liberal Ideology: History, Concepts and Policies*. Edinburgh University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-748-68868-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-748-68868-5).

- Van Hecke, Steven; Gerard, Emmanuel (2004). [*Christian Democratic Parties in Europe Since the End of the Cold War*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QJ6x8zmRAaEC). Leuven University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-5867-377-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-377-0).

- van Kersbergen, Kees (2003). [*Social Capitalism: A Study of Christian Democracy and the Welfare State*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2aaIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-81834-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-81834-1).

- Vervliet, Chris (2009). [*Human Person*](https://books.google.com/books?id=znYoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48). Adonis & Abbey. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-912234-19-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-912234-19-6).

- Wankel, Charles (2009). *Encyclopedia of Business in Today's World*. Sage Publications. p. 131. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4129-6427-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6427-2).

- Witte, Els; Craeybeckx, Jan; Meynen, Alain (2009). [*Political History of Belgium: From 1830 Onwards*](https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Em8G76kbkC&pg=PA119). Asp / Vubpress / Upa. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-5487-517-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5487-517-8).

- Witte, John, ed. (1993). *Christianity and Democracy in Global Context*. Westview Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8133-1843-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-1843-1).

## Further reading

- Gehler, Michael; [Kaiser, Wolfram](/source/Wolfram_Kaiser) (2004a), *Political Catholicism in Europe 1918–1945*, Routledge, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7146-5650-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-5650-X)

- Gehler, Michael; Kaiser, Wolfram (2004b), *Christian Democracy in Europe since 1945*, Routledge, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7146-5662-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-5662-3)

- Gehler, Michael; Kaiser, Wolfram; Wohnout, Helmut, eds. (2001), *Christdemokratie in Europa im 20. Jahrhundert / Christian Democracy in 20th Century Europe*, Böhlau Verlag, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [3-205-99360-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-205-99360-8)

- Invernizzi Accetti, Carlo (2019). *What is Christian Democracy?: Politics, Religion and Ideology*. New York: Cambridge University Press.

- Kaiser, Wolfram (2007), *Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union*, Cambridge University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-88310-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88310-8)

- Kaiser, Wolfram; Kosicki, Piotr (2021). *Political Exile in the Global Twentieth Century: Catholic Christian Democrats in Europe and the Americas*. Belgium: S.l.: Leuven University Press. p. 21. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-946-27030-70](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-946-27030-70).

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Christian democratic parties](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Christian_democratic_parties).

### Key texts

- [Rerum Novarum: On Capital And Labor (1891)](https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum.html) – Pope Leo XIII

- [Christianity and the Class Struggle (1891, 1950)](https://reformationaldl.files.wordpress.com/2019/07/christianityandtheclassstruggle.pdff)[*[dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*] – Abraham Kuyper

- [Calvinism: six Stone-lectures (1899)](https://archive.org/details/calvinismsixstonny00kuyp/mode/2up) – Abraham Kuyper

- [Quadragesimo Anno: On Reconstruction of the Social Order (1931)](https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19310515_quadragesimo-anno.html) – Pope Pius XI

- [Reorganization of social economy: Developed and explained (1937)](https://archive.org/details/reorganizationof0000nell) – [Oswald von Nell-Breuining](/source/Oswald_von_Nell-Breuning)

- [A Personalist Manifesto (1938)](https://archive.org/details/personalistmanif0000moun/mode/2up) – Emmanuel Mounier

- [True Humanism (1938)](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.167657/mode/2up) – Jacques Maritain

- [The Person and the Common Good (1948)](https://archive.org/details/personcommongood0000mari_i2q9) – Jacques Maritain

- [Man and the State (1951)](https://archive.org/details/manstate00mari) – Jacques Maritain

- [Laudato si (2015)](https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html) – Pope Francis

### Other resources

- [*New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia*](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04708a.htm) – an article on Christian Democracy

- [*Christian Democracy in Western Europe: 1820–1953*](https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22115363) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120224211107/https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22115363) 24 February 2012 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) – a book by Michael Fogarty

- [For Democracy (1939)](https://archive.org/details/people-and-freedom-for-democracy/mode/2up) – People and Freedom Group

- [Denkschrift: A Political Order for Communal Life (1943)](https://web.archive.org/web/20200109022947/http://www.lutheranquarterly.com/uploads/7/4/0/1/7401289/freiburg_denkschrift_of_1943_-_appendix_4_economic_and_social_order.pdf) – Freiburg Circle

- ['Conservativism and Christian Democracy'](https://web.archive.org/web/20050313092229/http://www.davidwilletts.org.uk/ccoarticle.jsp?type=speech&sectionID=2&objectID=81937) – an essay by former (1992–2015) UK Conservative MP [David Willetts](/source/David_Willetts)

- ['Blue Labour + Red Tory = Christian Democracy?'](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040033/http://klice.co.uk/uploads/Ethics%20in%20Brief/EiB_Townsend_E2015_7_WEB.pdf) – an article by Nicholas Townsend, April 2015

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code Buddhism Buddhist anti-communism Buddhist feminism Buddhist law Buddhist modernism Buddhist nationalism 969 Movement Nichirenism Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism Buddhist socialism Engaged Buddhism Humanistic Buddhism Secular Buddhism Other Ancient Roman imperial cult American civil religion Clerical fascism Disestablishmentarianism Khalistan movement Neopaganist feminism Religious aspects of Nazism Gottgläubig State Shinto v t e Political ideologies Apoliticism The Establishment Anti Hardline Moderate Political spectrum Far-left Left-wing Centre-left Centrism Centre-right Right-wing Far-right Radical Reactionary Revolutionary Accelerationism Agrarianism Anarchism Capitalism Christian democracy Communalism Communism Bolshevism Marxism–Leninism National Bolshevism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Constitutionalism Corporatism Distributism Social credit Environmentalism Familialism Fascism Nazism Third Position Feminism Fundamentalism Green Hindutva Islamism Liberalism Libertarianism Marxism Monarchism Royalism Nationalism Republicanism Classical Modern Social democracy Socialism Third Way Zionism See also Authoritarianism Anti Collectivism Colonialism Culturalism Inter Mono Multi Extremism Federalism Confederalism Confederatism Globalism Ideological repression Imperialism Individualism Internationalism Localism Masculism Militarism Nihilism Pacifism Pluralism Populism Progressivism Reformism Regionalism Separatism Statism Syncretism Totalitarianism v t e Political philosophy Terms Authority Citizenship‎ Duty Elite Emancipation Freedom Government Hegemony Hierarchy Justice Law Legitimacy Liberty Monopoly Nation Obedience Peace People Pluralism Power Progress Propaganda Property Regime Revolution Rights Ruling class Society Sovereignty‎ State Utopia War Government Aristocracy Oligarchy Autocracy Bureaucracy Dictatorship Democracy Ochlocracy Gerontocracy Meritocracy Monarchy Tyranny Plutocracy Republic Technocracy Theocracy Ideologies Agrarianism Anarchism Capitalism Christian democracy Colonialism Communism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Corporatism Distributism Environmentalism Fascism Feminism Feudalism Hindutva Imperialism Islamism Liberalism Libertarianism Localism Marxism Monarchism Multiculturalism Nationalism Nazism Populism Republicanism Social Darwinism Social democracy Socialism Third Way Concepts Balance of power Bellum omnium contra omnes Body politic Clash of civilizations Common good Consent of the governed Divine right of kings Family as a model for the state Monopoly on violence Natural law Negative and positive rights Night-watchman state Noble lie Noblesse oblige Open society Ordered liberty Original position Overton window Separation of powers Social contract State of nature Statolatry Supermajority Tyranny of the majority Philosophers Antiquity Aristotle Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Mencius Mozi Plato political philosophy Polybius Shang Sun Tzu Thucydides Xenophon Middle Ages Al-Farabi Aquinas Averroes Bruni Dante Gelasius al-Ghazali Ibn Khaldun Marsilius Muhammad Nizam al-Mulk Ockham Plethon Wang Early modern period Boétie Bodin Bossuet Calvin Campanella Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Hobbes political philosophy James Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Milton More Müntzer Pufendorf Spinoza Suárez 18th and 19th centuries Al-Afghani Bakunin Bastiat Beccaria Bentham Bolingbroke Bonald Burke Carlyle Comte Condorcet Constant Cortés Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Haller Hegel Herder Hume Iqbal Jefferson Kant political philosophy Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Nietzsche Owen Paine Proudhon Renan Rousseau Sade Saint-Simon Smith Spencer de Staël Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Tucker Voltaire 20th and 21st centuries Agamben Ambedkar Apo Arendt Aron Badiou Bauman Benoist Berlin Bernstein Burnham Chomsky Dmowski Du Bois Dugin Dworkin Evola Fanon Fisher Foucault Fromm Fukuyama Gandhi Gentile Gramsci Guénon Habermas Hayek Hoppe Huntington Kautsky Khomeini Kirk Kropotkin Laclau Lenin Luxemburg Mansfield Mao Marcuse Maurras Michels Mises Mosca Mouffe Negri Nozick Nursi Nussbaum Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Popper Qutb Rand Rawls Röpke Rothbard Russell Sartre Savarkar Schmitt Scruton Shariati Sorel Spann Spengler Strauss Sun Taylor Voegelin Walzer Weber Works Analects of Confucius (c. 475 BCE) Republic (c. 375 BCE) Politics (c. 335 BCE) On the Republic (51 BCE) Siyasatnama (11th century) Treatise on Law (c. 1274) Monarchy (1313) Muqaddimah (1337) The Prince (1532) Patriarcha (1642) Leviathan (1651) Two Treatises of Government (1689) The Spirit of Law (1748) The Social Contract (1762) Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Rights of Man (1791) Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820) Democracy in America (1835–1840) The Communist Manifesto (1848) On Liberty (1859) The Revolt of the Masses (1929) The Road to Serfdom (1944) The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) A Theory of Justice (1971) The End of History and the Last Man (1992) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996) Related Authoritarianism Collectivism and individualism Conflict theories Contractualism Critique of political economy Egalitarianism Elite theory Elitism History of political thought Institutional discrimination Jurisprudence Justification for the state Political ethics Political spectrum Left-wing politics Centrism Right-wing politics Religion in politics Christianity Islam Judaism Secular state Separation of church and state State atheism Political violence Separatism Social justice Statism Totalitarianism Category:Political philosophy

Authority control databases International FAST National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Israel Other IdRef Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Christian democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_democracy) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_democracy?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.