# Chili pepper

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Varieties of pepper of the genus *Capsicum*

"Red Chillies" redirects here. For the film, see [*Red Chillies* (film)](/source/Red_Chillies_(film)). "Hot pepper" redirects here. For other uses, see [Hot pepper (disambiguation)](/source/Hot_pepper_(disambiguation)). For the dish often called simply "chili", see [Chili con carne](/source/Chili_con_carne). For the band, see [Red Hot Chili Peppers](/source/Red_Hot_Chili_Peppers).

Chili peppers of varied colours and sizes: green [bird's eye](/source/Bird's_eye_chili), yellow [Madame Jeanette](/source/Madame_Jeanette), red [cayenne](/source/Cayenne_pepper)

**Chili peppers**, also spelled **chile** or **chilli** (from [Classical Nahuatl](/source/Classical_Nahuatl_language) **[chīlli](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chilli#Classical_Nahuatl)** [\[ˈt͡ʃiːlːi\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl) [ⓘ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chilli.ogg)), are varieties of [berry-fruit](/source/Fruit#Berries) plants from the [genus](/source/Genus) *[Capsicum](/source/Capsicum)*, which are members of the nightshade family [Solanaceae](/source/Solanaceae), cultivated for their [pungency](/source/Pungency) (spicy heat). They are used as a [spice](/source/Spice) to add [pungency](/source/Pungency) in many cuisines. [Capsaicin](/source/Capsaicin) and the related [capsaicinoids](/source/Capsaicin#Capsaicinoids) give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or [applied topically](/source/Topical_application). Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types of [chili powder](/source/Chili_powder), each offering its own taste and heat level.

Chili peppers originated in Central or South America and were first cultivated in [Mexico](/source/Mexico). European explorers brought chili peppers back to the [Old World](/source/Old_World) in the late 16th century as part of the [Columbian exchange](/source/Columbian_exchange), which led to the cultivation of [multiple varieties](/source/List_of_Capsicum_cultivars) across the world for food and traditional medicine. Five *Capsicum* species have been widely cultivated: *[annuum](/source/Capsicum_annuum)*, *[baccatum](/source/Capsicum_baccatum)*, *[chinense](/source/Capsicum_chinense)*, *[frutescens](/source/Capsicum_frutescens)*, and *[pubescens](/source/Capsicum_pubescens)*.

## History

### Origins

*Capsicum* plants originated in modern-day Peru and Bolivia, and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.[1][2] They are one of the oldest [cultivated crops](/source/Agriculture) in the Americas.[2] Chili peppers were cultivated in east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago,[3][4] and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon.[5] They were among the first [self-pollinating](/source/Self-pollination) crops cultivated in those areas.[6][2]

[Peru](/source/Peru) has the highest diversity of cultivated *Capsicum*; it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.[7] The largest diversity of wild *Capsicum* peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: *ulupicas*, species with small round fruits including *C. eximium*, *C. cardenasii*, *C. eshbaughii*, and *C. caballeroi* landraces; and *arivivis* with small elongated fruits including *C. baccatum* var. *baccatum* and *C. chacoense* varieties.[7]

Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia *[Seikei Zusetsu](/source/Seikei_Zusetsu)*, 1804

### Etymology

The English word is from [Classical Nahuatl](/source/Classical_Nahuatl_language) **[chīlli](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chilli#Classical_Nahuatl)** with the same meaning.[8] The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile.[9] While *pepper* originally meant the genus *[Piper](/source/Piper_(genus))*, not *Capsicum*, the *Oxford English Dictionary* and Merriam-Webster record both usages.[10][11] The three primary spellings are *chili* (common in North America[12][13]), *chile* (Central America and parts of the US[14][15]) and *chilli* (United Kingdom and former British colonies[9][16][17]). The specific dish name "[chili con carne](/source/Chili_con_carne)" is normally written with one "l" in both American and British English.[18][19]

### Distribution to Europe

Further information: [Columbian exchange](/source/Columbian_exchange)

When [Christopher Columbus](/source/Christopher_Columbus) and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter *Capsicum* fruits. They called them "peppers" because, like [black pepper](/source/Black_pepper) (*Piper nigrum*), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods.[20][21] Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between the New World and the Old World called the Columbian exchange. Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike *[Piper](/source/Piper_(plant))* vines, which grow naturally only in the [tropics](/source/Tropics), chilies could be grown in [temperate climates](/source/Temperate_climate). By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in the Balkans, where they came to be processed into [paprika](/source/Paprika).[22][23]

### Distribution to the rest of the world

Further information: [Curry § Early modern trade](/source/Curry#Early_modern_trade)

The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely through [Portuguese](/source/Portuguese_Empire) and [Spanish traders](/source/Spanish_Empire) in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including [Goa](/source/Goa), [Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka), and [Malacca](/source/Malacca). From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread to [Melanesia](/source/Melanesia), [Micronesia](/source/Micronesia), and other [Pacific Islands](/source/Pacific_Islands) via their monopoly of the [Manila galleons](/source/Manila_galleons). Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in [Canton, China](/source/Canton%2C_China), and [Nagasaki](/source/Nagasaki), Japan.[24][25][26][27] The earliest known mention of the chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s.[28]

## Producing chili peppers

### Cultivation

Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly coloured fruits of species of *Capsicum*.[29][30] Botanically they are [berries](/source/Berry_(botany)). The plants are small, 20 to 60 centimetres (7.9 to 23.6 in) depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots, [greenhouses](/source/Greenhouse), or commercially in [polytunnels](/source/Polytunnel). The plants are [perennial](/source/Perennial), provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If the fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest.[29]

Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, [loamy](/source/Loam) soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F), that is moist but not waterlogged.[31] The seeds [germinate](/source/Germinate) only when warm, close to 21 °C (70 °F).[29] The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to 12 °C (54 °F); and are sensitive to cold.[29] The flowers can [self-pollinate](/source/Self-pollination). However, at extremely high temperatures, 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit.[32] For flowering, *Capsicum* is a non-[photoperiod](/source/Photoperiod)-sensitive crop.[33]

Chilies are vulnerable to pests including [aphids](/source/Aphid), glasshouse [red spider mite](/source/Red_spider_mite), and glasshouse [whitefly](/source/Whitefly), all of which feed on plant sap.[29] Common diseases include grey mould caused by *[Botrytis cinerea](/source/Botrytis_cinerea)*; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface.[29]

	- Cultivation

		- Young plants

		- Buds and flowers

		- Immature chilies in the field

		- Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar

		- Leaf damaged by [aphids](/source/Aphid)

		- Ripe chili pepper with seeds

### Preparation

Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make a variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry.[34]

	- Drying chilies

		- Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal

		- [Guntur chilli](/source/Guntur_chilli) drying in the sun, [Andhra Pradesh](/source/Andhra_Pradesh), India

		- [New Mexico chiles](/source/New_Mexico_chile) dried on the plant in [Mesilla, New Mexico](/source/Mesilla%2C_New_Mexico)

		- Sundried chili at [Imogiri](/source/Imogiri), Yogyakarta, Indonesia

		- [Ristras](/source/Ristra) of chili peppers drying in Arizona

		- Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in [San Pedro Atocpan](/source/San_Pedro_Atocpan), Mexico

		- Smoke-dried chipotle

Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and [chili powder](/source/Chili_powder),[35] Fresh or dried chilies are used to make [hot sauce](/source/Hot_sauce), a liquid [condiment](/source/Condiment)—usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes.[36] Dried chilies are used to make [chili oil](/source/Chili_oil), cooking oil infused with chili.[37]

	- Products

		- Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar

		- Chili powder, India

		- Brands of hot sauce, California

		- Chili oil

### Production

Green chili peppers 2024, millions of tonnes China 17.3 India 5.3 Turkey 3.4 Mexico 3.2 Indonesia 3.0 Spain 1.5 Egypt 1.1 World 44.8 Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[38]

In 2024, world production of green chillies and peppers (as any *Capsicum* or *Pimenta* fruits) was 45 million tonnes, with China accounting for 39% of the total and India with 12% (table). Global production of dry chillies and peppers in 2024 was 5.5 million tonnes, led by China, Thailand, and Bangladesh, each accounting for over 300,000 tonnes.[39]

### Species and cultivars

For a more comprehensive list, see [List of Capsicum cultivars](/source/List_of_Capsicum_cultivars).

Species of *[Capsicum](/source/Capsicum)* that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified [phylogenetic tree](/source/Phylogenetic_tree),[40] with examples of cultivars:[41] The [World Vegetable Center](/source/World_Vegetable_Center) has one of the largest collection of chili peppers in the world. It has researched climate change resistant cultivars.[42]

Capsicum C. annuum: bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeño, Thai, chiltepin, New Mexico chile C. frutescens: tabasco, malagueta, labuyo, piri piri, kambuzi C. chinense: hottest peppers, e.g. naga, habanero, datil, Scotch bonnet C. baccatum: aji C. pubescens: rocoto, chile de caballo C. eximium[a] C. lycianthoides

	- Cultivars

		- [Cayenne peppers](/source/Cayenne_pepper), a cultivar of *[Capsicum annuum](/source/Capsicum_annuum)*

		- [Tabasco peppers](/source/Tabasco_peppers), a cultivar of *[Capsicum frutescens](/source/Capsicum_frutescens)*, fruits pointing upwards

		- [Habanero peppers](/source/Habanero_peppers), a cultivar of *[Capsicum chinense](/source/Capsicum_chinense)*

		- [Cubanelle](/source/Cubanelle) peppers, United States

		- [Scotch bonnets](/source/Scotch_bonnet), Caribbean

		- [Bird's eye chilies](/source/Bird's_eye_chili), Thailand

		- [Cheongyang peppers](/source/Cheongyang_chili_pepper), South Korea

		- [Black Pearl](/source/Black_Pearl_pepper) cultivar of *[C. annuum](/source/Capsicum_annuum)*

		- [Choricero](/source/Choricero_peppers), Spain

		- Purple chilies, Myanmar

## Intensity

### Capsaicin

Main article: [Capsaicin](/source/Capsaicin)

Chemical structure

Space-filling model

[Capsaicin](/source/Capsaicin), the principal molecule that gives chili its heat[44]

The substances that give chili peppers their [pungency](/source/Pungency) (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are [capsaicin](/source/Capsaicin) (8-methyl-*N*-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called *capsaicinoids*.[44][45] Pure capsaicin is a [hydrophobic](/source/Hydrophobic), colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature.[46] The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a [habanero](/source/Habanero) plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.[47]

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with [pain receptors](/source/Nociceptor) in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the [brainstem](/source/Brainstem) and [thalamus](/source/Thalamus) where heat and discomfort are perceived.[48] However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers.[49] The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in [Scoville heat units](/source/Scoville_scale) (SHU), invented by American pharmacist [Wilbur Scoville](/source/Wilbur_Scoville) in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.[50] Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by [high-performance liquid chromatography](/source/High-performance_liquid_chromatography) (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure.[51]

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a [defense against mammalian predators](/source/Plant_defense_against_herbivory). A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a [hemipteran](/source/Hemiptera) bug, the risk of disease caused by a *[Fusarium](/source/Fusarium)* fungus carried by the insects is reduced.[52] As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds.[52]

### Intensity range of commonly used cultivars

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper 0 SHU Fresno, jalapeño 3,500–10,000 SHU Cayenne 30,000–50,000 SHU Piri piri, bird's eye 50,000–100,000 SHU Habanero, Scotch bonnet 100,000–350,000 SHU[53]

### Hottest by country

Further information: [Hottest chili pepper](/source/Hottest_chili_pepper)

The top 9 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:

Country Type Heat (SHU) United States Pepper X 2.69M[54] Wales Dragon's Breath 2.48M[55] United States Carolina Reaper 2.2M[56] Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad moruga scorpion 2.0M[57] India Ghost pepper (Bhut jolokia) 1.58M[58] Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad Scorpion Butch T 1.46M[59] England Naga Viper 1.38M[60] England Armageddon 1.3M[61] England Infinity chili 1.07M[62]

### Safety

The [volatile oil](/source/Volatile_oil) in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts.[63] Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, [hyperventilation](/source/Hyperventilation), sweating, vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.[64]

Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including [Auramine O](/source/Auramine_O), [Chrysoidine](/source/Chrysoidine), [Sudan stains I to IV](/source/Sudan_stain), [Para red](/source/Para_red), and [Rhodamine B](/source/Rhodamine_B) to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by [liquid chromatography](/source/Liquid_chromatography) used together with [mass spectrometry](/source/Mass_spectrometry).[65]

## As food

### Nutritional value

Peppers, hot chili, red, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 166 kJ (40 kcal) Carbohydrates 8.8 g Sugars 5.3 g Dietary fiber 1.5 g Fat 0.4 g Protein 1.9 g Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Vitamin A equiv. beta-Carotene 5% 48 μg 5% 534 μg Vitamin B6 30% 0.51 mg Vitamin C 160% 144 mg Minerals Quantity %DV† Iron 6% 1 mg Magnesium 5% 23 mg Potassium 11% 322 mg Other constituents Quantity Water 88 g Capsaicin 0.01g – 6 g Link to USDA Database entry †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[66] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[67]

Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% [carbohydrates](/source/Carbohydrate), 2% [protein](/source/Protein_(nutrition)), and 0.4% [fat](/source/Fat) (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 [calories](/source/Calorie), and are a rich source of [vitamin C](/source/Vitamin_C) and [vitamin B6](/source/Vitamin_B6).[68]

### Pungency

Due to their unique [pungency](/source/Pungency) (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in [Sichuanese food](/source/Sichuanese_food)), Mexican, Thai, Indian, Yoruba, [New Mexican cuisine](/source/New_Mexican_cuisine) and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century [Asian cuisine](/source/Asian_cuisine), chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.[69][70] Chili is a key ingredient in many [curries](/source/Curry), providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether.[71]

### Cooking

Chilies with a low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked.[72]

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruits. They are cooked as [greens](/source/Leaf_vegetable) in Filipino cuisine, where they are called *dahon ng sili* (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup *[tinola](/source/Tinola)*.[73] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in [kimchi](/source/Kimchi).[74]

### Regional cuisines

Chilies are present in many cuisines, including [curries](/source/Curries). In Peru, *Papa a la huancaina* is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and [aji amarillo](/source/Aji_amarillo) chilies.[75] In Thailand, *kaeng tai pla* fish curry is flavoured with a *tai pla* sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies.[75] In Jamaica, [jerk chicken](/source/Jerk_chicken) is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and [allspice](/source/Allspice).[75] Goan [vindaloo](/source/Vindaloo) curry uses the extremely hot [ghost pepper](/source/Ghost_pepper) or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish".[75] In [Bhutan](/source/Bhutan), *[ema datshi](/source/Ema_datshi)*, entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese, is the national dish.[76][77] Many [Mexican dishes](/source/Mexican_cuisine) use chilies of different types, including the [jalapeño](/source/Jalape%C3%B1o), [poblano](/source/Poblano), [habanero](/source/Habanero), [serrano](/source/Serrano_pepper), [chipotle](/source/Chipotle), [ancho](/source/Ancho), [pasilla](/source/Pasilla), [guajillo](/source/Guajillo_chili), [de árbol](/source/Chile_de_%C3%A1rbol), [cascabel](/source/Cascabel_chili) and [mulato](/source/Mulato_pepper). These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy *[mole](/source/Mole_(sauce))* sauce and Mexican [salsa](/source/Salsa_(food)) sauces.[78] In [Yoruba](/source/Yoruba_people) cuisine, chillies are well used in many dishes including [Ewa Agoyin](/source/Ewa_aganyin)[79] and [Obe ata](/source/Obe_ata).

	- Dishes

		- Mexican lamb chops with [guajillo](/source/Guajillo) chili sauce and charro beans

		- Lamb [Madras curry](/source/Madras_curry)

		- Pickled chili in India

		- Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan

		- [Filipino](/source/Filipino_cuisine) *[tinola](/source/Tinola)* chicken soup with *[labuyo](/source/Labuyo)* chili leaves

## Other uses

### Ornamental plants

Black pearl pepper, an ornamental variety

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

- [Black pearl pepper](/source/Black_pearl_pepper): small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves[80]

- Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits[81]

- [Bishop's crown pepper](/source/Bishop's_crown), Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell[82]

### Constrained risk-taking

Psychologist [Paul Rozin](/source/Paul_Rozin) suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.[83]

### Topical use and health research

[Capsaicin](/source/Capsaicin), the [pungent](/source/Pungency) chemical in chili peppers, is used as an [analgesic](/source/Analgesic) in [topical ointments](/source/Topical_medication), [nasal sprays](/source/Nasal_spray), and [dermal patches](/source/Dermal_patch) to relieve pain.[84] A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from [cardiovascular diseases](/source/Cardiovascular_disease) and [cancer](/source/Cancer).[85]

### Chemical irritants

Further information: [Pepper spray](/source/Pepper_spray) and [Chili grenade](/source/Chili_grenade)

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in [pepper sprays](/source/Pepper_spray) and some [tear gas](/source/Tear_gas) formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as [less-lethal weapons](/source/Less-lethal_weapon) for control of unruly individuals or crowds.[86] Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.[86]

In Africa and Asia, elephants nightly destroy crops and endanger people. Chilis are effective at keeping elephants away, as capsaicin irritates their large and sensitive [olfactory](/source/Olfaction) and nasal system. Farmers can plant a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops; or they may burn chili dung bombs, bricks of dung and chili, creating a noxious smoke.[87]

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific [pain receptor](/source/Nociceptors). Some species in the chili peppers' natural range eat the fruits, possibly dispersing the seeds.[49]

### Supposed aphrodisiac

[Peperoncino](/source/Peperoncino) chilies in Italy, advertised as an [aphrodisiac](/source/Aphrodisiac)[b]

The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist [José de Acosta](/source/Jos%C3%A9_de_Acosta) noted the supposed [aphrodisiac](/source/Aphrodisiac) power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's [spiritual health](/source/Spiritual_health).[88] In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle."[88]

### In space

The 2021 Plant Habitat-04 experiment aboard the [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) grew four chili plants in 137 days, producing twenty-six peppers across two harvests. Most were eaten by the crew; twelve were returned to Earth for study. The plants were a specially dwarfed variety of the Hatch [cultivar](/source/Cultivar). This was the "first generally recognized fruiting crop in space", following harvests of leaf crops such as lettuce and kale from 2014 onwards.[89]

## See also

- [Food and drink prohibitions](/source/Food_and_drink_prohibitions) – which in some cultures includes chili peppers

- [Hatch, New Mexico](/source/Hatch%2C_New_Mexico) – known as the "Chile Capital of the World"

- [History of chocolate](/source/History_of_chocolate) – which the [Maya](/source/Maya_peoples) drank with ground chili peppers

- [International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile](/source/International_Connoisseurs_of_Green_and_Red_Chile) – organization for the promotion of chili peppers

- [Peppersoup](/source/Peppersoup)

- [Salsa (sauce)](/source/Salsa_(sauce))

- [Sweet chili sauce](/source/Sweet_chili_sauce) – a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** *C. eximium* is used as a spice in Bolivia.[43]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** The sign says in Italian "Calabrian [Viagra](/source/Viagra)".

## Further reading

- Peppers: A Story of Hot Pursuits. Naj, Amal. Alfred A. Knopf. New York. 1992. ISBN 0394570774, 9780394570778.

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pickersgill_1-0)** B Pickersgill (December 1971). ["Relationships Between Weedy and Cultivated Forms in Some Species of Chili Peppers (Genus Capsicum)"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x). *Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution*. **25** (4): 683–691. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1971Evolu..25..683P](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971Evolu..25..683P). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28564789](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28564789). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [205772121](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205772121).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-bosland_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-bosland_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-bosland_2-2) PW Bosland (1998). ["Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop"](https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html). In Janick J (ed.). *Progress in New Crops*. Arlington, Virginia: ASHS Press. pp. 479–487. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191107063036/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html) from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Pat Bailey (17 April 2014). ["Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico"](https://www.ucdavis.edu/news/birthplace-domesticated-chili-pepper-identified-mexico). UC Davis. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20260112093324/https://www.ucdavis.edu/news/birthplace-domesticated-chili-pepper-identified-mexico) from the original on 12 January 2026. Retrieved 12 January 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kraft_2014_4-0)** Kraft KH, Brown CH, Nabhan GP, Luedeling E, Luna Ruiz J, d'Eeckenbrugge GC, Hijmans RJ, Gepts P (April 2014). ["Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4035960). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America*. **111** (17): 6165–6170. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2014PNAS..111.6165K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..111.6165K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.1308933111](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1308933111). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4035960](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4035960). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [24753581](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24753581).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Chiou_5-0)** Chiou KL, Hastorf CA (16 December 2014). "A Systematic Approach to Species-Level Identification of Chile Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Seeds: Establishing the Groundwork for Tracking the Domestication and Movement of Chile Peppers through the Americas and Beyond". *Economic Botany*. **68** (3). New York Botanical Garden Press: 316–336. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2014EcBot..68..316C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EcBot..68..316C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s12231-014-9279-2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12231-014-9279-2). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [43305668](https://www.jstor.org/stable/43305668). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [36556206](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36556206).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Carrizo García C, Barfuss MH, Sehr EM, Barboza GE, Samuel R, Moscone EA, Ehrendorfer F (July 2016). ["Phylogenetic relationships, diversification and expansion of chili peppers ( Capsicum, Solanaceae)"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4934398). *Annals of Botany*. **118** (1): 35–51. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/aob/mcw079](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faob%2Fmcw079). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0305-7364](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7364). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4934398](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4934398). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [27245634](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27245634).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-van_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-van_7-1) Maarten van Zonneveld; Marleni Ramirez; David E. Williams; Michael Petz; Sven Meckelmann; Teresa Avila; Carlos Bejarano; Llermé Ríos; Karla Peña; Matthias Jäger; Dimary Libreros; Karen Amaya; Xavier Scheldeman (2015). ["Screening Genetic Resources of Capsicum Peppers in Their Primary Center of Diversity in Bolivia and Peru"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4581705). *PLOS ONE*. **10** (9) e0134663. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015PLoSO..1034663V](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1034663V). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pone.0134663](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0134663). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4581705](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4581705). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [26402618](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26402618).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["chili (n.)"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/chili). [Online Etymology Dictionary](/source/Online_Etymology_Dictionary). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240703075611/https://www.etymonline.com/word/chili) from the original on 3 July 2024. Retrieved 11 October 2024.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-OED1933_chilli_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-OED1933_chilli_9-1) ["Chilli, chilly"](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271839/page/n349/mode/1up). *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)*. Vol. 2 C (1 Corrected re-issue ed.). Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. 1933. p. 346. Retrieved 19 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-OED1913_pepper_10-0)** ["Pepper"](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99996/page/n949/mode/1up). *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)*. Vol. 7 N–Poy (1 Corrected re-issue ed.). Oxford, UK: [Clarendon Press](/source/Clarendon_Press). 1913. p. 663. Retrieved 19 July 2021. (sense 2b of *pepper*)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MW_pepper_11-0)** ["pepper"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pepper). *[Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary](/source/Merriam-Webster)*. Merriam-Webster. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1032680871](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871). Retrieved 21 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MW_chili_12-0)** ["Chili"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Chili). *[Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary](/source/Merriam-Webster)*. Merriam-Webster. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1032680871](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871). Retrieved 21 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** *The [Canadian Oxford Dictionary](/source/Canadian_Oxford_Dictionary)* lists *chili* as the main entry.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Heiser C (August 1990). *Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-674-79681-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-79681-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MW_chile_15-0)** ["chile"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chile). *[Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary](/source/Merriam-Webster)*. Merriam-Webster. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1032680871](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871). Retrieved 21 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Usage example: ["Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur"](http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/article2872144.ece). Thehindubusinessline.com. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120210070948/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/article2872144.ece) from the original on 10 February 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Usage example: ["Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household"](http://sundaytimes.lk/100314/Magazine/sundaytimesmagazine_06.html). *[The Sunday Times](/source/The_Sunday_Times_(Sri_Lanka))*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120114053413/http://sundaytimes.lk/100314/Magazine/sundaytimesmagazine_06.html) from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-walsh_18-0)** Walsh, Robb (2015). [*The Chili Cookbook: From Three-Bean to Four-Alarm, Con Carne to Vegetarian, Cookoff-Worthy Recipes for the One-Pot Classic (origin in Mexico: p 15-16)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bZPaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60774-795-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60774-795-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Naylor, Tony (20 January 2015). ["How to eat: chilli con carne"](https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2015/jan/20/how-to-eat-chilli-con-carne). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201129150242/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2015/jan/20/how-to-eat-chilli-con-carne) from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-cabi_2000_20-0)** Bosland PW, Votava E (2000). [*Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ESCNZMvMAYAC). New York City: [CABI](/source/Centre_for_Agriculture_and_Bioscience_International). p. 1. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-85199-335-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-335-5). Retrieved 29 November 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["The Story of Chile Peppers"](https://cpi.nmsu.edu/chile-info/for-kids-pages/the-story-of-chile-peppers.html). *New Mexico State University Chile Pepper Institute*. Retrieved 7 August 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sauer_22-0)** Sauer JD (2017). *Historical Geography of Crop Plants A Select Roster*. CRC Press. p. 161. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-351-44062-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-44062-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Raghavan_23-0)** S Raghavan (2006). *Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings*. CRC Press. p. 8. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4200-0436-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-0436-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Nils-Bertil Wallin (11 June 2004). ["Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire"](https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/chili-small-fruit-sets-global-palettes-fire). Yale University. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20251117161724/https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/chili-small-fruit-sets-global-palettes-fire) from the original on 17 November 2025. Retrieved 17 November 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** DeWitt D (2020). *Chile Peppers A Global History*. University of New Mexico Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8263-6180-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-6180-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** [Collingham E](/source/Lizzie_Collingham) (February 2006). [*Curry*](https://archive.org/details/currytaleofcooks00coll). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-09-943786-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-943786-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-E.V.Nybe2007_27-0)** Raj NM, Peter KV, Nybe EV (1 January 2007). [*Spices*](https://books.google.com/books?id=HHs6ANrJ-MEC&pg=PA107). New India Publishing. pp. 107–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-89422-44-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89422-44-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Brian R. Dott (2020). *The Chile Pepper in China*. [Columbia University Press](/source/Columbia_University_Press). p. 21. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-55130-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-55130-4). The earliest known record for chiles in a Chinese source is from Hangzhou, Zhejiang, in 1591

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-RHS_howto_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-RHS_howto_29-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-RHS_howto_29-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-RHS_howto_29-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-RHS_howto_29-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-RHS_howto_29-5) ["How to grow chilli pepper / RHS Gardening"](https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/vegetables/chilli-pepper). 3 December 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170622091504/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/vegetables/chilli-pepper) from the original on 22 June 2017. Retrieved 12 October 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** ["HORT410. Peppers – Notes"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181226060452/https://hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort410/pepper/pe00001.htm%0A%20). [Purdue University](/source/Purdue_University) Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. Archived from [the original](https://hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort410/pepper/pe00001.htm) on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** ["Growing Peppers: The Important Facts"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130127080844/http://www.gardenersgardening.com/growingpeppers.html). GardenersGardening.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.gardenersgardening.com/growingpeppers.html) on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["The Effect of Extreme Temperatures on the Tomato and Pepper Crop"](https://www.ontario.ca/page/effect-extreme-temperatures-tomato-and-pepper-crop). King's Printer for Ontario, 2012–24, Canada. 5 July 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Hui YH, ed. (2005). *Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). pp. 20–13. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4665-0787-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-0787-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BBC_Gardeners'_World_34-0)** ["How to dry chillies"](https://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/grow-plants/how-to-store-chillies/). *[BBC](/source/BBC) Gardeners' World Magazine*. 4 September 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Farrell_1998_35-0)** Farrell KT (1998). [*Spices, Condiments and Seasonings*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ehAFUhWV4QMC&pg=PA215). [Chapman & Hall](/source/Chapman_%26_Hall). pp. 215–217. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8342-1337-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8342-1337-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Thompson JT (24 April 2012). [*Hot Sauce!*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wtp8EDOKaEC&q=%22hot%20sauce%22%201807&pg=PA15). North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Publishers. p. 15. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60342-813-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60342-813-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything — even dessert"](https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671). *Today.com*. 3 June 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210603170426/https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671) from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-fao_38-0)** ["Green chili production in 2024; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists"](https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL). UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2026. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211114074500/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL) from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** ["Production of dry chillies and peppers in 2024; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists"](https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL). UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2026. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211114074500/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL) from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Shiragaki_Yokoi_Tezuka_2020_40-0)** Shiragaki K, Yokoi S, Tezuka T (20 November 2020). ["Phylogenetic Analysis and Molecular Diversity of Capsicum Based on rDNA-ITS Region"](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fhorticulturae6040087). *Horticulturae*. **6** (4): 87. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3390/horticulturae6040087](https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fhorticulturae6040087).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Normah_2013_41-0)** Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM (2013). [*Conservation of tropical plant species*](https://books.google.com/books?id=p9MKNopksAgC). New York: [Springer](/source/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media). p. 397. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4614-3775-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3775-8). Retrieved 28 November 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** [Wei, Clarissa](/source/Clarissa_Wei) (16 June 2023). ["The Quest to Save Chili Peppers"](https://www.newyorker.com/science/elements/the-quest-to-save-chili-peppers). *The New Yorker*. Retrieved 17 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Heiser CB, Smith PG (15 October 1958). "New Species of Capsicum from South America". *Brittonia*. **10** (4): 194–201. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1958Britt..10..194H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958Britt..10..194H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2804950](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2804950). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2804950](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2804950).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kosuge_1961_45-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kosuge_1961_45-1) Kosuge S, Inagaki Y, Okumura H (1961). ["Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles"](https://doi.org/10.1271%2Fnogeikagaku1924.35.10_923). *Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi*. **35**: 923–927. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.35.10_923](https://doi.org/10.1271%2Fnogeikagaku1924.35.10_923). Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Kosuge S, Inagaki Y (1962). "Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent". *Journal of the Agricultural Chemical Society of Japan* (in Japanese). **36**: 251–254.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pubchem_47-0)** ["Capsaicin"](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1548943). PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. 27 May 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230513181353/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1548943) from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Ruiz-Lau N, Medina-Lara F, Minero-García Y, Zamudio-Moreno E, Guzmán-Antonio A, Echevarría-Machado I, Martínez-Estévez M (1 March 2011). ["Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq"](https://doi.org/10.21273%2FHORTSCI.46.3.487). *HortScience*. **46** (3): 487–492. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487](https://doi.org/10.21273%2FHORTSCI.46.3.487).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-oneill_49-0)** O'Neill J, Brock C, Olesen AE, Andresen T, Nilsson M, Dickenson AH (October 2012). ["Unravelling the mystery of capsaicin: a tool to understand and treat pain"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3462993). *Pharmacological Reviews*. **64** (4): 939–971. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1124/pr.112.006163](https://doi.org/10.1124%2Fpr.112.006163). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3462993](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3462993). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23023032](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23023032).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tewksbury_Nabhan_2001_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tewksbury_Nabhan_2001_50-1) Tewksbury JJ, Nabhan GP (July 2001). "Seed dispersal. Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies". *Nature*. **412** (6845): 403–404. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2001Natur.412..403T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Natur.412..403T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/35086653](https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35086653). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11473305](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11473305). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4389051](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4389051).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** ["History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100823044606/http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm). Tabasco.Com. Archived from [the original](http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm) on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-guzman_52-0)** Guzmán I, Bosland PW (2017). ["Sensory properties of chili pepper heat - and its importance to food quality and cultural preference"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appet.2017.06.026). *Appetite*. **117**: 186–190. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.appet.2017.06.026](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appet.2017.06.026). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28662907](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28662907).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-pnas_53-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-pnas_53-1) Tewksbury JJ, Reagan KM, Machnicki NJ, Carlo TA, Haak DC, Peñaloza AL, Levey DJ (August 2008). ["Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2575311). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America*. **105** (33): 11808–11811. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008PNAS..10511808T](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..10511808T). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.0802691105](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0802691105). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2575311](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2575311). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18695236](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18695236).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Filippone PT (11 October 2000). ["Chile Pepper Heat Scoville Scale"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120226211137/http://homecooking.about.com/library/weekly/blhotchiles.htm). Homecooking.about.com. Archived from [the original](http://homecooking.about.com/library/weekly/blhotchiles.htm) on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2013.

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## External links

Look up ***[chili](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chili)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikibooks [Cookbook](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook) has a recipe/module on

- ***[Chilli Pepper](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook:Chilli_Pepper)***

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Capsicum](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Capsicum).

- [Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses](https://web.archive.org/web/20050220140720/http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html)

- [The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University](https://web.archive.org/web/20161120165150/http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/)

- [Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop](http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html)

- [Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo](https://web.archive.org/web/20121114184110/http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/cns/no69/CNS06908.pdf) (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)

- [The Hot Pepper List](http://www.pepperscale.com/hot-pepper-list/) List of chili pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)

v t e Chili peppers Cultivars Capsicum annuum Aleppo Banana Bell Bird's eye Black Pearl Cascabel Cayenne Cheongyang Chiltepin Cubanelle Chile de árbol Dundicut Espelette Facing Heaven Fish Florina Friggitello Guajillo Guntur Sannam Hungarian wax Jalapeño Korean Medusa New Mexico Big Jim Chimayo Fresno Sandia Santa Fe Grande Padrón Pasilla Peperoncino Pequin Peter Pimiento Piquillo Poblano Serrano Shishito Siling haba Urfa biber Capsicum baccatum Bishop's crown Lemon drop Peppadew Capsicum chinense Adjuma Ají caballero Ají dulce Bhut jolokia (ghost pepper) Carolina Reaper Datil Dragon's Breath Ellachipur Sanman Fatalii Habanero Hainan yellow lantern Infinity Komodo Dragon Madame Jeanette Nagabon Naga Morich Naga Viper Pepper X Red Savina Scotch bonnet Trinidad Moruga scorpion Trinidad Scorpion Butch T Capsicum frutescens African Birdseye Kambuzi Malagueta Labuyo Tabasco pepper Culinary uses Adobada Chili con carne Chili dog Chili pepper paste Chili pepper water (wai nīoi) Chili powder Chili thread Ema datshi Filfel chuma Gochujang Harissa Nam phrik Peppersoup Piperade Condiments and sauces Biber salçası Chili oil Chili sauce Hot sauce Kōrēgusu Pepper jelly Pickapeppa Sauce Shichimi Sriracha Sweet chili sauce Tabasco sauce XO sauce See also Capsaicin Chile Pepper Institute Chilympiad Hot pepper challenge Hunan hand syndrome Pepper spray Ristra Scoville scale Category Commons

v t e Capsicum cultivars C. annuum var. annuum Almora Lakhori Mirchi Aleppo Baklouti pepper Banana pepper Banaras Lal Bharwamirch Beaver Dam pepper Bell pepper Bhiwapur Bird's eye Byadagi Cascabel Cayenne Cheongyang Chilaca Cubanelle De árbol Diavoletto d'Abruzzo Dundicut Edayur Er jing tiao Espelette Facing heaven Friggitello Guajillo Guntur Sannam Harmal Hungarian wax Jalapeño Kashmiri red Khola Korean Medusa Mulato Nandurbar Mirchi New Mexico chile Big Jim Chimayó Fresno No. 9 Sandia Santa Fe Grande Padrón Pasilla Peter Peperone crusco Pimiento Piquillo Poblano Ramnathapuram Mundu Serrano Shishito Siling haba Sirarakhong Hathei C. annuum var. glabriusculum Piquín Wild chiltepin C. chinense Adjuma Ají dulce Bhut jolokia Carolina Reaper Chocolate habanero Datil Dragon's Breath Fatalii Habanaga Habanero Hainan yellow lantern Infinity Madame Jeanette Nagabon Naga Mircha Naga Morich Naga Viper 'Red Savina' habanero Scotch bonnet Trinidad Moruga scorpion Trinidad scorpion 'Butch T' Pepper X C. frutescens African bird's eye Kambuzi Labuyo Malagueta Mizo Tabasco C. baccatum Ají Bishop's crown Lemon drop Sweet piquanté pepper C. pubescens Rocoto pepper Category Commons

v t e Culinary herbs and spices Herbs Angelica Basil Holy Thai Lemon Bay leaf Indian bay leaf (tejpat) Boldo Borage Chervil Chives garlic / Chinese Cicely Coriander leaf / Cilantro Bolivian Vietnamese (rau răm) Culantro Cress Curry leaf Dill Epazote Hemp Hoja santa Houttuynia cordata (giấp cá) Hyssop Jimbu Kinh gioi (Vietnamese balm) Kkaennip Lavender Lemon balm Lemon grass Lemon myrtle Lemon verbena Limnophila aromatica (rice-paddy herb) Lovage Marjoram Mint Mugwort Mitsuba Oregano Parsley Perilla Rosemary Rue Sage Savory Sanshō leaf Shiso Sorrel Tarragon Thyme Woodruff Spices Aonori Ajwain Alligator pepper Allspice Amchoor Anise Asafoetida Black pepper Brazilian pepper Camphor Caraway Cardamom black Cassia Celery powder Celery seed Charoli Chenpi Chili Chili powder Cayenne Chipotle Crushed red pepper Jalapeño New Mexico Tabasco Cultivars Cinnamon Clove Coriander seed Cubeb Cumin Nigella sativa Bunium persicum Deulkkae Dill / Dill seed Fennel Fenugreek blue Fingerroot Galangal greater lesser Garlic Ginger Aromatic ginger Golpar Grains of paradise Grains of Selim Horseradish Japanese pricklyash Juniper berry Kokum Korarima Dried lime Liquorice Litsea cubeba Long pepper Mango-ginger Mastic Mahleb Mustard black brown white Nigella Njangsa Nutmeg Onion powder Paprika Peruvian pepper Pomegranate seed Poppy seed Radhuni Rose Saffron Sarsaparilla Sassafras Sesame Shiso Sichuan pepper (huājiāo) Star anise Sumac Tamarind Tasmanian pepper Tonka bean Turmeric Uzazi Vanilla Voatsiperifery Wasabi Yuzu zest Zedoary Zereshk Zest Blends Adjika Advieh Baharat Beau monde seasoning Berbere Bouquet garni Buknu Chaat masala Chaunk Cinnamon sugar Crab boil Curry powder Doubanjiang Douchi Duqqa Fines herbes Five-spice powder Garam masala Garlic powder Garlic salt Gochujang Harissa Hawaij Herbes de Provence Húng lìu Idli podi Italian seasoning Jamaican jerk spice Khmeli suneli Lemon pepper Mitmita Mixed spice Montreal steak seasoning Mulling spices Old Bay Seasoning Panch phoron Persillade Powder-douce Pumpkin pie spice Qâlat daqqa Quatre épices Ras el hanout Recado rojo Sharena sol Shichimi Tabil Tajin Tandoori masala Thuna paha Vadouvan Yuzu koshō Za'atar Lists Culinary By region Australian Bangladeshi Indian Pakistani Related topics Chinese herbology Herbal tea Marination Seasoning Spice rub

Authority control databases: National Czech Republic

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Chili pepper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chili_pepper) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chili_pepper?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.