# Child

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Human between birth and puberty

"Children" and "Childhood" redirect here. For other uses, see [Child (disambiguation)](/source/Child_(disambiguation)), [Children (disambiguation)](/source/Children_(disambiguation)), and [Childhood (disambiguation)](/source/Childhood_(disambiguation)).

Part of a series on Human growth and development Stages Gamete Zygote Embryo Fetus Infant Toddler Child Preadolescent Adolescent Emerging and early adulthood Young adult Middle adult Old adult Dying Biological milestones Fertilization Pregnancy Childbirth Walking Language acquisition Puberty Menopause Ageing Death Development and psychology Pre- and perinatal Development Infant and child Nature versus nurture Adolescent Youth Young adult Adult Maturity Developmental stage theories Attachment Ecological Psychosocial Psychosexual development Moral Cognitive Cultural-historical Evolutionary Psychology portal v t e

International children in traditional clothing at [Liberty Weekend](/source/Liberty_Weekend)

A **child** (pl. **children**) is a [human](/source/Human) being between the stages of [birth](/source/Childbirth) and [puberty](/source/Puberty),[1][2] or between the [developmental period](/source/Development_of_the_human_body) of [infancy](/source/Infancy) and puberty.[3] The term may also refer to an unborn human being.[4][5] In English-speaking countries, the legal definition of *child* generally refers to a [minor](/source/Minor_(law)), in this case as a person younger than the local [age of majority](/source/Age_of_majority) (there are exceptions such as, for example, the consumption and purchase of [alcoholic beverages](/source/Alcoholic_beverage) even after said age of majority[6]), regardless of their physical, mental and sexual development as biological [adults](/source/Adult).[1][7][8] Children generally have fewer [rights](/source/Children's_rights) and responsibilities than adults. They are generally classed as unable to make serious decisions.

*Child* may also describe a relationship with a [parent](/source/Parent) (such as [sons](/source/Son) and [daughters](/source/Daughter) of any age)[9] or, [metaphorically](/source/Metaphor), an [authority figure](/source/Authority_figure), or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties."[10]

## Biological, legal and social definitions

Children playing ball games, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD

In the biological sciences, a child is usually defined as a person between birth and puberty,[1][2] or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty.[3] Legally, the term *child* may refer to anyone below the age of majority or some other age limit.

The [United Nations](/source/United_Nations) [Convention on the Rights of the Child](/source/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child) defines *child* as, "A human being below the age of 18 years unless under the [law](/source/Law) applicable to the child, [majority](/source/Age_of_majority) is attained earlier."[11] This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term *child* may also refer to someone below another legally defined age limit unconnected to the age of majority. In [Singapore](/source/Singapore), for example, a *child* is legally defined as someone under the age of 14 under the "Children and Young Persons Act" whereas the age of majority is 21.[12][13] In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the age of 21.[14]

Some English definitions of the word *child* include the [fetus](/source/Fetus) (sometimes termed *the unborn*).[15] In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a [rite of passage](/source/Rite_of_passage), which may or may not correspond to the time of puberty.

Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult or [child custody](/source/Child_custody), whether their parents divorce or not.

## Developmental stages of childhood

Further information: [Child development stages](/source/Child_development_stages) and [Child development](/source/Child_development)

### Early childhood

Children playing the [violin](/source/Violin) in a group recital, Ithaca, New York, 2011

Children in [Madagascar](/source/Madagascar), 2011

Child playing piano, 1984

[Early childhood](/source/Early_childhood) follows the [infancy](/source/Infant) stage and begins with [toddlerhood](/source/Toddler) when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently.[16][17] While toddlerhood ends around age 3 when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately until the age of 5 or 6. However, according to the [National Association for the Education of Young Children](/source/National_Association_for_the_Education_of_Young_Children), early childhood also includes infancy. At this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and support the development process of the child, which then will lead to the child's autonomy. Also during this stage, a strong emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children also start preschool and kindergarten at this age; and hence, their social lives.

### Middle childhood

Middle childhood begins at around age 7, and ends at around age 9 or 10.[18] Together, early and middle childhood are called formative years. In this middle period, children develop socially and mentally. They are at a stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to become more independent and enhance their individuality. During middle childhood, children enter the school years, where they are presented with a different setting than they are used to. This new setting creates new challenges and faces for children.[19] Upon the entrance of school, mental disorders that would normally not be noticed come to light. Many of these disorders include: [autism](/source/Autism), [dyslexia](/source/Dyslexia), [dyscalculia](/source/Dyscalculia), and [ADHD](/source/ADHD).[20]: 303–309 [Special education](/source/Special_education), [least restrictive environment](/source/Least_restrictive_environment), [response to intervention](/source/Response_to_intervention) and [individualized education plans](/source/Individualized_education_plan) are all specialized plans to help children with disabilities.[20]: 310–311

Middle childhood is the time when children begin to understand responsibility and are beginning to be shaped by their peers and parents. Chores and more responsible decisions come at this time, as do social comparison and social play.[20]: 338 During social play, children learn from and teach each other, often through observation.[21]

### Late childhood

Main article: [Preadolescence](/source/Preadolescence)

Preadolescence is a stage of human development following early childhood and preceding [adolescence](/source/Adolescence). Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12, ending with the major onset of puberty, with markers such as [menarche](/source/Menarche), [spermarche](/source/Spermarche), and the peak of height velocity occurring. These changes usually occur between ages 11 and 14. It may also be defined as the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty.[22] Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties. Preadolescent children have a different view of the world from younger children in many significant ways. Typically, theirs is a more realistic view of life than the intense, fantasy-oriented world of earliest childhood. Preadolescents have more mature, sensible, realistic thoughts and actions: 'the most "sensible" stage of development...the child is a much *less emotional being* now.'[23] Preadolescents may well view human [relationships](/source/Interpersonal_relationship) differently (e.g. they may notice the flawed, human side of [authority](/source/Authority) figures). Alongside that, they may begin to develop a sense of [self](/source/Self_(psychology))-[identity](/source/Identity_(social_science)), and to have increased feelings of [independence](/source/Independence): 'may feel an individual, no longer "just one of the family."'[24]

## Developmental stages post-childhood

### Adolescence

An adolescent girl, photographed by [Paolo Monti](/source/Paolo_Monti)

[Adolescence](/source/Adolescence) is usually determined to be between the onset of puberty and legal adulthood: mostly corresponding to the teenage years (13–19). However, [puberty](/source/Puberty) usually begins before the teenage years (10—11 for girls and 11—12 for boys). Although biologically a child is a human being between the stages of [birth](/source/Childbirth) and [puberty](/source/Puberty),[1][2] adolescents are legally considered children, as they tend to lack adult rights and are still required to attend compulsory schooling in many cultures, though this varies. The onset of adolescence brings about various physical, [psychological](/source/Psychological) and behavioral changes. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function, and even within a single nation-state or culture there may be different ages at which an individual is considered to be mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain tasks.

## History

Main article: [History of childhood](/source/History_of_childhood)

*Playing Children*, by [Song dynasty](/source/Song_dynasty) [Chinese artist](/source/Chinese_art) Su Hanchen, c. 1150 AD.

During the European [Renaissance](/source/Renaissance), artistic depictions of children increased dramatically, which did not have much effect on the social attitude toward children, however.[25]

The French historian [Philippe Ariès](/source/Philippe_Ari%C3%A8s) argued that during the 1600s, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe,[26] however other historians like [Nicholas Orme](/source/Nicholas_Orme) have challenged this view and argued that childhood has been seen as a separate stage since at least the medieval period.[27] Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection and training by the adults around them. The English philosopher [John Locke](/source/John_Locke) was particularly influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the [tabula rasa](/source/Tabula_rasa), which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate". A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that it was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with correct notions. During the early period of [capitalism](/source/Capitalism), the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the [Protestant](/source/Protestantism) countries of the [Dutch Republic](/source/Dutch_Republic) and [England](/source/England), brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. [Puritanism](/source/Puritanism) stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children.[28]

*[The Age of Innocence](/source/The_Age_of_Innocence_(painting))* c. 1785/8. Reynolds emphasized the natural grace of children in his paintings.

The modern notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to emerge during the 18th-century [Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment) and the [Romantic period](/source/Romanticism) that followed it.[29][30] [Jean Jacques Rousseau](/source/Jean_Jacques_Rousseau) formulated the romantic attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel *[Emile: or, On Education](/source/Emile%3A_or%2C_On_Education)*. Building on the ideas of [John Locke](/source/John_Locke) and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood as a brief period of sanctuary before people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood.[29] Sir [Joshua Reynolds](/source/Joshua_Reynolds)' extensive children portraiture demonstrated the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting *[The Age of Innocence](/source/The_Age_of_Innocence_(painting))* emphasizes the innocence and natural grace of the posing child and soon became a public favourite.[31]

Brazilian princesses [Leopoldina](/source/Princess_Leopoldina_of_Brazil) (left) and [Isabel](/source/Isabel%2C_Princess_Imperial_of_Brazil) (center) with an unidentified friend, c. 1860.

The idea of childhood as a locus of divinity, purity, and innocence is further expounded upon in [William Wordsworth](/source/William_Wordsworth)'s "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a complex mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation".[30] This Romantic conception of childhood, historian Margaret Reeves suggests, has a longer history than generally recognized, with its roots traceable to similarly imaginative constructions of childhood circulating, for example, in the neo-platonic poetry of seventeenth-century metaphysical poet [Henry Vaughan](/source/Henry_Vaughan) (e.g., "The Retreate", 1650; "Childe-hood", 1655). Such views contrasted with the stridently didactic, Calvinist views of infant depravity.[32]

Armenian scouts in 1918

With the onset of [industrialisation](/source/Industrial_Revolution) in England in 1760, the divergence between high-minded romantic ideals of childhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly apparent. By the late 18th century, British children were specially employed in factories and mines and as [chimney sweeps](/source/Chimney_sweep),[33] often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay.[34] As the century wore on, the contradiction between the conditions on the ground for poor children and the middle-class notion of childhood as a time of simplicity and innocence led to the first campaigns for the imposition of legal protection for children.

British reformers attacked [child labor](/source/Child_labor) from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by [Charles Dickens](/source/Charles_Dickens).[35] The campaign eventually led to the [Factory Acts](/source/Factory_Acts), which mitigated the exploitation of children at the workplace[33][36]

### Modern concepts of childhood

Children play in a fountain in a summer evening, [Davis, California](/source/Davis%2C_California).

An old man and his granddaughter in [Turkey](/source/Turkey).

[Nepalese](/source/People_of_Nepal) children playing with [cats](/source/Cat).

[Harari](/source/Harari_people) girls in Ethiopia.

The modern attitude to children emerged by the late 19th century; the Victorian middle and upper classes emphasized the role of the family and the sanctity of the child – an attitude that has remained dominant in Western societies ever since.[37] The genre of [children's literature](/source/Children's_literature) took off, with a proliferation of humorous, child-oriented books attuned to the child's imagination. [Lewis Carroll](/source/Lewis_Carroll)'s fantasy *[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland](/source/Alice's_Adventures_in_Wonderland)*, published in 1865 in England, was a landmark in the genre; regarded as the first "English masterpiece written for children", its publication opened the "First Golden Age" of children's literature.

The latter half of the 19th century saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children across Europe, which decisively removed children from the workplace into schools.[38][39]

The market economy of the 19th century enabled the concept of childhood as a time of fun, happiness, and imagination. Factory-made dolls and doll houses delighted the girls and organized sports and activities were played by the boys.[40] The [Boy Scouts](/source/Boy_Scout) was founded by Sir [Robert Baden-Powell](/source/Robert_Baden-Powell) in 1908,[41][42] which provided young boys with outdoor activities aiming at developing character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities.[43]

In the 20th century, [Philippe Ariès](/source/Philippe_Ari%C3%A8s), a French historian specializing in [medieval history](/source/Medieval_history), suggested that childhood was not a natural phenomenon, but a creation of society in his 1960 book *[Centuries of Childhood](/source/Centuries_of_Childhood)*. In 1961 he published a study of paintings, gravestones, furniture, and school records, finding that before the 17th century, children were represented as mini-adults.

In 1966, the American philosopher [George Boas](/source/George_Boas) published the book *The Cult of Childhood*. Since then, historians have increasingly researched childhood in past times.[44]

In 2006, [Hugh Cunningham](/source/Hugh_Cunningham_(historian)) published the book *Invention of Childhood*, looking at British childhood from the year 1000, the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages), to what he refers to as the Post War Period of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.[45]

Childhood evolves and changes as lifestyles change and adult expectations alter. In the modern era, many adults believe that children should not have any worries or work, as life should be happy and trouble-free. Childhood is seen as a mixture of simplicity, innocence, happiness, fun, imagination, and wonder. It is thought of as a time of playing, learning, socializing, exploring, and worrying in a world without much adult interference.[29][30]

A "loss of innocence" is a common concept, and is often seen as an integral part of [coming of age](/source/Coming_of_age). It is usually thought of as an experience or period in a child's life that widens their awareness of evil, pain or the world around them. This theme is demonstrated in the novels *[To Kill a Mockingbird](/source/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird)* and *[Lord of the Flies](/source/Lord_of_the_Flies)*. The fictional character [Peter Pan](/source/Peter_Pan_(character)) was the embodiment of a childhood that never ends.[46][47]

## Healthy childhoods

### Role of parents

Main article: [Parenting](/source/Parenting)

### Children's health

Further information: [Childhood obesity](/source/Childhood_obesity), [Childhood immunizations](/source/Childhood_immunizations), and [List of childhood diseases](/source/List_of_childhood_diseases)

Children's health includes the physical, mental and social well-being of children. Maintaining children's health implies offering them healthy foods, insuring they get enough sleep and exercise, and protecting their safety.[48] Children in certain parts of the world often suffer from [malnutrition](/source/Malnutrition), which is often associated with other conditions, such diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria.[49]

### Child protection

Further information: [Child labor](/source/Child_labor), [Child labor laws](/source/Child_labor_laws), [Risk aversion](/source/Risk_aversion), [Child abuse](/source/Child_abuse), and [Protection of Children Act](/source/Protection_of_Children_Act)

Child protection, according to UNICEF, refers to "preventing and responding to violence, exploitation and abuse against children – including [commercial sexual exploitation](/source/Commercial_sexual_exploitation), [trafficking](/source/Child_trafficking), [child labour](/source/Child_labour) and harmful traditional practices, such as [female genital mutilation](/source/Female_genital_mutilation)/cutting and [child marriage](/source/Child_marriage)".[50] The [Convention on the Rights of the Child](/source/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child) protects the fundamental rights of children.

### Play

Further information: [Play (activity)](/source/Play_(activity)), [Playground](/source/Playground), [Imaginary friend](/source/Imaginary_friend), and [Childhood secret club](/source/Childhood_secret_club)

Dancing at Mother of Peace AIDs orphanage, [Zimbabwe](/source/Zimbabwe)

Play is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children.[51] It offers children opportunities for physical (running, jumping, climbing, etc.), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ethics and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships). Unstructured play encourages creativity and imagination. Playing and interacting with other children, as well as some adults, provides opportunities for friendships, social interactions, conflicts and resolutions. However, adults tend to (often mistakenly) assume that virtually all children's social activities can be understood as "play" and, furthermore, that children's play activities do not involve much skill or effort.[52][53][54][55]

It is through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with other children or adult caregivers.[51] Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. However, when play is controlled by adults, children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and lose some of the benefits play offers them. This is especially true in developing creativity, leadership, and group skills.[51]

[Ralph Hedley](/source/Ralph_Hedley), *The Tournament,* 1898. It depicts poorer boys playing outdoors in a rural part of the [Northeast of England](/source/North_East_England).

Play is considered to be very important to optimal child development that it has been recognized by the [United Nations Commission on Human Rights](/source/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights) as a right of every child.[11] Children who are being raised in a hurried and pressured style may limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play.[51]

The initiation of play in a classroom setting allows teachers and students to interact through playfulness associated with a learning experience. Therefore, playfulness aids the interactions between adults and children in a learning environment. “Playful Structure” means to combine informal learning with formal learning to produce an effective learning experience for children at a young age.[56]

Even though play is considered to be the most important to optimal child development, the environment affects their play and therefore their development. Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities as they experience less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more authoritarian. Children from low income families are less likely to have access to books and computers which would enhance their development.[57]

### Street culture

Main articles: [Children's street culture](/source/Children's_street_culture) and [Children's street games](/source/Children's_street_games)

Children in front of a movie theatre, Toronto, 1920s.

Children's street culture refers to the cumulative [culture](/source/Culture) created by young children and is sometimes referred to as their *secret world*. It is most common in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It is strongest in urban [working class](/source/Working_class) [industrial districts](/source/Industrial_district) where children are traditionally free to play out in the streets for long periods without supervision. It is invented and largely sustained by children themselves with little adult interference.

Young children's street culture usually takes place on quiet backstreets and pavements, and along routes that venture out into local [parks](/source/Park), [playgrounds](/source/Playground), scrub and wasteland, and to local shops. It often imposes imaginative status on certain sections of the urban realm (local buildings, kerbs, street objects, etc.). Children designate specific areas that serve as informal meeting and relaxation places (see: Sobel, 2001). An urban area that looks faceless or neglected to an adult may have deep '[spirit of place](/source/Spirit_of_place)' meanings in to children. Since the advent of indoor distractions such as [video games](/source/Video_games), and [television](/source/Television), concerns have been expressed about the vitality – or even the survival – of children's street culture.

## Geographies of childhood

The geographies of childhood involves how (adult) society perceives the idea of childhood, the many ways adult attitudes and behaviors affect children's lives, including the environment which surrounds children and its implications.[58]

The geographies of childhood is similar in some respects to [children's geographies](/source/Children's_geographies) which examines the places and spaces in which children live.[59]

### Nature deficit disorder

Main article: [Nature deficit disorder](/source/Nature_deficit_disorder)

Nature Deficit Disorder, a term coined by [Richard Louv](/source/Richard_Louv) in his 2005 book *[Last Child in the Woods](/source/Last_Child_in_the_Woods),* refers to the trend in the United States and Canada towards less time for outdoor play,[60][61] resulting in a wide range of behavioral problems.[62]

With increasing use of cellphones, computers, video games and television, children have more reasons to stay inside rather than outdoors exploring. “The average American child spends 44 hours a week with electronic media”.[63] Research in 2007 has drawn a correlation between the declining number of [National Park](/source/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System) visits in the U.S. and increasing consumption of electronic media by children.[64] The media has accelerated the trend for children's nature disconnection by deemphasizing views of nature, as in Disney films.[65]

## Age of responsibility

Further information: [Age of consent](/source/Age_of_consent), [Age of majority](/source/Age_of_majority), [Age of criminal responsibility](/source/Age_of_criminal_responsibility), and [Marriageable age](/source/Marriageable_age)

The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions (e. g. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time,[66] and this is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. However, courts at the time would consider the offender's age when deliberating sentencing.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. The age limit of voluntary/involuntary military service is also disputed at the international level.[67]

## Education

Children in an outdoor classroom in [Bié](/source/Bi%C3%A9_(province)), [Angola](/source/Angola)

Children seated in a Finnish classroom at the school of Torvinen in [Sodankylä](/source/Sodankyl%C3%A4), [Finland](/source/Finland), in the 1920s

Main article: [Education](/source/Education)

Education, in the general sense, refers to the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing intellectually for mature life.[68] Formal education most often takes place through [schooling](/source/Schooling). A [right to education](/source/Right_to_education) has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations)' 1966 [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights](/source/International_Covenant_on_Economic%2C_Social_and_Cultural_Rights) (ICESCR) recognizes the right of everyone to an education.[69] [Education is compulsory](/source/Compulsory_education) in most places up to a certain age, but attendance at [school](/source/School) may not be, with alternative options such as [home-schooling](/source/Home-schooling) or [e-learning](/source/E-learning) being recognized as valid forms of education in certain jurisdictions.

Children in some countries (especially in parts of Africa and Asia) are often kept out of school, or attend only for short periods. Data from [UNICEF](/source/UNICEF) indicate that in 2011, 57 million children were out of school; and more than 20% of African children have never attended primary school or have left without completing primary education.[70] According to a UN report, [warfare](/source/Warfare) is preventing 28 million children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools.[71] Other factors that keep children out of school include poverty, child labor, social attitudes, and long distances to school.[72][73]

## Attitudes toward children

Group of [breaker boys](/source/Breaker_boy) in Pittston, Pennsylvania, 1911. [Child labor](/source/Child_labor) was widespread until the early 20th century. In the 21st century, child labor rates are highest in Africa.

Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures and change over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and the Netherlands less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and [West Germany](/source/West_Germany) falling in between.[74]

### Child marriage

In 2013, [child marriage](/source/Child_marriage) rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in [India](/source/India).[75] According to a 2019 [UNICEF](/source/UNICEF) report on child marriage, 37% of females were married before the age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by South Asia at 30%. Lower levels were found in Latin America and Caribbean (25%), the Middle East and North Africa (18%), and Eastern Europe and Central Asia (11%), while rates in Western Europe and North America were minimal.[76] Child marriage is more prevalent with girls, but also involves boys. A 2018 study in the journal Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies found that, worldwide, 4.5% of males are married before age 18, with the Central African Republic having the highest average rate at 27.9%.[77]

### Fertility and number of children per woman

Before [contraception](/source/Birth_control) became widely available in the 20th century, women had little choice other than [abstinence](/source/Abstinence) or having often many children. In fact, current [population growth](/source/Population_growth) concerns have only become possible with drastically reduced [child mortality](/source/Child_mortality) and sustained fertility. In 2017 the global [total fertility rate](/source/Total_fertility_rate) was estimated to be 2.37 children per woman,[78] adding about 80 million people to the world population per year. In order to measure the total number of children, scientists often prefer the completed cohort fertility at age 50 years (CCF50).[78] Although the number of children is also influenced by [cultural norms](/source/Social_norm), [religion](/source/Religion), [peer pressure](/source/Peer_pressure) and other social factors, the CCF50 appears to be most heavily dependent on the educational level of women, ranging from 5–8 children in women without education to less than 2 in women with 12 or more years of education.[78]

## Issues

### Emergencies and conflicts

See also: [Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict](/source/Declaration_on_the_Protection_of_Women_and_Children_in_Emergency_and_Armed_Conflict), [Children in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict](/source/Children_in_the_Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict), [Save the Children](/source/Save_the_Children), [Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies](/source/Inter-Agency_Network_for_Education_in_Emergencies), [Military use of children](/source/Military_use_of_children), [Trafficking of children](/source/Trafficking_of_children), [International child abduction](/source/International_child_abduction), and [Refugee children](/source/Refugee_children)

Emergencies and conflicts pose detrimental risks to the [health](/source/Child_Health), safety, and well-being of children. There are many different kinds of conflicts and emergencies, e.g. [wars](/source/War) and [natural disasters](/source/Natural_disaster). As of 2010 approximately 13 million children are displaced by [armed conflicts](/source/Armed_conflicts) and [violence](/source/Violence) around the world.[79] Where violent conflicts are the norm, the lives of young children are significantly disrupted and their families have great difficulty in offering the sensitive and consistent care that young children need for their healthy development.[79] Studies on the effect of emergencies and conflict on the [physical](/source/Physical_health) and [mental health](/source/Mental_health) of children between birth and 8 years old show that where the disaster is natural, the rate of [PTSD](/source/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder) occurs in anywhere from 3 to 87 percent of affected children.[80] However, rates of PTSD for children living in chronic conflict conditions varies from 15 to 50 percent.[81][82]

### Child protection

This section is an excerpt from [Child protection](/source/Child_protection).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Child_protection&action=edit)]

For Wikipedia's child protection policy, see [Wikipedia:Child protection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Child_protection).

Childcare At home Parents Extended family Au pair Babysitter Governess Nanny Outside the home Daycare Pre-school playgroup Educational settings Early childhood education Homeschooling Pre-kindergarten Preschool Kindergarten Primary school Institutions and standards Child protection In loco parentis Minor Related Child abuse Child marriage Child Online Protection Family law Men in early childhood education Orphanage Parenting Parental controls v t e

[Child protection](/source/Child_protection) (also called child welfare) is the safeguarding of children from violence, exploitation, abuse, abandonment, and neglect.[83][84][85][86] It involves identifying signs of potential harm. This includes responding to allegations or suspicions of abuse, providing support and services to protect children, and holding those who have harmed them accountable.[87]

The primary goal of child protection is to ensure that all children are safe and free from harm or danger.[86][88] Child protection also works to prevent future harm by creating policies and systems that identify and respond to risks before they lead to harm.[89]

In order to achieve these goals, research suggests that child protection services should be provided in a [holistic](/source/Holism) way.[90][91][92] This means taking into account the social, economic, cultural, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to the risk of harm for individual children and their families. Collaboration across sectors and disciplines to create a comprehensive system of support and safety for children is required.[93][94]

It is the responsibility of individuals, organizations, and governments to ensure that children are protected from harm and their rights are respected.[95] This includes providing a safe environment for children to grow and develop, protecting them from physical, emotional and sexual abuse, and ensuring they have access to education, healthcare, and resources to fulfill their basic needs.[96]

Child protection systems are a set of services, usually government-run, designed to protect children and young people who are [underage](/source/Underage) and to encourage family stability. [UNICEF](/source/UNICEF) defines[97] a 'child protection system' as:

"The set of laws, policies, regulations and services needed across all social sectors – especially social welfare, education, health, security and justice – to support prevention and response to protection-related risks. These systems are part of [social protection](/source/Social_protection), and extend beyond it. At the level of prevention, their aim includes supporting and strengthening families to reduce social exclusion, and to lower the risk of separation, violence and exploitation. Responsibilities are often spread across government agencies, with services delivered by local authorities, non-State providers, and community groups, making coordination between sectors and levels, including routine referral systems etc.., a necessary component of effective child protection systems."

— United Nations Economic and Social Council (2008), UNICEF Child Protection Strategy, E/ICEF/2008/5/Rev.1, par. 12–13.

Under Article 19 of the [UN Convention on the Rights of the Child](/source/UN_Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child), a 'child protection system' provides for the protection of children in and out of the home. One of the ways this can be enabled is through the provision of [quality education](/source/Sustainable_Development_Goal_4), the fourth of the United Nations [Sustainable Development Goals](/source/Sustainable_Development_Goals), in addition to other child protection systems. Some literature argues that child protection begins at conception; even how the conception took place can affect the child's development.[98]

### Child abuse and child labor

Protection of children from [abuse](/source/Child_abuse) is considered an important contemporary goal. This includes protecting children from exploitation such as [child labor](/source/Child_labor), [child trafficking](/source/Child_trafficking) and [child selling](/source/Child_selling), [child sexual abuse](/source/Child_sexual_abuse), including [child prostitution](/source/Child_prostitution) and [child pornography](/source/Child_pornography), [military use of children](/source/Military_use_of_children), and [child laundering](/source/Child_laundering) in illegal [adoptions](/source/Adoption). There exist several international instruments for these purposes, such as:

- [Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention](/source/Worst_Forms_of_Child_Labour_Convention)

- [Minimum Age Convention, 1973](/source/Minimum_Age_Convention%2C_1973)

- [Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography](/source/Optional_Protocol_on_the_Sale_of_Children%2C_Child_Prostitution_and_Child_Pornography)

- [Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse](/source/Council_of_Europe_Convention_on_the_Protection_of_Children_against_Sexual_Exploitation_and_Sexual_Abuse)

- [Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict](/source/Optional_Protocol_on_the_Involvement_of_Children_in_Armed_Conflict)

- [Hague Adoption Convention](/source/Hague_Adoption_Convention)

### Climate change

This section is an excerpt from [Climate change and children](/source/Climate_change_and_children).[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_children&action=edit)]

A child at a climate demonstration in Juneau, Alaska

[Children](/source/Children) are more vulnerable to the [effects of climate change](/source/Effects_of_climate_change) than adults. The [World Health Organization](/source/World_Health_Organization) estimated that 88% of the existing global burden of [disease](/source/Disease) caused by [climate change](/source/Climate_change) affects children under five years of age.[99] A *[Lancet](/source/The_Lancet)* review on health and climate change lists children as the worst-affected category by climate change.[100] Children under 14 are 44 percent more likely to die from [environmental factors](/source/Environmental_factor),[101] and those in urban areas are disproportionately impacted by lower air quality and overcrowding.[102]

Children are physically more [vulnerable to climate change](/source/Climate_change_vulnerability) in all its forms.[103] Climate change [affects the physical health](/source/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health) of children and their well-being. Prevailing [inequalities](/source/Economic_inequality), between and within countries, determine how climate change impacts children.[104] Children often have no voice in terms of global responses to climate change.[103]

People living in [low-income countries](/source/Low-income_countries) experience a higher burden of disease and are less capable of coping with climate change-related threats.[105] Nearly every child in the world is at risk from climate change and pollution, while almost half are at extreme risk.[106]

## Health

### Child mortality

Main articles: [Child mortality](/source/Child_mortality) and [Infant mortality](/source/Infant_mortality)

World infant mortality rates in 2012.[107]

During the early 17th century in [England](/source/England), about two-thirds of all children died before the age of four.[108] During the [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution), the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.[109] This has continued in England, and in the 21st century child mortality rates have fallen across the world. About 12.6 million under-five infants died worldwide in 1990, which declined to 6.6 million in 2012. The infant mortality rate dropped from 90 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990, to 48 in 2012. The highest average infant mortality rates are in sub-Saharan Africa, at 98 deaths per 1,000 live births – over double the world's average.[107]

## See also

Listen to this article (3 minutes)

[This audio file](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Child.ogg) was created from a revision of this article dated 24 June 2008 (2008-06-24), and does not reflect subsequent edits.

([Audio help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help) · [More spoken articles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles))

- [Boy](/source/Boy)

- [Girl](/source/Girl)

- [Outline of childhood](/source/Outline_of_childhood)

- [Child benefits](/source/Child_benefits)

- [Child slavery](/source/Child_slavery)

- [Childlessness](/source/Childlessness)

- [Cost of raising a child](/source/Cost_of_raising_a_child)

- [Depression in childhood and adolescence](/source/Depression_in_childhood_and_adolescence)

- [History of childhood](/source/History_of_childhood) - [History of childhood in the United States](/source/History_of_childhood_in_the_United_States)

- [One-child policy](/source/One-child_policy), in China 1979 to 2015

- [Religion and children](/source/Religion_and_children)

- [Youth rights](/source/Youth_rights)

- [Archaeology of childhood](/source/Archaeology_of_childhood)

- [Society and culture of the Victorian era#Status of children](/source/Society_and_culture_of_the_Victorian_era#Status_of_children); United Kingdom 19th century

## References

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["23.8: Adulthood"](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/23%3A_Human_Growth_and_Development/23.8%3A_Adulthood#:~:text=Defining%20Adulthood,-Adulthood%20is%20the&text=A%20person%20may%20be%20physically,by%20law%20until%20older%20ages.). *LibreTexts - Biology*. 31 December 2018. A person may be physically mature and a biological adult by age 16 or so, but not defined as an adult by law until older ages. For example, in the U.S., you cannot join the armed forces or vote until age 18, and you cannot take on many legal and financial responsibilities until age 21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** ["For example, the US Social Security department specifically defines an adult child as being over 18"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131001072300/http://www.ssa.gov/dibplan/dacpage.shtml). Ssa.gov. Archived from [the original](http://www.ssa.gov/dibplan/dacpage.shtml) on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["American Heritage Dictionary"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071229155809/http://www.bartleby.com/61/13/C0291300.html). 7 December 2007. Archived from [the original](http://www.bartleby.com/61/13/C0291300.html) on 29 December 2007.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-un_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-un_11-1) ["Convention on the Rights of the Child"](https://web.archive.org/web/20101031104336/http://www.hakani.org/en/convention/Convention_Rights_Child.pdf) (PDF). General Assembly Resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989. The Policy Press, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from [the original](http://www.hakani.org/en/convention/Convention_Rights_Child.pdf) (PDF) on 31 October 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Children and Young Persons Act"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180203075312/http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;page=0;query=DocId:911aba78-1d05-4341-96b7-ee334d4a06f0%20%20Status:inforce%20Depth:0;rec=0). *Singapore Statutes Online*. Archived from [the original](http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;page=0;query=DocId%3A911aba78-1d05-4341-96b7-ee334d4a06f0%20%20Status%3Ainforce%20Depth%3A0;rec=0) on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["Proposal to lower the Age of Contractual Capacity from 21 years to 18 years, and the Civil Law (Amendment) Bill"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180626054418/https://www.mlaw.gov.sg/content/minlaw/en/news/public-consultations/proposal-to-lower-the-age-of-contractual-capacity-from-21-years-to-18-years-and-the-civil-law.html). Singapore: [Ministry of Law](/source/Ministry_of_Law_(Singapore)). Archived from [the original](http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/content/minlaw/en/news/public-consultations/proposal-to-lower-the-age-of-contractual-capacity-from-21-years-to-18-years-and-the-civil-law.html) on 26 June 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2017.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Alam, Gajanafar (2014). *Population and Society*. K.K. Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8178441986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8178441986).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** E. Fenwick/T. Smith, *Adolescence* (London 1993) p. 29

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Pollock LA (2000). *Forgotten children : parent-child relations from 1500 to 1900*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-25009-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25009-2). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [255923951](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/255923951).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Fox VC (April 1996). ["Poor Children's Rights in Early Modern England"](https://www.proquest.com/openview/20f04350242eb7f2342f8b8bb8326d76/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816657). *The Journal of Psychohistory*. **23** (3): 286–306.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-cohen_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-cohen_29-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-cohen_29-2) Cohen D (1993). *The development of play* (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-86782-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-86782-0).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Weber, Eugen. (1976). *Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914*, pp. 303–38

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Bloom, Harold. ["Major themes in Lord of the Flies"](https://1.cdn.edl.io/DCZIfXm4z8XvzcRiCqTQbpSIBE3zLa6rhs0IuJCTkigqTLD9.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191211194237/https://1.cdn.edl.io/DCZIfXm4z8XvzcRiCqTQbpSIBE3zLa6rhs0IuJCTkigqTLD9.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Barrie, J. M. *Peter Pan*. Hodder & Stoughton, 1928, Act V, Scene 2.

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## Sources

- This article incorporates text from a [free content](/source/Free_content) work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 ([license statement/permission](http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=233558&set=0058CBADEE_0_390&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1)). Text taken from [*Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education​*](http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002335/233558E.pdf), 118–125, Marope PT, Kaga Y, UNESCO. UNESCO.

- This article incorporates text from a [free content](/source/Free_content) work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 ([license statement/permission](http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=246045&set=005915672A_2_228&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1)). Text taken from [*Creating sustainable futures for all; Global education monitoring report, 2016; Gender review​*](http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002460/246045e.pdf), 20, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.

## Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Children](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Children).

[Wikisource](/source/Wikisource) has the text of the [1911 *Encyclopædia Britannica*](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition) article "[Child](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Child)".

- Clement, Priscilla Ferguson; Reinier, Jacqueline S., eds. (2001). *Boyhood in America: an encyclopedia*. 2 vol. ABC-CLIO. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57607-215-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-215-8).

- Cook, Daniel Thomas. *The moral project of childhood: Motherhood, material life, and early children's consumer culture* (NYU Press, 2020). [online book](https://books.google.com/books?id=vUWODwAAQBAJ&dq=children&pg=PP9) see also [online review](https://www.shcy.org/features/books/the-moral-project-of-childhood/)

- [Fass, Paula S.](/source/Paula_S._Fass) *The end of American childhood: A history of parenting from life on the frontier to the managed child* (Princeton University Press, 2016).

- Fass, Paula S. ed. *The Routledge History of Childhood in the Western World* (2012) [online](https://books.google.com/books?id=jxf_P2GOcUEC&dq=fass+%22Childhood%22&pg=PR3)

- Fass, Paula, ed. *Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood: In History and Society* (3 vol, Macmillan, 2003)

- Fawcett, Barbara, Brid Featherstone, and Jim Goddard. *Contemporary child care policy and practice* (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017) [online](https://books.google.com/books?id=QSJIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR1)

- Forman-Brunell, Miriam. *Girlhood in America: An Encyclopedia* (2001)

- Hutchison, Elizabeth D., and Leanne W. Charlesworth. "Securing the welfare of children: Policies past, present, and future." *Families in Society* 81.6 (2000): 576–585.

- Klass, Perri. *The Best Medicine: How Science and Public Health Gave Children a Future* (WW Norton & Company, 2020) [online](https://books.google.com/books?id=fNjVDwAAQBAJ&dq=children&pg=PT6)

- Kearney, Mary Celeste. "Coalescing: The development of girls' studies." NWSA journal 21.1 (2009): 1-28. [excerpt](https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/263654/summary)

- Michail, Samia. "Understanding school responses to students’ challenging behaviour: A review of literature." *Improving schools* 14.2 (2011): 156–171. [online](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=6a6198a7d46523bddb15d23e024f442ac29e9f82)

- Sorin, Reesa. *Changing images of childhood: Reconceptualising early childhood practice* (Faculty of Education, University of Melbourne, 2005) [online](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=9594881ae4f396a654957f719b1bb4e3589d0819).

- Sorin, Reesa. "Childhood through the eyes of the child and parent." *Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education* 14.1 (2007). [online](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Reesa-Sorin/publication/266081356_Childhood_through_the_eyes_of_the_child_and_parent/links/5ed6138492851c9c5e725cd1/Childhood-through-the-eyes-of-the-child-and-parent.pdf)

- Vissing, Yvonne. "History of Children’s Human Rights in the USA." in *Children's Human Rights in the USA: Challenges and Opportunities* (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023) pp. 181–212.

- Yuen, Francis K.O. *Social work practice with children and families: a family health approach* (Routledge, 2014) [online](https://books.google.com/books?id=efbJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1).

Preceded by Toddlerhood Stages of human development Childhood Succeeded by Preadolescence

v t e Family History Rights Household Nuclear family Extended family Conjugal family Immediate family Matrifocal family First-degree relatives Parent mother father Child son daughter Sibling brother sister Second-degree relatives Grandparent Grandchild Uncle/Aunt Niece and nephew Third-degree relatives Great-grandparent Great-grandchild Great-uncle/Great-aunt Cousin Family-in-law Spouse wife husband Parent-in-law Sibling-in-law Child-in-law daughter-in-law son-in-law Stepfamily Stepparent stepfather stepmother Stepchild Stepsibling Kinship terminology Kinship Australian Aboriginal kinship Adoption Affinity Consanguinity Disownment Divorce Estrangement Family of choice Fictive kinship Marriage Nurture kinship Chinese kinship Hawaiian kinship Sudanese kinship Inuit kinship Iroquois kinship Crow kinship Omaha kinship Genealogy and lineage Bilateral descent Cadet branch Common ancestor Family name Heirloom Heredity Inheritance Lineal descendant collateral descent Matrilineality Patrilineality Progenitor Clan Royal descent Family trees Pedigree chart Genogram Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Seize quartiers Quarters of nobility Relationships Agape (parental love) Eros (marital love) Philia (brotherly love) Storge (familial love) Filial piety Polyfidelity Holidays Mother's Day U.S. Father's Day Father–Daughter Day Siblings Day National Grandparents Day Parents' Day Children's Day Japan Family Day Canada American Family Day International Day of Families National Family Week UK National Adoption Day Related Breadwinner model Single parent Wedding anniversary Godparent Birth order Only child Middle child syndrome Sociology of the family Museum of Motherhood Astronaut family Dysfunctional family Domestic violence Incest Sibling abuse Sibling estrangement Sibling rivalry

v t e Development of the human body Before birth Development Zygote Embryo Fetus Gestational age Birth and after Birth Child development Stages Early Puberty Adult development Ageing Senescence Death Phases Early years Infant Toddler Early childhood Childhood Child Youth Preadolescence Adolescence Emerging adulthood Adulthood Young adult Middle adult Elder adult Dying Social and legal Minor Age of majority

v t e Parenting Kinship terminology Parent Mother Father Adoptive Alloparenting Coparenting Extended family Foster care Noncustodial Nuclear family Orphaned Same-sex Shared parenting Single parent Blended family Surrogacy In loco parentis Theories · Areas Attachment theory Applied behavior analysis Behaviorism Child development Cognitive development Developmental psychology Human development Identity formation Introjection Love Maternal bond Nature versus nurture Paternal bond Parental care Pediatrics Social emotional development Socialization Social psychology Styles Achievement ideology Atlas personality Attachment parenting Baby talk Buddha-like parenting Concerted cultivation Enmeshment Free-range parenting Gatekeeper parent Helicopter parent Nurturant parenting Reflective parenting Slow parenting Soccer mom Strict father model Taking Children Seriously Theybie Tiger parenting Work at home parent Techniques After-school activity Allowance Bedtime Child care Co-sleeping Dishabituation Education Habituation Homeschooling Identification Introjection Kommune 1 Latchkey kid Moral development Normative social influence Parent management training Play (date) Role model Social integration Television The talk (race) The talk (sex education) Toy (educational) Positive Parenting Program Child discipline Blanket training Corporal punishment in the home Curfew Grounding Positive discipline Tactical ignoring Time-out Abuse Adverse childhood experiences Child abandonment Child abuse Child labour Child neglect Cinderella effect Codependency Deadbeat parent Dysfunctional family Effects of domestic violence Incest Management of domestic violence Narcissistic parent Parental abuse by children Parental alienation Stress in early childhood Legal Child custody Disownment Family disruption Right to family life Marriage Parental leave Parental responsibility Parents' rights Paternity Shared parenting Financial Baby bonus Care work Child benefit Child penalties Child support Child tax credit Cost of raising a child Family economics Income and fertility Parental investment Unpaid work Experts Mary Ainsworth Diana Baumrind Mrs. Bowdich John Bowlby T. Berry Brazelton Rudolf Dreikurs David Elkind Jo Frost Haim Ginott Thomas Gordon Alan E. Kazdin Truby King Annette Lareau Penelope Leach Matthew Sanders William Sears B. F. Skinner Benjamin Spock Organizations Families Need Fathers Mothers' Union National Childbirth Trust National Fatherhood Initiative National Parents Organization Parent–teacher association Parents Against Child Exploitation

Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Latvia Sweden Israel Other NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Child](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.