# Chastity

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Ethic concept of temperance related to sexuality

For other uses, see [Chastity (disambiguation)](/source/Chastity_(disambiguation)).

*[Sacred and Profane Love](/source/Sacred_and_Profane_Love)* (1514-15) by [Titian](/source/Titian)

**Chastity**, also known as **purity**, is a [virtue](/source/Virtue) related to [temperance](/source/Temperance_(virtue)).[1] Someone who is *chaste* refrains from [sexual activity](/source/Sexual_activity) that is considered [immoral](/source/Immoral) or from any sexual activity,[2] according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when making a [vow of chastity](/source/Evangelical_counsels), chastity means [celibacy](/source/Celibacy).

## Etymology

The words *chaste* and *chastity* stem from the [Latin](/source/Latin) adjective *castus* ("cut off", "separated", "pure"). The words entered the [English language](/source/English_language) around the middle of the 13th century. *Chaste* meant "virtuous", "pure from unlawful sexual intercourse" or (from the early 14th century on) as a noun, a virgin,[3] while *chastity* meant "(sexual) purity".[4]

[Thomas Aquinas](/source/Thomas_Aquinas) links *castus* (chastity) to the Latin verb *castigo* ("chastise, reprimand, correct"), with a reference to [Aristotle](/source/Aristotle)'s *[Nicomachean Ethics](/source/Nicomachean_Ethics)*: "Chastity takes its name from the fact that reason 'chastises' concupiscence, which, like a child, needs curbing, as the Philosopher states".[5]

## In Abrahamic religions

For many [Orthodox Jews](/source/Orthodox_Judaism), [Christians](/source/Christians), [Muslims](/source/Muslims), and [Bahá’í](/source/Bah%C3%A1%E2%80%99%C3%AD) people should restrict their acts of a sexual nature to the context of [marriage](/source/Marriage). For unmarried people, chastity is equivalent to [sexual abstinence](/source/Sexual_abstinence). Sexual acts outside of or apart from marriage, such as [adultery](/source/Adultery), [fornication](/source/Fornication), [masturbation](/source/Masturbation), and [prostitution](/source/Prostitution), are considered immoral due to [lust](/source/Lust).

This article is missing information about chastity in Judaism. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (November 2020)

### Christianity

"Of the excellences of the virtue of Chastity" (José de Jesús María, 1601)

"Vow of chastity" redirects here. For vow of chastity as part of public vows, see [Religious vows](/source/Religious_vows).

#### Traditions

In many [Christian](/source/Christianity) traditions, chastity is synonymous with [purity](/source/Virtue). The [Catholic Church](/source/Catholic_Church) teaches that chastity involves, in the words of cardinal bishop [Alfonso López Trujillo](/source/Alfonso_L%C3%B3pez_Trujillo), "the successful integration of sexuality within the person and thus the inner unity of man in his bodily and spiritual being",[6] which according to one's marital status requires either having no sexual relationship, or only having sexual relations with one's spouse. In [Western Christian](/source/Western_Christian) morality, chastity is placed opposite the [deadly sin](/source/Seven_deadly_sins) of lust, and is classified as one of [seven virtues](/source/Seven_virtues). The moderation of sexual desires is also required to be virtuous. Reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good.

As an emblem of inward chastity, some Christians choose to wear a cord, girdle or a cincture of one of the several [Confraternities of the Cord](/source/Confraternities_of_the_Cord) or a [purity ring](/source/Purity_ring). The cord is worn as a symbol of chastity in honour of a chaste saint whom the bearer asks for intercession. The purity ring is worn before [holy matrimony](/source/Christian_views_on_marriage) by those who marry or for the rest of their lives by those who stay single.[7]

#### Marital chastity

In marriage, the spouses commit to a lifelong relationship that excludes sexual intimacy with other persons. A third form of chastity, often called "vidual chastity", is expected by the society for a period after the woman's husband dies. For example, Anglican Bishop [Jeremy Taylor](/source/Jeremy_Taylor) defined five rules in *Holy Living* (1650), including abstaining from marrying "so long as she is with child by her former husband" and "within the year of mourning".[8]

#### Celibacy

In the Roman Catholic Church, members of the [consecrated life](/source/Consecrated_life) vow or promise celibacy as one of the [evangelical counsels](/source/Evangelical_counsels). In 306, the [Synod of Elvira](/source/Synod_of_Elvira) proscribed [clergy](/source/Clergy) from marrying. This was unevenly enforced until the [Second Lateran Council](/source/Second_Lateran_Council) in 1139 when it found its way into [canon law](/source/Canon_law). Unmarried [deacons](/source/Deacon) promise celibacy to their local bishop when ordained.

Eastern Catholic priests are permitted to marry, provided they do so before ordination and outside monastic life.

#### Vows of chastity

*Vows of chastity* can be taken either as part of an organised religious life (such as Roman Catholic [Beguines and Beghards](/source/Beguines_and_Beghards) in the past) or on an individual basis: as a voluntary act of devotion, or as part of an ascetic lifestyle (often devoted to [contemplation](/source/Contemplation)), or both. Some Protestant religious communities, such as the [Bruderhof](/source/Bruderhof_Communities), take vows of chastity as part of the church membership process.[9]

#### Teaching by denomination

#### Catholicism

Chastity is a central and pivotal concept in Roman Catholic [praxis](/source/Christian_theological_praxis). Roman Catholic teaching regards chastity as essential in maintaining and cultivating the unity of body with spirit and thus the integrity of the human being.[10]: 2332 It is also fundamental to the practise of the Catholic life because it involves an *apprenticeship in self-mastery*.[11]: 2339 By attaining mastery over one's passions, reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good.

#### Lutheranism

The [theology of the body](/source/Theology_of_the_body) of the [Lutheran Churches](/source/Lutheran_Church) emphasizes the role of the [Holy Spirit](/source/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity), who sanctified the bodies of Christians to be God's temple.[12]

Many [Lutheran monks](/source/Christian_monasticism#Lutheran_Church) (e.g. [Östanbäck Monastery](/source/%C3%96stanb%C3%A4ck_Monastery)) and [Lutheran nuns](/source/Nun#Lutheranism) (e.g. [Daughters of Mary](/source/Daughters_of_Mary_(Lutheran))) practice celibacy, though in some Lutheran [religious orders](/source/Religious_order) it is not compulsory.[13]

#### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

In [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](/source/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints) (LDS Church) chastity is very important:

Physical intimacy between husband and wife is a beautiful and sacred part of God's plan for His children. It is an expression of love within marriage and allows husband and wife to participate in the creation of life. God has commanded that this sacred power be expressed only between a man and a woman who are legally married. The law of chastity applies to both men and women. It includes strict abstinence from sexual relations before marriage and complete fidelity and loyalty to one's spouse after marriage.

The law of chastity requires that sexual relations be reserved for marriage between a man and a woman.

In addition to reserving sexual intimacy for marriage, we obey the law of chastity by controlling our thoughts, words, and actions. Jesus Christ taught, "Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not commit adultery: but I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart" ([Matthew 5:27–28](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%205:27–28&version=nrsv))."[14]

Teachings of the LDS Church also include that sexual expression within marriage is an important dimension of spousal bonding apart from, but not necessarily avoiding, its procreative result.

### Islam

#### Quran

The most famous personal example of chastity in the Quran is the [Virgin Mary (Mariam)](/source/Mary_in_Islam):

And ˹remember˺ the one who guarded her chastity, so We breathed into her through Our angel, ˹Gabriel,˺ making her and her son a sign for all peoples.

— [Surah Al-Anbiya](/source/Al-Anbiya) [21:91](https://quran.com/21?startingVerse=91)

screening herself off from them. Then We sent to her Our angel, ˹Gabriel,˺ appearing before her as a man, perfectly formed. She appealed, “I truly seek refuge in the Most Compassionate from you! ˹So leave me alone˺ if you are God-fearing.” He responded, “I am only a messenger from your Lord, ˹sent˺ to bless you with a pure son.” She wondered, “How can I have a son when no man has ever touched me, nor am I unchaste?”

— [Surah Maryam](/source/Maryam_(surah)) [19:17–20](https://quran.com/19?startingVerse=17)

Extramarital sex is forbidden. The Quran says:

Do not go near adultery. It is truly a shameful deed and an evil way.

— [Surah Al-Isra](/source/Al-Isra) [17:32](https://quran.com/17?startingVerse=32)

˹They are˺ those who do not invoke any other god besides Allah, nor take a ˹human˺ life—made sacred by Allah—except with ˹legal˺ right, nor commit fornication. And whoever does ˹any of˺ this will face the penalty. Their punishment will be multiplied on the Day of Judgment, and they will remain in it forever, in disgrace. As for those who repent, believe, and do good deeds, they are the ones whose evil deeds Allah will change into good deeds. For Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

— [Surah Al-Furqan](/source/Al-Furqan) [25:68–70](https://quran.com/25?startingVerse=68)

In a list of commendable deeds the Quran says:

Surely ˹for˺ Muslim men and women, believing men and women, devout men and women, truthful men and women, patient men and women, humble men and women, charitable men and women, fasting men and women, men and women who guard their chastity, and men and women who remember Allah often—for ˹all of˺ them Allah has prepared forgiveness and a great reward.

— [Surah Al-Ahzab](/source/Al-A%E1%B8%A5z%C4%81b) [33:35](https://quran.com/33?startingVerse=35)

Because the sex desire is usually attained before a man is financially capable of marriage, the love to God and mindfulness of Him should be sufficient motive for chastity:

And let those who do not have the means to marry keep themselves chaste until Allah enriches them out of His bounty. And if any of those ˹bondspeople˺ in your possession desires a deed of emancipation, make it possible for them, if you find goodness in them. And give them some of Allah’s wealth which He has granted you. Do not force your ˹slave˺ girls into prostitution for your own worldly gains while they wish to remain chaste. And if someone coerces them, then after such a coercion Allah is certainly All-Forgiving, Most Merciful ˹to them˺.

— [Surah An-Nur](/source/An-Nur) [24:33](https://quran.com/24?startingVerse=33)

#### Sharia (Law)

Chastity is mandatory in Islam. Sex outside legitimacy is prohibited, for both men and women, whether married or unmarried. The injunctions and forbiddings in Islam apply equally to men and women. The legal punishment for adultery is equal for men and women.[15][16][17][18]

The prophet's prescription to the youth was:

"O young people! Whoever among you can marry, should marry, because it helps him lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private parts from committing illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry, should fast, as fasting diminishes his sexual power."

— *[Sahih al-Bukhari](/source/Sahih_al-Bukhari)* [5066](https://sunnah.com/bukhari:5066)

Chastity is an attitude and a way of life. In Islam it is both a personal and a social value. A Muslim society should not condone relations entailing or conducive to sexual license. Social patterns and practices calculated to inflame sexual desire are frowned upon by Islam, such incitements to immorality including permissive ideologies, titillating works of art, and the failure to inculcate sound moral principles in the young. At the heart of such a view of human sexuality lies the conviction that the notion of personal freedom should never be misconstrued as the freedom to flout God's laws by overstepping the bounds which, in his infinite wisdom, he has set upon the relations of the sexes.[19]

### Baháʼí Faith

Chastity is highly prized in the [Baháʼí Faith](/source/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith). Similar to other Abrahamic religions, [Baháʼí teachings](/source/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_teachings) call for the restriction of sexual activity to that between a wife and husband in [Baháʼí marriage](/source/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_marriage), and discourage members from using pornography or engaging in sexually explicit recreational activities. The concept of chastity is extended to include avoidance of alcohol and mind-altering drugs, profanity, and gaudy or immodest attire.[20]

## In Eastern religions

### Hinduism

[Hinduism](/source/Hinduism)'s view on premarital sex is rooted in its concept of *[ashrama](/source/Ashrama_(stage))*, or the stages of life. The first of these stages, known as *[brahmacharya](/source/Brahmacharya)*, roughly translates as chastity. Celibacy and chastity are considered the appropriate behavior for both [male](/source/Male) and [female](/source/Female) [students](/source/Student) during this stage, which precedes the stage of the married householder (*[grihastha](/source/Grihastha)*). *[Sanyasis](/source/Sanyasa)* and Hindu monks, or *[sadhus](/source/Sadhu)*, are also celibate as part of their [ascetic](/source/Asceticism) discipline.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Sikhism

In [Sikhism](/source/Sikhism), premarital or extramarital sex is strictly forbidden. However, it is encouraged to marry and live as a family unit to provide and nurture children for the perpetual benefit of creation (as opposed to *[sannyasa](/source/Sannyasa)*, or living as a monk, which was, and remains, a common spiritual practice in India). A Sikh is encouraged not to live as a recluse, beggar, monk, nun, celibate, or in any similar vein.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Jainism

The [Jain ethical code](/source/Jain_ethical_code) contains the vow of *[brahmacarya](/source/Brahmacarya)* (meaning "pure conduct"), which prescribes the expectations for Jains concerning sexual activity. *Brahmacarya* is one of the five major and minor vows of Jainism, prescribing slightly different expectations for ascetics and laypeople, respectively.

Complete celibacy is expected only of [Jain ascetics](/source/Jain_monasticism) (who are also referred to as monks and nuns). For laypeople, chastity is expected, with extramarital sex and adultery being prohibited.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Buddhism

Main article: [Buddhism and sexuality](/source/Buddhism_and_sexuality)

The teachings of [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) include the [Noble Eightfold Path](/source/Noble_Eightfold_Path), comprising a division called [right action](/source/Noble_Eightfold_Path#Right_action). Under the [Five Precepts](/source/Five_Precepts) ethical code, [*upāsaka* and *upāsikā*](/source/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81) lay followers should abstain from sexual misconduct, while *[bhikkhu](/source/Bhikkhu)* and *[bhikkhuni](/source/Bhikkhuni)* monastics should practice strict chastity.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Taoism

The [Five Precepts](/source/Five_Precepts_(Taoism)) of the [Taoist](/source/Taoist) religion include "no sexual misconduct", which is interpreted as prohibiting extramarital sex for lay practitioners and marriage or sexual intercourse for monks and nuns.

## Government

In Iran, women are [required to wear hijabs](/source/Compulsory_hijab_in_Iran) as part of that society's efforts to enforce chastity. In 2023 the [Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance](/source/Ministry_of_Culture_and_Islamic_Guidance) announced a new bill titled the [Protection of the Culture of Chastity and Hijab Law](/source/Hijab_and_chastity_law), expanding its number of sections from 15 to 70.[21]

## See also

- [Law of chastity](/source/Law_of_chastity) – Views of the LDS Church about sexualityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

- [Purity culture](/source/Purity_culture) – Christian sexual abstinence movement

- [Ten Commandments](/source/Ten_Commandments) – Biblical principles relating to ethics and worship

- [Theology of the body](/source/Theology_of_the_body) – Christian teachings on the human body

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** *The American and English Encyclopædia of Law*. Edward Thompson Company. 1887. p. 156.[*[volume needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["chastity"](https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Chastity). Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2012-10-01.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-etymonlineChaste_3-0)** ["chaste"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/chaste). *Online Etymology Dictionary*. Retrieved 15 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["chastity"](https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=chastity). *Online Etymology Dictionary*. Retrieved 15 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Aquinas, Thomas. *Summa Theologiae*. II-II, Q.151. Aquinas refers to Aristotle. [*Nicomachean Ethics*](https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle/nicomachean-ethics/f-h-peters/text/book-3#chapter-3-2-12). III.12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** López Trujillo, Alfonso; Sgreccia, Elio (8 December 1995). ["The truth and meaning of human sexuality – Guidelines for Education within the Family"](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/family/documents/rc_pc_family_doc_08121995_human-sexuality_en.html).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** - ["Schoolgirl loses "purity ring" battle"](https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-chastity-idUKL1617339420070716). [Reuters](/source/Reuters). 16 July 2007. Retrieved 16 March 2021. - Kosloski, Philip (28 January 2021). ["Struggling with purity? Try the cord of St. Joseph!"](https://aleteia.org/2021/01/28/struggling-with-purity-try-the-cord-of-st-joseph/). [Aleteia](/source/Aleteia). Retrieved 16 March 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** [Jeremy Taylor](/source/Jeremy_Taylor) (1650). "II.3: Of Chastity". [*Holy Living*](https://web.archive.org/web/20211208120603/http://anglicanlibrary.org/taylor/holyliving/09chap2sect3.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.anglicanlibrary.org/taylor/holyliving/index.htm) on 2021-12-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** - ["All you need to know about the Bruderhof community"](https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/the-bruderhof-sussex-community-rules-cult-money-jobs-documentary-bbc-497826). *inews.co.uk*. 25 July 2019. Retrieved 2019-10-26. - ["Life Among The Bruderhof"](https://www.theamericanconservative.com/life-among-the-bruderhof/). *The American Conservative*. Retrieved 2017-12-14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["I. "Male and Female He Created Them …""](https://web.archive.org/web/20210126034150/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P84.HTM), *[Catechism of the Catholic Church](/source/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church)*, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, archived from [the original](https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P84.HTM) on 2021-01-26

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** ["II. The Vocation to Chastity"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210206210011/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P85.HTM), *[Catechism of the Catholic Church](/source/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church)*, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, archived from [the original](https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P85.HTM) on 2021-02-06

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Reinke2018_12-0)** Reinke, Langdon (18 September 2018). ["Cremation and a theology of the body"](https://www.beautifulsaviorspokane.org/2018/09/18/cremation-and-a-theology-of-the-body/). Beautiful Savior Lutheran Church. Retrieved 23 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-DuBois2018_13-0)** DuBois, Thomas A. (1 January 2018). *Sacred to the Touch: Nordic and Baltic Religious Wood Carving*. University of Washington Press. p. 24. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-295-74242-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-74242-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ["What Is the Law of Chastity?"](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/chastity/what-is-the-law-of-chastity?lang=eng). *The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints*. Retrieved 15 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["Sentencing adulterers to death"](https://islamonline.net/en/sentencing-adulterers-to-death/). *IslamOnline*. 2021-09-01. Retrieved 2025-04-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** ["Surah An-Nur - 2-12"](https://quran.com/en/an-nur/2-12). *Quran.com*. Retrieved 2025-04-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** ["Sahih Muslim 1690a - The Book of Legal Punishments - كتاب الحدود - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)"](https://sunnah.com/muslim:1690a). *sunnah.com*. Retrieved 2025-04-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["Sahih Muslim 1695b - The Book of Legal Punishments - كتاب الحدود - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)"](https://sunnah.com/muslim:1695b). *sunnah.com*. Retrieved 2025-04-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** ["The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam"](https://islamicstudies.info/literature/halal-haram.htm). *islamicstudies.info*. Retrieved 2024-07-13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Research Department, Universal House of Justice (1991). "A Chaste and Holy Life". *Compilation of Compilations (Volume 1)*. Australia: Baháʼí Publications Australia.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["Iran: Law to Protect the Family by Promoting the Culture of Chastity and Hijab Proposed"](https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2023-09-05/iran-law-to-protect-the-family-by-promoting-the-culture-of-chastity-and-hijab-proposed/). *Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA*. Retrieved 2024-06-22.

## External links

- Media related to [Chastity](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chastity) at Wikimedia Commons

Wikiquote has quotations related to ***[Chastity](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Chastity)***.

Look up ***[chastity](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chastity)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- ["Catechism of the Catholic Church"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090304123934/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm). III.2.I. Archived from [the original](https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm) on 4 March 2009.

- ["Early Shaker Writings Relating to Sexual Abstinence"](https://www.passtheword.org/SHAKER-MANUSCRIPTS/Abstinence/shaker-abst-x1.htm).

- Melody, John. ["Chastity"](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03637d.htm). *Catholic Encyclopedia*.

[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals):
- [Human sexuality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Human_sexuality)
- [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Religion)

v t e Seven virtues in Christian ethics Four cardinal virtues Prudence (Prudentia) Justice (Iustitia) Fortitude (Fortitudo) Temperance (Temperantia) Sources: Plato Republic, Book IV Cicero Ambrose Augustine of Hippo Thomas Aquinas Faith, Hope and Love, as portrayed by Mary Lizzie Macomber (1861–1916) Three theological virtues Faith (Fides) Hope (Spes) Love (Caritas) Sources: Paul the Apostle 1 Corinthians 13 Seven lively virtues versus Seven deadly sins Chastity (Castitas) Temperance (Temperantia) Charity (Caritas) Diligence (Diligentia) Kindness (Humanitas) Patience (Patientia) Humility (Humilitas) Lust (Luxuria) Gluttony (Gula) Greed (Avaritia) Sloth (Acedia) Wrath (Ira) Envy (Invidia) Pride (Superbia) Source: Prudentius, Psychomachia People: Evagrius Ponticus John Cassian Pope Gregory I Dante Alighieri Peter Binsfeld Related concepts Eschatology Great Commandment Hamartiology Old Covenant Sin Original sin Ten Commandments Virtue ethics Christian philosophy

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Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Czech Republic 2 Spain Israel Other İslâm Ansiklopedisi Yale LUX

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