# Charles II of England

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King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1660 to 1685

Charles II Portrait, c. 1660–1665 King of England, Scotland, and Ireland Reign 29 May 1660[a] – 6 February 1685 Coronation 23 April 1661 Predecessor Charles I (de jure) Council of State (de facto) Successor James II & VII King of Scotland Reign 30 January 1649 – 3 September 1651[b] Coronation 1 January 1651 Predecessor Charles I Successor Military government Born 29 May 1630 (N.S.: 8 June 1630) St James's Palace, Westminster, England Died 6 February 1685 (aged 54) (N.S.: 16 February 1685) Whitehall Palace, Westminster, England Burial 14 February 1685 Westminster Abbey, England Spouse Catherine of Braganza ​ ​ (m. 1662)​ Issue James Scott, Duke of Monmouth Charlotte Paston, Countess of Yarmouth Charles FitzCharles, 1st Earl of Plymouth Catherine FitzCharles Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Cleveland Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond Mary Tudor, Countess of Derwentwater House Stuart Father Charles I of England Mother Henrietta Maria of France Signature

**Charles II** (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685)[c] was [King of Scotland](/source/King_of_Scotland) from 1649 until 1651 and [King of England](/source/King_of_England), Scotland, and [Ireland](/source/King_of_Ireland) from the [1660 Restoration](/source/1660_Restoration) of the monarchy until his death in 1685.

Charles II was the eldest surviving child of [Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland](/source/Charles_I_of_England%2C_Scotland_and_Ireland) and [Henrietta Maria of France](/source/Henrietta_Maria_of_France). After [Charles I's execution](/source/Charles_I's_execution) at [Whitehall](/source/Palace_of_Whitehall) on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the [English Civil War](/source/English_Civil_War), the [Parliament of Scotland](/source/Parliament_of_Scotland) proclaimed Charles II king on 5 February 1649. However, England entered the period known as the [English Interregnum](/source/English_Interregnum) or the [English Commonwealth](/source/English_Commonwealth) with a republican government eventually led by [Oliver Cromwell](/source/Oliver_Cromwell). Cromwell defeated Charles II at the [Battle of Worcester](/source/Battle_of_Worcester) on 3 September 1651, and Charles [fled to mainland Europe](/source/Escape_of_Charles_II). Cromwell became [Lord Protector](/source/Lord_Protector) of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the [Dutch Republic](/source/Dutch_Republic) and the [Spanish Netherlands](/source/Spanish_Netherlands). A political crisis after Cromwell's death in 1658 resulted in the [restoration of the monarchy](/source/Stuart_Restoration) in 1660, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim.

[Charles's English Parliament](/source/Cavalier_Parliament) enacted the [Clarendon Code](/source/Clarendon_Code), to shore up the position of the [re-established](/source/Established_Church) [Church of England](/source/Church_of_England). Charles acquiesced to these new laws even though he favoured a policy of [religious tolerance](/source/Religious_tolerance). The major foreign policy issue of his early reign was the [Second Anglo-Dutch War](/source/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War). In 1670, he entered into the [Treaty of Dover](/source/Treaty_of_Dover), an alliance with his cousin, King [Louis XIV](/source/Louis_XIV) of France. Louis agreed to aid him in the [Third Anglo-Dutch War](/source/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War) and pay him a pension, and Charles secretly promised to convert to [Catholicism](/source/Catholicism) at an unspecified future date. Charles attempted to introduce [religious freedom](/source/Religious_freedom) for Catholics and Protestant [dissenters](/source/Dissenter) with his [1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence](/source/1672_Royal_Declaration_of_Indulgence), but the [English Parliament](/source/English_Parliament) forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, [Titus Oates](/source/Titus_Oates)'s fabrication of a supposed [Popish Plot](/source/Popish_Plot) sparked the [Exclusion Crisis](/source/Exclusion_Crisis) when it was revealed that Charles's brother and [heir presumptive](/source/Heir_presumptive), [James, Duke of York](/source/James%2C_Duke_of_York), had become a Catholic. The crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion [Whig](/source/British_Whig_Party) and anti-exclusion [Tory](/source/Tories_(British_political_party)) parties. Charles sided with the Tories and, after the discovery of the [Rye House Plot](/source/Rye_House_Plot) to murder Charles and James in 1683, some Whig leaders were executed or forced into exile. Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681 and ruled alone until his death in 1685.

A patron of the arts and sciences, Charles became known for his affability and friendliness, and for allowing his subjects easy access to his person. But he also showed an almost impenetrable reserve, especially concerning his political agendas. His court gained a reputation for moral laxity.[1] Charles's marriage to [Catherine of Braganza](/source/Catherine_of_Braganza) produced no surviving children, but the king acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James.

## Early life, civil war and exile

Charles as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to [Justus van Egmont](/source/Justus_van_Egmont)

Charles was born on 29 May 1630 at [St James's Palace](/source/St_James's_Palace). He was the eldest surviving son of [Charles I](/source/Charles_I_of_England), king of [England](/source/Kingdom_of_England), [Scotland](/source/Kingdom_of_Scotland) and [Ireland](/source/Kingdom_of_Ireland), and his wife [Henrietta Maria of France](/source/Henrietta_Maria_of_France), sister of King [Louis XIII](/source/Louis_XIII). Charles was their second child (the first being a son born about a year before, who had died within a day).[2] He was baptised on 27 June in the [Chapel Royal](/source/Chapel_Royal) by [William Laud](/source/William_Laud), a future [archbishop of Canterbury](/source/Archbishop_of_Canterbury), and during his infancy was supervised by the Protestant [Countess of Dorset](/source/Edward_Sackville%2C_4th_Earl_of_Dorset#Family). His godparents included his maternal uncle Louis XIII and maternal grandmother, [Marie de' Medici](/source/Marie_de'_Medici), the Dowager Queen of France, both of whom were Catholics.[3] At birth, Charles automatically became [Duke of Cornwall](/source/Duke_of_Cornwall) and [Duke of Rothesay](/source/Duke_of_Rothesay), and the possessor of several other associated titles. At or around his eighth birthday, he was designated [Prince of Wales](/source/Prince_of_Wales), though he was never formally invested.[2]

In August 1642, the long-running dispute between Charles I and [Parliament](/source/Parliament_of_England) culminated in the outbreak of the [First English Civil War](/source/First_English_Civil_War). In October, Prince Charles and his younger brother [James](/source/James_II_of_England) were present at the [Battle of Edgehill](/source/Battle_of_Edgehill) and spent the next two years based in the [Royalist](/source/Cavalier) capital of [Oxford](/source/Oxford). In January 1645, Charles was given his own Council and made titular head of Royalist forces in the [West Country](/source/West_Country).[4] By spring 1646, most of the region had been occupied by [Parliamentarian](/source/Roundhead) forces and Charles went into exile to avoid capture. From [Falmouth](/source/Falmouth%2C_Cornwall), he went first to the [Isles of Scilly](/source/Isles_of_Scilly), then to [Jersey](/source/Jersey), and finally to France, where his mother was already living under the protection of his first cousin, the eight-year-old [Louis XIV](/source/Louis_XIV).[5] Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646.

During the [Second English Civil War](/source/Second_English_Civil_War) in 1648, Charles moved to [The Hague](/source/The_Hague), where his sister [Mary](/source/Mary%2C_Princess_Royal_and_Princess_of_Orange) and his brother-in-law [William II, Prince of Orange](/source/William_II%2C_Prince_of_Orange), seemed more likely to provide substantial aid to the Royalist cause than his mother's French relations.[6] Although part of the Parliamentarian fleet defected, it did not reach Scotland in time to join up with the Royalist [Engager](/source/Engager) army led by the [Duke of Hamilton](/source/James_Hamilton%2C_1st_Duke_of_Hamilton) before it was defeated at [Preston](/source/Battle_of_Preston_(1648)) by the [New Model Army](/source/New_Model_Army).[7]

Portrait by [William Dobson](/source/William_Dobson), c. 1642 or 1643

At The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with [Lucy Walter](/source/Lucy_Walter), who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married.[8] Her son, [James Crofts](/source/James_Scott%2C_Duke_of_Monmouth) (afterwards [Duke of Monmouth](/source/Duke_of_Monmouth) and [Duke of Buccleuch](/source/Duke_of_Buccleuch)), was one of Charles's many illegitimate children who became prominent in British society.[2] Despite his son's diplomatic efforts to save him, [Charles I was executed](/source/Execution_of_Charles_I) in January 1649, and England became a [republic](/source/Commonwealth_of_England). On 5 February, the [Covenanter](/source/Covenanter) [Parliament of Scotland](/source/Parliament_of_Scotland) proclaimed Charles II as "King of Great Britain, France and Ireland" at the [Mercat Cross, Edinburgh](/source/Mercat_Cross%2C_Edinburgh),[9] but refused to allow him to enter Scotland unless he agreed to establish [Presbyterianism](/source/Presbyterianism) as the [state religion](/source/State_religion) in all three of his kingdoms.

When negotiations with the Scots stalled, Charles authorised [Lord Montrose](/source/James_Graham%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Montrose) to land in the [Orkney Islands](/source/Orkney_Islands) with a small army to threaten the Scots with invasion, in the hope of forcing an agreement more to his liking. Montrose feared that Charles would accept a compromise, and so chose to invade mainland Scotland anyway. He was captured and executed. Charles reluctantly promised that he would abide by the terms of a [treaty agreed between him and the Scots Parliament](/source/Treaty_of_Breda_(1650)) at [Breda](/source/Breda), and support the [Solemn League and Covenant](/source/Solemn_League_and_Covenant), which authorised [Presbyterian church governance](/source/Presbyterian_church_governance) across Britain. Upon his arrival in Scotland on 23 June 1650, he formally agreed to the Covenant; his abandonment of [Episcopal](/source/Episcopy) church governance, although winning him support in Scotland, left him unpopular in England. Charles himself soon came to despise the "villainy" and "hypocrisy" of the Covenanters.[10] Charles was provided with a Scottish court, and the record of his [food and household expenses](/source/Food_and_the_Scottish_royal_household) at [Falkland Palace](/source/Falkland_Palace) and [Perth](/source/Perth%2C_Scotland) survives.[11]

Cast gold coronation medal of Charles II, dated 1651

Charles's alliance with the Scots led to the [Anglo-Scottish War](/source/Anglo-Scottish_war_(1650%E2%80%931652)) of 1650 to 1652. On 3 September 1650, the Covenanters were defeated at [Dunbar](/source/Battle_of_Dunbar_(1650)) by a much smaller force commanded by [Oliver Cromwell](/source/Oliver_Cromwell). The Scots were divided between moderate Engagers and the more radical [Kirk Party](/source/Kirk_Party), who even fought each other. Disillusioned by these divisions, Charles rode north to join an Engager force in October, an event which became known as "the Start", but within two days members of the Kirk Party had recovered him.[12] Nevertheless, the Scots remained Charles's best hope of restoration, and he was [crowned King of Scotland](/source/Scottish_coronation_of_Charles_II) at [Scone Abbey](/source/Scone_Abbey) on 1 January 1651. With Cromwell's forces threatening Charles's position in Scotland, it was decided to mount an attack on England, but many of their most experienced soldiers had been excluded on religious grounds by the Kirk Party, whose leaders also refused to participate, among them [Lord Argyll](/source/Archibald_Campbell%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Argyll). Opposition to what was primarily a Scottish army meant few English Royalists joined as it moved south, and the invasion ended in defeat at the [Battle of Worcester](/source/Battle_of_Worcester) on 3 September 1651. [Charles managed to escape](/source/Escape_of_Charles_II) and landed in [Normandy](/source/Normandy) six weeks later on 16 October, even though there was a reward of £1,000 on his head, anyone caught helping him was at risk of being put to death, and he was difficult to disguise, being over 6 ft (1.8 m), which was unusually tall for the time.[13][d]

Charles in exile, painted by [Philippe de Champaigne](/source/Philippe_de_Champaigne), c. 1653

Under the [Instrument of Government](/source/Instrument_of_Government) passed by Parliament, Cromwell was appointed [Lord Protector](/source/Lord_Protector#Cromwellian_Commonwealth) of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653, effectively placing the [British Isles](/source/British_Isles) under military rule. Charles lived a life of leisure at [Saint-Germain-en-Laye](/source/Saint-Germain-en-Laye) near Paris,[15] living on a grant from Louis XIV of 600 [livres](/source/French_livre) a month.[16] Charles could not obtain sufficient finance or support to mount a serious challenge to Cromwell's government. Despite the [Stuart family](/source/Stuart_family) connections through Henrietta Maria and the Princess of Orange, France and the [Dutch Republic](/source/Dutch_Republic) allied themselves with Cromwell's government from 1654, forcing Charles to leave France and turn to Spain for aid, which at that time ruled the [Southern Netherlands](/source/Southern_Netherlands).[17]

Charles made the [Treaty of Brussels](/source/Treaty_of_Brussels_(1656)) with Spain in 1656. This gathered Spanish support for a restoration in return for Charles's contribution to the war against France. Charles raised a ragtag army from his exiled subjects; this small, underpaid, poorly equipped and ill-disciplined force formed the nucleus of the post-Restoration army.[18] The Commonwealth made the [Treaty of Paris](/source/Treaty_of_Paris_(1657)) with France in 1657 to join them in war against Spain in the Netherlands. Royalist supporters in the Spanish force were led by Charles's younger brother [James, Duke of York](/source/James%2C_Duke_of_York).[19] At the [Battle of the Dunes](/source/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)) in 1658, as part of the larger Spanish force, Charles's army of around 2,000 clashed with Commonwealth troops fighting with the French. By the end of the battle Charles's force was about 1,000 and with Dunkirk given to the English the prospect of a Royalist expedition to England was dashed.[20]

## Restoration

Further information: [Stuart Restoration](/source/Stuart_Restoration)

After Oliver Cromwell's death in 1658, Charles's initial chances of regaining the Crown seemed slim; Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son [Richard](/source/Richard_Cromwell) but the new Lord Protector had little experience of either military or civil administration. In 1659, the [Rump Parliament](/source/Rump_Parliament) was recalled and Richard Cromwell resigned. During the civil and military unrest that followed, [George Monck](/source/George_Monck), the Governor of Scotland, was concerned that the nation would descend into anarchy.[21] Monck and his army marched into the [City of London](/source/City_of_London), and forced the Rump Parliament to readmit members of the [Long Parliament](/source/Long_Parliament) who had been excluded in December 1648, during [Pride's Purge](/source/Pride's_Purge). Parliament dissolved itself, and there was a general election for the first time in almost 20 years.[22] The outgoing Parliament defined the electoral qualifications intending to bring about the return of a Presbyterian majority.[23]

Ball given to Charles at [The Hague](/source/The_Hague) on his departure to England

The restrictions against royalist candidates and voters were widely ignored, and the elections resulted in a [House of Commons](/source/Parliament_of_England) that was fairly evenly divided on political grounds between Royalists and Parliamentarians and on religious grounds between [Anglicans](/source/Anglicans) and Presbyterians.[23] The so-called [Convention Parliament](/source/Convention_Parliament_(1660)) assembled on 25 April 1660, and soon afterwards welcomed the [Declaration of Breda](/source/Declaration_of_Breda), in which Charles promised lenience and tolerance. There would be liberty of conscience, and Anglican church policy would not be harsh. He would not exile past enemies nor confiscate their wealth. There would be pardons for nearly all his opponents except the [regicides](/source/Regicides). Above all, Charles promised to rule in cooperation with Parliament.[24] The English Parliament resolved to proclaim Charles king and invite him to return, a message that reached Charles at [Breda](/source/Breda) on 8 May 1660.[25] In Ireland, a [convention](/source/Irish_Convention_(1660)) had been called earlier in the year and had already declared for Charles. On 14 May, he was proclaimed king in Dublin.[26]

Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting by [Lieve Verschuier](/source/Lieve_Verschuier).

Charles set out for England from [Scheveningen](/source/Scheveningen), arrived in [Dover](/source/Dover) on 25 May 1660 and reached London on 29 May, his 30th birthday. Although Charles and Parliament granted amnesty to nearly all of Cromwell's supporters in the [Act of Indemnity and Oblivion](/source/Act_of_Indemnity_and_Oblivion), 50 people were specifically excluded.[27] In the end nine of the [regicides](/source/List_of_regicides_of_Charles_I) were executed:[28] they were [hanged, drawn and quartered](/source/Hanged%2C_drawn_and_quartered), whereas others were given life imprisonment or excluded from office for life. The bodies of Oliver Cromwell, [Henry Ireton](/source/Henry_Ireton) and [John Bradshaw](/source/John_Bradshaw_(Judge)) were subjected to [posthumous decapitations](/source/Posthumous_execution).[29]

The English Parliament granted Charles an annual income to run the government of £1.2 million,[30] generated largely from customs and excise duties. The grant, however, proved to be insufficient for most of Charles's reign. For the most part, the actual revenue was much lower, which led to attempts to economise at court by reducing the size and expenses of the [royal household](/source/Royal_household)[30] and raising money through unpopular innovations such as the [hearth tax](/source/Hearth_tax).[26]

In the latter half of 1660, Charles's joy at the Restoration was tempered by the deaths of his siblings [Henry](/source/Henry_Stuart%2C_Duke_of_Gloucester) and Mary of [smallpox](/source/Smallpox). At around the same time, [Anne Hyde](/source/Anne_Hyde), the daughter of Lord Chancellor [Edward Hyde](/source/Edward_Hyde%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clarendon), revealed that she was pregnant by Charles's brother James, whom she had secretly married. Edward Hyde, who had not known of either the marriage or the pregnancy, was created [Earl of Clarendon](/source/Earl_of_Clarendon) and his position as Charles's favourite minister was strengthened.[31]

### Clarendon Code

Coronation portrait: Charles was crowned at [Westminster Abbey](/source/Westminster_Abbey) on 23 April 1661.[32]

The Convention Parliament was dissolved in December 1660, and, shortly after Charles's [English coronation](/source/Coronation_of_Charles_II_of_England), the second English Parliament of the reign assembled. Dubbed the [Cavalier Parliament](/source/Cavalier_Parliament), it was overwhelmingly Royalist and Anglican. It sought to discourage [non-conformity](/source/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)) to the [Church of England](/source/Church_of_England) and passed several acts to secure Anglican dominance. The [Corporation Act 1661](/source/Corporation_Act_1661) required municipal officeholders to swear allegiance;[33] the [Act of Uniformity 1662](/source/Act_of_Uniformity_1662) made the use of the [1662 *Book of Common Prayer*](/source/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1662)) compulsory; the [Conventicle Act 1664](/source/Conventicle_Act_1664) prohibited religious assemblies of more than five people, except under the auspices of the Church of England; and the [Five Mile Act 1665](/source/Five_Mile_Act_1665) prohibited expelled non-conforming clergymen from coming within five miles (8 km) of a parish from which they had been banished. The Conventicle and Five Mile Acts remained in effect for the remainder of Charles's reign. The Acts became known as the [Clarendon Code](/source/Clarendon_Code), after Lord Clarendon, even though he was not directly responsible for them and even spoke against the Five Mile Act.[34]

The Restoration was accompanied by social change. [Puritanism](/source/Puritanism) lost its momentum. Theatres reopened after having been closed during the [protectorship](/source/Interregnum_(England)) of Oliver Cromwell, and bawdy "[Restoration comedy](/source/Restoration_comedy)" became a recognisable genre. Theatre licences granted by Charles required that female parts be played by "their natural performers", rather than by boys as was often the practice before;[35] and [Restoration literature](/source/Restoration_literature) celebrated or reacted to the restored court, which included [libertines](/source/Libertine) such as [Lord Rochester](/source/John_Wilmot%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Rochester). Of Charles II, Rochester supposedly said:

We have a pretty, witty king, Whose word no man relies on, He never said a foolish thing, And never did a wise one[36]

To which Charles is reputed to have replied "that the matter was easily accounted for: For that his discourse was his own, his actions were the ministry's".[37]

### Great Plague and Great Fire

In 1665, the [Great Plague of London](/source/Great_Plague_of_London) began, peaking in September with up to 7,000 deaths per week.[38] Charles, his family, and the court fled London in July to [Salisbury](/source/Salisbury); Parliament met in [Oxford](/source/Oxford).[39] Plague cases ebbed over the winter, and Charles returned to London in February 1666.[40]

After a long spell of hot and dry weather through mid-1666, the [Great Fire of London](/source/Great_Fire_of_London) started on 2 September 1666 in [Pudding Lane](/source/Pudding_Lane). Fanned by strong winds and fed by wood and fuel stockpiled for winter, the fire destroyed about 13,200 houses and 87 churches, including [St Paul's Cathedral](/source/St_Paul's_Cathedral).[41] Charles and his brother James joined and directed the firefighting effort. The public blamed Catholic conspirators for the fire.[42]

## Foreign policy and marriage

Charles and Catherine

Since 1640, Portugal had been fighting a [war against Spain](/source/Portuguese_Restoration_War) to restore its independence after a [dynastic union](/source/Dynastic_union) of 60 years between the crowns of Spain and Portugal. Portugal had been helped by France, but in the [Treaty of the Pyrenees](/source/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees) in 1659 Portugal was abandoned by its French ally. Negotiations with Portugal for Charles's marriage to [Catherine of Braganza](/source/Catherine_of_Braganza) began during his father's reign. Upon the restoration, [Queen Luísa of Portugal](/source/Luisa_de_Guzm%C3%A1n), acting as regent, reopened negotiations with England that resulted in an alliance.[43] On 23 June 1661, a marriage treaty was signed; England acquired Catherine's [dowry](/source/Dowry) of the port of [Tangier](/source/Portuguese_Tangier) in North Africa, the [Seven Islands of Bombay](/source/Seven_Islands_of_Bombay) in India (which had a major influence on the development of the [British Empire](/source/British_Empire)), valuable trading privileges in Brazil and the [East Indies](/source/East_Indies), religious and commercial freedom in Portugal, and two million Portuguese crowns (equivalent to £300,000 then[e]). Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine.[45] Since Philip IV of Spain was an enemy of the Braganzas and was against a marriage between Catherine and any powerful European monarch, the Spanish government proposed other European princesses as possible brides for Charles, instead of Catherine, making clear that there were no available Spanish princesses.[46] For this purpose, the Spanish government proposed Princess [Maria of Orange-Nassau](/source/Maria_of_Orange-Nassau), the youngest of the Dutch princesses of the House of Orange.[47] If the English king accepted this proposal, then Philip IV would provide the dowry. As an alternative, the Spanish government also proposed the youngest sister of the [Duke of Parma](/source/Ranuccio_II_Farnese), Caterina Farnese, who was said to be very beautiful, and in February 1661 the earl of Bristol travelled to Parma to inspect the princess.[48] However, she refused to marry the English monarch, because she wanted to become a nun.[49] Nevertheless, Charles II dismissed the Dutch and Italian princesses offered by the Spanish government, and chose to marry Catherine of Braganza because of her huge dowry. Catherine journeyed from Portugal to [Portsmouth](/source/Portsmouth) on 13–14 May 1662,[45] but was not visited by Charles there until 20 May. The next day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies—a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service.[45]

The same year, in an unpopular move, Charles [sold Dunkirk](/source/Sale_of_Dunkirk) to King Louis XIV of France for about £375,000.[50] The channel port, although a valuable strategic outpost, was a drain on Charles's limited finances, as it cost the Treasury £321,000 per year.[51]

Charles II in profile on a medal struck in 1667 by [John Roettiers](/source/John_Roettiers) to commemorate the [Second Dutch War](/source/Second_Dutch_War)

Before Charles's restoration, the [Navigation Acts](/source/Navigation_Acts) of 1650 had hurt [Dutch](/source/Dutch_Republic) trade by giving English vessels a monopoly, and had started the [First Dutch War](/source/First_Dutch_War) (1652–1654). To lay foundations for a new beginning, envoys of the [States General](/source/States_General_of_the_Netherlands) appeared in November 1660 with the [Dutch Gift](/source/Dutch_Gift).[52] The [Second Dutch War](/source/Second_Dutch_War) (1665–1667) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America. The conflict began well for the English, with the capture of [New Amsterdam](/source/New_Amsterdam) (renamed New York in honour of Charles's brother James, Duke of York) and a victory at the [Battle of Lowestoft](/source/Battle_of_Lowestoft), but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on England (the [Raid on the Medway](/source/Raid_on_the_Medway)) when they sailed up the [River Thames](/source/River_Thames) to where a major part of the English fleet was docked. Almost all of the ships were sunk except for the flagship, [*Royal Charles*](/source/HMS_Royal_Charles_(1660)), which was taken back to the Netherlands as a [prize](/source/Prize_(law)).[f] The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the [Treaty of Breda](/source/Treaty_of_Breda_(1667)).

As a result of the Second Dutch War, Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon, whom he used as a scapegoat for the war.[53] Clarendon fled to France when impeached for [high treason](/source/High_treason) (which carried the penalty of death). Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical [acronym](/source/Acronym) as the [Cabal](/source/Cabal)—the [Baron *Clifford*](/source/Thomas_Clifford%2C_1st_Baron_Clifford), [Earl of *Arlington*](/source/Henry_Bennet%2C_1st_Earl_of_Arlington), [Duke of *Buckingham*](/source/George_Villiers%2C_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham), [Baron *Ashley* (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury)](/source/Anthony_Ashley_Cooper%2C_1st_Earl_of_Shaftesbury) and [Duke of *Lauderdale*](/source/John_Maitland%2C_1st_Duke_of_Lauderdale). In fact, the Cabal rarely acted in concert, and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham, with Arlington the more successful.[54]

In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden and with its former enemy the Netherlands to oppose Louis XIV in the [War of Devolution](/source/War_of_Devolution). Louis made peace with the [Triple Alliance](/source/Triple_Alliance_(1668)), but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands. In 1670, Charles, seeking to solve his financial troubles, agreed to the [Treaty of Dover](/source/Treaty_of_Dover), under which Louis would pay him £160,000 each year. In exchange, Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Catholicism "as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit".[55] Louis was to provide him with 6,000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion. Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty—especially the conversion clause—remained secret.[56] It remains unclear whether Charles ever seriously intended to convert.[57]

Meanwhile, by a series of five charters, Charles granted the [East India Company](/source/East_India_Company) the rights to autonomous government of its territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and [criminal jurisdiction](/source/Criminal_jurisdiction) over its possessions in the Indies.[58] Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of [Bombay](/source/Bombay) to the company for a nominal sum of £10 paid in gold.[59] The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as a dowry proved too expensive to maintain; [Tangier](/source/English_Tangier) was abandoned in 1684.[60] In 1670, Charles granted control of the entire [Hudson Bay](/source/Hudson_Bay) drainage basin to the [Hudson's Bay Company](/source/Hudson's_Bay_Company) by royal charter, and named the territory [Rupert's Land](/source/Rupert's_Land), after his cousin [Prince Rupert of the Rhine](/source/Prince_Rupert_of_the_Rhine), the company's first governor.[61]

## Conflict with Parliament

Although previously favourable to the Crown, the Cavalier Parliament was alienated by the king's wars and religious policies during the 1670s. In 1672, Charles issued the [Royal Declaration of Indulgence](/source/Declaration_of_Indulgence_(1672)), in which he purported to suspend all [penal laws](/source/Penal_law_(Britain)) against Catholics and other religious dissenters. In the same year, he openly supported Catholic France and started the [Third Anglo-Dutch War](/source/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War).[62]

The Cavalier Parliament opposed the Declaration of Indulgence on constitutional grounds by claiming that the king had no right to arbitrarily suspend laws passed by Parliament. Charles withdrew the Declaration, and also agreed to the [Test Act](/source/Test_Act), which not only required public officials to receive the [sacrament](/source/Eucharist) under the forms prescribed by the Church of England,[63] but also later forced them to denounce [transubstantiation](/source/Transubstantiation) and the Catholic Mass as "superstitious and idolatrous".[64] Clifford, who had converted to Catholicism, resigned rather than take the oath, and died shortly after, possibly from suicide. By 1674, England had gained nothing from the Anglo-Dutch War, and the Cavalier Parliament refused to provide further funds, forcing Charles to make peace. The power of the Cabal waned, and that of Clifford's replacement [Lord Danby](/source/Lord_Danby) grew.

*[Charles II Presented with the First Pineapple Grown in England](/source/Charles_II_Presented_with_the_First_Pineapple_Grown_in_England)* by [Hendrick Danckerts](/source/Hendrick_Danckerts), c. 1675–1680

Queen Catherine was unable to produce an heir; her four pregnancies had ended in [miscarriages](/source/Miscarriage) and [stillbirths](/source/Stillbirth) in 1662, February 1666, May 1668, and June 1669.[2] Charles's [heir presumptive](/source/Heir_presumptive) was therefore his unpopular Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. Partly to assuage public fears that the royal family was too Catholic, Charles agreed that James's daughter [Mary](/source/Mary_II_of_England) should marry the Protestant [William of Orange](/source/William_III_of_England).[65] In 1678, [Titus Oates](/source/Titus_Oates), who had been alternately an Anglican and [Jesuit](/source/Jesuit) priest, falsely warned of a "[Popish Plot](/source/Popish_Plot)" to assassinate the king, even accusing the queen of complicity. Charles did not believe the allegations, but ordered his chief minister Lord Danby to investigate. While Danby seems to have been rightly sceptical of Oates's claims, the Cavalier Parliament took them seriously.[66] The people were seized with an anti-Catholic hysteria;[67] judges and juries across the land condemned the supposed conspirators; numerous innocent individuals were executed.[68]

Later in 1678, the House of Commons impeached Danby for [high treason](/source/High_treason). Although much of the nation had sought war with Catholic France, Charles had secretly negotiated with Louis XIV, trying to reach an agreement under which England would remain neutral in return for money. Danby had publicly professed that he was hostile to France, but had reservedly agreed to abide by Charles's wishes. The House of Commons did not view him as a reluctant participant in the scandal, instead believing that he was the author of the policy. To save Danby from the impeachment trial, Charles dissolved the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679.[69]

The new English Parliament, which met in March of the same year, was quite hostile to Charles. Many members feared that he had intended to use the [standing army](/source/Standing_army_(Great_Britain)) to suppress dissent or impose Catholicism. However, with insufficient funds voted by Parliament, Charles was forced to gradually disband his troops. Having lost the support of Parliament, Danby resigned his post of [Lord High Treasurer](/source/Lord_High_Treasurer), but received a pardon from the king. In defiance of the royal will, the House of Commons declared that the dissolution of Parliament did not interrupt impeachment proceedings, and that the pardon was therefore invalid. When the [House of Lords](/source/House_of_Lords) attempted to impose the punishment of exile—which the Commons thought too mild—the impeachment became stalled between the two Houses. As he had been required to do so many times during his reign, Charles bowed to his opponents' wishes, committing Danby to the [Tower of London](/source/Tower_of_London), in which he was held for another five years.[70]

## Science

Portrait by [John Riley](/source/John_Riley_(painter%2C_born_1646)), c. 1683–1684

In Charles's early childhood, [William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle](/source/William_Cavendish%2C_Earl_of_Newcastle), was governor of the royal household and Brian Duppa, the [Dean of Christ Church, Oxford](/source/Dean_of_Christ_Church%2C_Oxford), was his tutor.[71] Neither man thought that the study of science subjects was appropriate for a future king,[72] and Newcastle even advised against studying any subject too seriously.[73] However, as Charles grew older, the surgeon [William Harvey](/source/William_Harvey) was appointed his tutor.[71][74] Harvey was famous for his work on human blood circulation, and had already held the position of physician to Charles I. His studies were to influence Charles II's attitude towards science. As the king's chief physician, Harvey accompanied Charles I to the [Battle of Edgehill](/source/Battle_of_Edgehill) and, although some details are uncertain,[75][76] he had charge of Prince Charles and the Duke of York in the morning.[77] But the two boys were back with the king for the start of battle.[78][79] Later in the afternoon, as their father grew concerned for their safety, the princes left the battlefield with Sir W. Howard and his pensioners.[80]

During his exile, in France, Charles continued his education, including physics, chemistry and mathematics.[81] His tutors included the cleric [John Earle](/source/John_Earle_(bishop)), well known for his satirical book *Microcosmographie*, with whom he studied Latin and Greek, and [Thomas Hobbes](/source/Thomas_Hobbes), the philosopher and author of *Leviathan*, with whom he studied mathematics.[82] In France, Charles assisted his childhood friend, [George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham](/source/George_Villiers%2C_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham), with his experiments in [chemistry](/source/Chemistry) and [alchemy](/source/Alchemy),[83] with the Earl convinced he was close to producing the [philosopher's stone](/source/Philosopher's_stone). Although some of Charles's studies abroad may have helped to pass the time,[84] upon returning to England, he was already knowledgeable in the mathematics of navigation, and was a competent chemist.[85] Such was his knowledge of naval architecture that he was able to participate in technical discussions on the subject with [Samuel Pepys](/source/Samuel_Pepys), [William Petty](/source/William_Petty) and [John Evelyn](/source/John_Evelyn).[86]

New discoveries and concepts fascinated Charles,[87] not only in science and medicine, but also in botany and gardening.[74][88] Sorbier, a French traveller visiting the English court, was astonished by the extent of the king's knowledge.[89] The king freely indulged in his many interests, including astronomy. In October 1660, he visited [Gresham College](/source/Gresham_College) to see new [telescopes](/source/Telescopes) developed by astronomer [Sir Paul Neile](/source/Sir_Paul_Neile).[90] Charles was so impressed by what he saw that he ordered his own 36' telescope, which he had installed in the Privy Garden at [Whitehall](/source/Whitehall).[91] He would invite friends and acquaintances to view the heavens through his new telescope. Evelyn describes his May 1661 visit to the Garden, with several other scientists, to view [Saturn's rings](/source/Saturn's_rings).[92] Charles also had a laboratory installed in Whitehall, within easy access to his bedroom.[93][91][94]

From the beginning of his reign, Charles appointed experts to assist him in his scientific pursuits. These included: [Timothy Clarke](/source/Timothy_Clarke), a celebrated anatomist, who performed some dissections for the king;[95] [Robert Morison](/source/Robert_Morison) as his chief botanist (Charles had his own botanical garden);[88] [Edmund Dickinson](/source/Edmund_Dickinson), a chemist and alchemist tasked with carrying out experiments in the king's laboratory;[96][97] [Sir Thomas Williams](/source/Sir_Thomas_Williams%2C_1st_Baronet), skilled in compounding and inventing medicines, sometimes prepared in the royal presence;[98] and [Nicasius le Febure](/source/Nicasius_le_Febure) (or Nicolas LeFevre), who was invited to England as royal professor of chemistry and apothecary to the king's household.[99] Evelyn visited his laboratory with the king.[100]

In addition to his many other interests, the king was fascinated by clock mechanisms,[74] and had clocks distributed around Whitehall, including seven in his bedroom.[101] [Robert Bruce](/source/Robert_Bruce%2C_1st_Earl_of_Ailesbury) (later Earl of Ailesbury), a Gentleman of the Bedchamber, complained that the continual noise of chiming clocks disturbed his sleep whenever he needed to stay close by to the king.[102] Charles had a sundial installed in the Privy Garden,[103] by which he could set his personal [pocket watch](/source/Pocket_watch).[104] (For a while, the king personally recorded the performance of the latest spring-balance watch, presented to him by [Robert Hooke](/source/Robert_Hooke).[105])

Charles leaving [Hampton Court Palace](/source/Hampton_Court_Palace)

In 1662, Charles granted a royal charter to the formal society of scientists and others established in 1660 to give a more academic and learned approach to science, and to conduct experiments in physics and mathematics.[94][106] [Sir Robert Moray](/source/Sir_Robert_Moray), a member of Charles's court, played an important part in this, and became the first president of this new [Royal Society](/source/Royal_Society). Moray was an important go-between for Charles and the Society, over the years,[107] and his standing with the king was so high that he was given access to the royal laboratory to perform his own experiments.[108]

Charles never attended a Society meeting,[109] but remained aware of activities there from his discussions with Society members, especially Moray.[103] In addition, [Robert Boyle](/source/Robert_Boyle) gave him a private viewing of the Boyle/Hooke [air-pump](/source/Air-pump),[110][111] which was used at many of the Wednesday meetings. Charles however preferred experiments with an immediate practical outcome,[104] and laughed at Society members' efforts to "weigh air".[112] He seemed unable to grasp the significance of basic laws of physics being established at that time, including [Boyle's law](/source/Boyle's_law) and [Hooke's law](/source/Hooke's_law), the concept of atmospheric pressure[110] and the [barometer](/source/Barometer),[113] and the importance of air to support life.[111]

Although Charles lost interest in the activities of the society, he continued to support scientific and commercial endeavours, founding the Mathematical School at [Christ's Hospital](/source/Christ's_Hospital) in 1673. Following concerns over French advances in astronomy, he founded the [Royal Observatory](/source/Royal_Observatory%2C_Greenwich) at Greenwich, two years later.[114] Maintaining his interest in chemistry, he regularly visited his private laboratory,[91][94] and observed occasional dissections there.[101] Pepys noted in his diary that on the morning of Friday, 15 January 1669, while Pepys walked to Whitehall, the king invited him to his chemistry laboratory. Pepys confessed to finding what he saw there beyond him.[115]

Charles developed painful [gout](/source/Gout) in later life which limited the daily walks that he took regularly when younger. He now channelled his keenness to his laboratory, devoting himself to experiments for hours,[116][117] sometimes helped by Moray.[118] Charles was particularly interested in alchemy, which he had first encountered many years earlier during his exile with the Duke of Buckingham. Charles resumed experiments with mercury, spending whole mornings attempting to distill it. Heating mercury in an open crucible releases toxic mercury vapour, which may have contributed to his later ill health.[119][120]

## Navy

Charles had a great interest in naval affairs.[g] He regularly attended meetings of the Admiralty Board and was the most frequent participant between January 1674 and April 1679. Samuel Pepys described the management of the navy, between 1673 and 1679, as being "wholly performed by the immediate direction of" the king, with the advice of the [Duke of York](/source/James_II_of_England) (the future James II). Decisions made by the king alone and those made by the Admiralty Board can be differentiated in Pepys's minutes by his terminology. This makes clear that decisions on deployment of warships and on appointment of their commissioned officers were almost exclusively made by Charles. Surviving Royal records on the navy contain sailing orders and instructions not recorded in the Admiralty minutes, confirming this conclusion.[122]

[HMS *Hampton Court*](/source/HMS_Hampton_Court_(1678)), a third-rate in the thirty ship programme

Charles voluntarily took on more mundane management tasks, and signed all captains' and lieutenants' commissions. His signature was, for example, on the warrant for Thomas Shish as master shipwright at [Sheerness](/source/Sheerness_dockyard), with Charles having the final choice, 6 months later, of appointing Shish to the same position in the [Woolwich Dockyard](/source/Woolwich_Dockyard). He was present at most important ship launches and many minor ones. Charles alone chose all new ships' names, so the name usually travelled to each launching ceremony in the king's head.[123][124]

Following the political crisis of 1678, the Admiralty Board demanded, in January 1679, they regain control of some functions carried out by the King. Before Charles ultimately conceded, he appointed 88 warrant officers on 10 May for new ships built under the thirty ship programme,[h] before the Board took over such appointments. Thereafter, he used the royal prerogative to get his way on any decisions with which he disagreed.[126] An example of Charles's continuing control of operational naval matters is his support for [Arthur Herbert](/source/Arthur_Herbert%2C_1st_Earl_of_Torrington) as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean from 1679 to 1683. Herbert was widely disliked, and the Admiralty Board and Pepys (who were not normally allies) asked for his dismissal. The King consistently resisted, with the benefit that Herbert's tactic of relying on convoys to protect British ships was shown to have the best result.[127]

Further political problems had, by 1682, left the Admiralty Board split along political lines, reducing its ability to function. (Pepys was no longer in post.) Charles took advantage of this, creating the "Irish Squadron", a naval force under his direct administration, with orders going through the Secretary of State, rather than the Admiralty. The squadron was immediately used to supply the English colony in [Tangier](/source/Tangier). Charles gave detailed orders for these ships, with the Secretary of State merely passing them on.[128]

Charles had a good understanding of [naval architecture](/source/Naval_architecture) and took decisions on the plans for new ships. For instance, among his interventions in the thirty ship programme,[h] he pointed out that with the French as a likely enemy in future wars, English warships would need to spend longer at sea than when fighting the Dutch.[i] Consequently, Charles insisted on the [third-rates](/source/Third-rate) being built larger than the minimum size laid down by parliament. This increased the capacity of stores, but also made the ships more seaworthy and better gun platforms. He guaranteed to pay the extra costs from his own funds, but with the ships built, he then reneged on this promise. Charles also instructed that ships in the programme should be launched as soon as the hulls were ready, with remaining work to be done afloat. This freed up docks and slipways for the next ship, speeding the ambitious construction timetable.[130][131]

Not all Charles's efforts in naval architecture were successful. When launched, the experimental [HMS *Royal Katherine*](/source/HMS_Royal_Katherine) needed immediate remedial work[j] to correct instability. Charles supported a suggestion by Pepys that the draught of ships in the thirty ship programme could be reduced. This was strongly resisted by the shipwrights, and the King ultimately deferred to their expert opinion.[132]

Charles learnt to sail fleeing the Royalist defeat in the [Civil War](/source/English_Civil_War). Taking refuge in [Jersey](/source/Jersey) in 1646, he was provided with a [pinnace](/source/Pinnace_(ship's_boat)) for his amusement. He regularly took the helm and was under the tuition of Royalist naval officers who had similarly left England. After the Restoration, Charles had a number of [Royal Yachts](/source/List_of_royal_yachts_of_the_United_Kingdom) and frequently sailed them.[134]

## Later years

Charles faced a political storm over his brother James, a Catholic, being next in line to the throne. The prospect of a Catholic monarch was vehemently opposed by the [1st Earl of Shaftesbury](/source/1st_Earl_of_Shaftesbury) (a former member of the Cabal, which had fallen apart in 1673). Lord Shaftesbury's power base was strengthened when the House of Commons of 1679 introduced the [Exclusion Bill](/source/Exclusion_Bill), which sought to exclude the Duke of York from the [line of succession](/source/Succession_to_the_British_throne). Some even sought to confer the Crown on the Protestant [Duke of Monmouth](/source/Duke_of_Monmouth), the eldest of Charles's illegitimate children. The *Abhorrers*—those who thought the Exclusion Bill was abhorrent—were named [Tories](/source/Tories_(British_political_party)) (after a term for dispossessed Irish Catholic bandits), while the *Petitioners*—those who supported a petitioning campaign in favour of the Exclusion Bill—were called [Whigs](/source/British_Whig_Party) (after a term for rebellious Scottish Presbyterians).[135]

### Absolute monarch

Fearing that the Exclusion Bill would be passed, and bolstered by some acquittals in the continuing Plot trials, which seemed to him to indicate a more favourable public mood towards Catholicism, Charles dissolved the English Parliament, for a second time that year, in mid-1679. Charles's hopes for a more moderate Parliament were not fulfilled; within a few months he had dissolved Parliament yet again, after it sought to pass the Exclusion Bill. When a new Parliament assembled at Oxford in March 1681, Charles dissolved it for a fourth time after just a few days.[136] During the 1680s, however, popular support for the Exclusion Bill ebbed, and Charles experienced a nationwide surge of loyalty. Lord Shaftesbury was prosecuted (albeit unsuccessfully) for treason in 1681 and later fled to Holland, where he died. For the remainder of his reign, Charles ruled without Parliament.[137]

Charles performing the [royal touch](/source/Royal_touch); engraving by [Robert White](/source/Robert_White_(engraver)), 1684

Charles's opposition to the Exclusion Bill angered some Protestants. Protestant conspirators formulated the [Rye House Plot](/source/Rye_House_Plot), a plan to murder him and the Duke of York as they returned to London after horse races in [Newmarket](/source/Newmarket%2C_Suffolk). A great fire, however, destroyed [Charles's lodgings at Newmarket](/source/Charles's_lodgings_at_Newmarket), which forced him to leave the races early, thus inadvertently avoiding the planned attack. News of the failed plot was leaked.[138] Protestant politicians such as the [Earl of Essex](/source/Arthur_Capell%2C_1st_Earl_of_Essex), [Algernon Sydney](/source/Algernon_Sydney), [Lord Russell](/source/William_Russell%2C_Lord_Russell) and the Duke of Monmouth were implicated in the plot. Essex slit his own throat while imprisoned in the Tower of London; Sydney and Russell were executed for high treason on very flimsy evidence; and the Duke of Monmouth went into exile at the court of William of Orange. Lord Danby and the surviving Catholic lords held in the Tower were released and the king's Catholic brother, James, acquired greater influence at court.[139] Titus Oates was convicted and imprisoned for defamation.[140]

Thus through the last years of Charles's reign, his approach towards his opponents changed, and he was compared by Whigs to the contemporary Louis XIV of France, with his form of government in those years termed "slavery". Many of them were prosecuted and their estates seized, with Charles replacing judges and sheriffs at will and packing juries to achieve conviction. To destroy opposition in London, Charles first disenfranchised many Whigs in the 1682 municipal elections, and in 1683 the [London charter](/source/Ancient_borough#Charters_of_incorporation) was forfeited. In retrospect, the use of the judicial system by Charles (and later his brother and heir James) as a tool against opposition helped establish the idea of [separation of powers](/source/Separation_of_powers) between the judiciary and the Crown in Whig thought.[141]

### Death

Charles suffered a sudden [apoplectic fit](/source/Apoplectic_fit) on the morning of 2 February 1685, and died four days later at the [Palace of Whitehall](/source/Palace_of_Whitehall), at 11:45 am, aged 54.[142] The suddenness of his illness and death led to suspicion of poison in the minds of many, including one of the royal doctors, but a more modern medical analysis has held that the symptoms of his final illness are similar to those of [uraemia](/source/Uraemia), a clinical syndrome due to kidney dysfunction.[143] Charles had a laboratory among his many interests where, prior to his illness, he had been experimenting with [mercury](/source/Mercury_(element)). Mercuric poisoning can produce irreversible kidney damage, but the case for that being a cause of his death is unproven.[144] In the days between his collapse and his death, Charles endured a variety of torturous treatments, including [bloodletting](/source/Bloodletting), [purging](/source/Laxative) and [cupping](/source/Cupping_therapy), in the hope of effecting a recovery,[145] which may have exacerbated his uraemia through dehydration, rather than helping to alleviate it.[146]

On his deathbed, Charles asked his brother, James, to look after his mistresses: "be well to [Portsmouth](/source/Louise_de_K%C3%A9rouaille%2C_Duchess_of_Portsmouth), and let not poor [Nelly](/source/Nell_Gwyn) starve".[147] He told his courtiers, "I am sorry, gentlemen, for being such a time a-dying",[148] and expressed regret at his treatment of his wife. On the last evening of his life he was received into the Catholic Church, in the presence of Father [John Huddleston](/source/John_Huddleston), though the extent to which he was fully conscious or committed, and with whom the idea originated, is unclear.[149] He was buried in [Westminster Abbey](/source/Westminster_Abbey) "without any manner of pomp"[148] on 14 February.[150]

Charles was succeeded by his brother James II and VII.[151]

## Legacy

Statue of Charles II as a Roman Caesar, erected 1685, [Parliament Square, Edinburgh](/source/Parliament_Square%2C_Edinburgh)

His encouragement of theatre, horse racing, and traditional celebrations included the revival of public Christmas festivities after the Puritan rule of [Oliver Cromwell](/source/Oliver_Cromwell) during the English Interregnum. His reputation for [hedonism](/source/Hedonism) led later commentators to nickname him the "Merry Monarch" and for his reign to be described as a "Golden Age". However, his biographer [Antonia Fraser](/source/Antonia_Fraser) has written that "Merry Monarch" was not appropriate, as Charles was, at heart, marked by melancholy.[152]

Charles delighted and bored listeners with tales of his escape after his defeat at the [Battle of Worcester](/source/Battle_of_Worcester) for many years. Numerous accounts of his adventures were published, particularly in the immediate aftermath of the Restoration. Though not averse to his escape being ascribed to divine providence, Charles himself seems to have delighted most in his ability to sustain his disguise as a man of ordinary origins, and to move unrecognised through his realm. Ironic and cynical, Charles took pleasure in stories that demonstrated the undetectable nature of any inherent majesty he possessed.[153]

Charles had no legitimate children, but acknowledged at least twelve by seven mistresses,[154] including five by [Barbara Villiers, Lady Castlemaine](/source/Barbara_Palmer%2C_1st_Duchess_of_Cleveland), for whom the [Dukedom of Cleveland](/source/Dukedom_of_Cleveland) was created. His other mistresses included [Moll Davis](/source/Moll_Davis), [Nell Gwyn](/source/Nell_Gwyn), [Elizabeth Killigrew](/source/Elizabeth_Killigrew%2C_Viscountess_Shannon), [Catherine Pegge](/source/Catherine_Pegge), [Lucy Walter](/source/Lucy_Walter) and [Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth](/source/Louise_de_K%C3%A9rouaille%2C_Duchess_of_Portsmouth). As a result, in his lifetime he was often nicknamed "[Old Rowley](/source/Old_Rowley)", the name of his favourite racehorse, notable as a stallion.[155]

Charles's subjects resented paying taxes that were spent on his mistresses and their children,[156] many of whom received dukedoms or earldoms. The present [Dukes of Buccleuch](/source/Dukes_of_Buccleuch), [Richmond](/source/Duke_of_Richmond), [Grafton](/source/Duke_of_Grafton) and [St Albans](/source/Duke_of_St_Albans) descend from Charles in unbroken male line.[157] Charles II is an ancestor of both King [Charles III](/source/Charles_III)'s first wife, [Diana Spencer](/source/Diana_Spencer),[k] and his second wife, [Queen Camilla](/source/Queen_Camilla). Charles and Diana's son, [William, Prince of Wales](/source/William%2C_Prince_of_Wales), is likely to be the first British monarch descended from Charles II.[158]

Charles's eldest son, the [Duke of Monmouth](/source/Duke_of_Monmouth), led a rebellion against James II, but was defeated at the [Battle of Sedgemoor](/source/Battle_of_Sedgemoor) on 6 July 1685, captured and executed. James was eventually dethroned in 1688, in the course of the [Glorious Revolution](/source/Glorious_Revolution).

Statue of Charles II (c. 1682) in ancient Roman dress by [Grinling Gibbons](/source/Grinling_Gibbons) at the [Royal Hospital Chelsea](/source/Royal_Hospital_Chelsea)

In the words of his contemporary [John Evelyn](/source/John_Evelyn), "a prince of many virtues and many great imperfections, debonair, easy of access, not bloody or cruel".[159] [John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester](/source/John_Wilmot%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Rochester), wrote of Charles:

Restless he rolls from whore to whore A merry monarch, scandalous and poor.[160]

Looking back on Charles's reign, Tories tended to view it as a time of benevolent monarchy whereas Whigs perceived it as a terrible [despotism](/source/Despotism). Professor [Ronald Hutton](/source/Ronald_Hutton) summarises a polarised historiography:

For the past hundred years, books on Charles II have been sharply divided into two categories. Academic historians have concentrated mainly on his activities as a statesman and emphasised his duplicity, self-indulgence, poor judgement and lack of an aptitude for business or for stable and trustworthy government. Non-academic authors have concentrated mainly on his social and cultural world, emphasising his charm, affability, worldliness, tolerance, turning him into one of the most popular of all English monarchs in novels, plays and films.[161]

Hutton says Charles was a popular king in his own day and a "legendary figure" in British history.

Other kings had inspired more respect, but perhaps only [Henry VIII](/source/Henry_VIII) had endeared himself to the popular imagination as much as this one. He was the playboy monarch, naughty but nice, the hero of all who prized urbanity, tolerance, good humour, and the pursuit of pleasure above the more earnest, sober, or material virtues.[162]

The anniversary of the [Restoration](/source/English_Restoration) (which was also Charles's birthday)—29 May—was recognised in England until the mid-nineteenth century as [Oak Apple Day](/source/Oak_Apple_Day), after the Royal Oak in which Charles hid during his escape from the forces of Oliver Cromwell. Traditional celebrations involved the wearing of oak leaves but these have now died out.[163] Charles II is [depicted extensively in art, literature and media](/source/Cultural_depictions_of_Charles_II_of_England). [Charleston, South Carolina](/source/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina), and [South Kingstown, Rhode Island](/source/South_Kingstown%2C_Rhode_Island), are named after him. King Charles's Island and Charles Island are previous names of both [Floreana Island](/source/Floreana_Island) and [Española Island](/source/Espa%C3%B1ola_Island) in the [Galapagos Archipelago](/source/Galapagos_Archipelago), both in his honour.

## Titles, styles, honours and arms

### Titles and styles

The official [style](/source/Style_(manner_of_address)) of Charles II as king (after 1649) was "Charles the Second, by the Grace of God, [King of England](/source/List_of_monarchs_of_England), [Scotland](/source/List_of_Monarchs_of_Scotland), [France](/source/English_Kings_of_France) and [Ireland](/source/Kingdom_of_Ireland), [Defender of the Faith](/source/Defender_of_the_Faith), etc."[164] The [claim to France](/source/English_claims_to_the_French_throne) was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English monarch since [Edward III](/source/Edward_III), regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.

### Honours

- **KG**: [Knight of the Garter](/source/Knight_of_the_Garter), 21 May 1638[2]

### Arms

Charles's [coat of arms as Prince of Wales](/source/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Prince_of_Wales) was the [royal arms](/source/Royal_arms) (which he later inherited), differenced by a [label](/source/Label_(heraldry)) of three points [Argent](/source/Argent).[165] His arms as monarch were: [Quarterly](/source/Quartering_(heraldry)), I and IV Grandquarterly, [Azure](/source/Azure_(heraldry)) three [fleurs-de-lis](/source/Fleurs-de-lis) [Or](/source/Or_(heraldry)) (for France) and [Gules](/source/Gules) three lions [passant guardant](/source/Passant_guardant) in [pale](/source/Pale_(heraldry)) Or ([for England](/source/Royal_Arms_of_England)); II Or a lion [rampant](/source/Rampant) within a double [tressure](/source/Tressure) flory-counter-flory Gules ([for Scotland](/source/Royal_coat_of_arms_of_Scotland)); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ([for Ireland](/source/Coat_of_arms_of_Ireland)).

Coat of arms as Prince of Wales Coat of arms of Charles II as king (outside Scotland) Coat of arms of Charles II used as king in Scotland

## Issue

By [Lucy Walter](/source/Lucy_Walter) (c. 1630 – 1658):

- [James Crofts, later Scott](/source/James_Scott%2C_Duke_of_Monmouth) (1649–1685), created [Duke of Monmouth](/source/Duke_of_Monmouth) (1663) in England and [Duke of Buccleuch](/source/Duke_of_Buccleuch) (1663) in Scotland. Monmouth was born nine months after Walter and Charles II first met, and was acknowledged as his son by Charles II, but James II suggested that he was the son of another of her lovers, Colonel Robert Sidney, rather than Charles. Lucy Walter had a daughter, Mary Crofts, born after James in 1651, but Charles II was not the father, since he and Walter parted in September 1649.[2]

By [Elizabeth Killigrew](/source/Elizabeth_Killigrew%2C_Viscountess_Shannon) (1622–1680), daughter of Sir [Robert Killigrew](/source/Robert_Killigrew) and wife of [Francis Boyle, 1st Viscount Shannon](/source/Francis_Boyle%2C_1st_Viscount_Shannon):

- [Charlotte Jemima Henrietta Maria FitzRoy](/source/Charlotte_Jemima_Henrietta_Maria_FitzRoy) (1650–1684), married firstly [James Howard](/source/James_Howard_(dramatist)) and secondly [William Paston, 2nd Earl of Yarmouth](/source/William_Paston%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Yarmouth)

By [Catherine Pegge](/source/Catherine_Pegge):

- [Charles FitzCharles](/source/Charles_FitzCharles%2C_1st_Earl_of_Plymouth) (1657–1680), known as "Don Carlo", created [Earl of Plymouth](/source/Earl_of_Plymouth) (1675)

- [Catherine FitzCharles](/source/Catherine_FitzCharles) (born 1658; she either died young or became a nun at Dunkirk)[166]

By [Barbara Villiers](/source/Barbara_Villiers) (1641–1709), wife of [Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine](/source/Roger_Palmer%2C_1st_Earl_of_Castlemaine), and created [Duchess of Cleveland](/source/Duke_of_Cleveland) in her own right:

- [Lady Anne Palmer (Fitzroy)](/source/Anne_Lennard%2C_Countess_of_Sussex) (1661–1722), married [Thomas Lennard, 1st Earl of Sussex](/source/Thomas_Lennard%2C_1st_Earl_of_Sussex). She may have been the daughter of Roger Palmer, but Charles accepted her.[167]

- [Charles Fitzroy](/source/Charles_FitzRoy%2C_2nd_Duke_of_Cleveland) (1662–1730), created [Duke of Southampton](/source/Duke_of_Southampton) (1675), became 2nd [Duke of Cleveland](/source/Duke_of_Cleveland) (1709)

- [Henry Fitzroy](/source/Henry_FitzRoy%2C_1st_Duke_of_Grafton) (1663–1690), created [Earl of Euston](/source/Earl_of_Euston) (1672), [Duke of Grafton](/source/Duke_of_Grafton) (1675)

- [Charlotte Fitzroy](/source/Charlotte_Lee%2C_Countess_of_Lichfield) (1664–1717), married [Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield](/source/Edward_Lee%2C_1st_Earl_of_Lichfield)

- [George Fitzroy](/source/George_FitzRoy%2C_1st_Duke_of_Northumberland) (1665–1716), created [Earl of Northumberland](/source/Earl_of_Northumberland) (1674), [Duke of Northumberland](/source/Duke_of_Northumberland) (1678)

- [Barbara (Benedicta) Fitzroy](/source/Lady_Barbara_FitzRoy) (1672–1737) – She was probably the child of [John Churchill](/source/John_Churchill), later [Duke of Marlborough](/source/Dukes_of_Marlborough), who was another of Cleveland's many lovers,[168] and was never acknowledged by Charles as his own daughter.[169]

By [Nell Gwyn](/source/Nell_Gwyn) (1650–1687):

- [Charles Beauclerk](/source/Charles_Beauclerk%2C_1st_Duke_of_St_Albans) (1670–1726), created [Duke of St Albans](/source/Duke_of_St_Albans) (1684)

- James, Lord Beauclerk (1671–1680)

Louise de Kérouaille with unknown attendant, painted in France by [Pierre Mignard](/source/Pierre_Mignard), 1682[170]

By [Louise Renée de Penancoët de Kérouaille](/source/Louise_de_K%C3%A9rouaille%2C_Duchess_of_Portsmouth) (1649–1734), created [Duchess of Portsmouth](/source/Duchess_of_Portsmouth) in her own right (1673):

- [Charles Lennox](/source/Charles_Lennox%2C_1st_Duke_of_Richmond) (1672–1723), created [Duke of Richmond](/source/Duke_of_Richmond) (1675) in England and [Duke of Lennox](/source/Duke_of_Lennox) (1675) in Scotland.

By [Mary 'Moll' Davis](/source/Moll_Davis), courtesan and actress of repute:[171]

- [Lady Mary Tudor](/source/Lady_Mary_Tudor) (1673–1726), married [Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater](/source/Edward_Radclyffe%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Derwentwater); after Edward's death, she married [Henry Graham (of Levens)](/source/Henry_Graham_(of_Levens)), and upon his death she married James Rooke.

Other probable mistresses include:

- Christabella Wyndham[172]

- [Hortense Mancini](/source/Hortense_Mancini), Duchess of Mazarin[173]

- [Winifred Wells](/source/Winifred_Wells) – one of Queen Catherine's Maids of Honour[174]

- Jane Roberts – the daughter of a clergyman[174]

- Mrs Knight – a famous singer[175]

- [Elizabeth, Countess of Falmouth](/source/Elizabeth%2C_Countess_of_Falmouth) – the widow of [Charles Berkeley, 1st Earl of Falmouth](/source/Charles_Berkeley%2C_1st_Earl_of_Falmouth)[174][176]

- Elizabeth Fitzgerald, [Countess of Kildare](/source/Earl_of_Kildare)[174]

Letters claiming that Marguerite or Margaret de Carteret bore Charles a son named [James de la Cloche](/source/James_de_la_Cloche) in 1646 are dismissed by historians as forgeries.[177]

## Genealogical tables

The House of Stuart and their relations[178] James I of England 1566–1625 Anne of Denmark 1574–1619 Henry IV of France 1553–1610 Marie de' Medici 1575–1642 Elizabeth 1596–1662 Charles I of England 1600–1649 Henrietta Maria of France 1609–1669 Louis XIII of France 1601–1643 Rupert of the Rhine 1619–1682 Sophia of Hanover 1630–1714 Charles II of England 1630–1685 Mary 1631–1660 William II of Orange 1626–1650 Anne Hyde 1637–1671 James II of England 1633–1701 Mary of Modena 1658–1718 Henrietta 1644–1670 Philip I of Orléans 1640–1701 Louis XIV of France 1638–1715 George I of Great Britain 1660–1727 William III of England 1650–1702 Mary II of England 1662–1694 Anne of Great Britain 1665–1714 James Francis Edward Stuart 1688–1766 Marie Louise of Orléans 1662–1689 Anne Marie of Orléans 1669–1728

v t e Charles II of England's children King Charles II 1630–1685 Queen Catherine 1638–1705 m. 1662 with Lucy Walter c. 1630–1658 with Elizabeth Killigrew 1622–1680 with Catherine Pegge b. c. 1635 with Barbara Palmer 1640–1739 Duchess of Cleveland with Nell Gwyn 1650–1687 with Louise de Kérouaille 1649–1734 Duchess of Portsmouth, Baroness Petersfield, Countess of Fareham with Moll Davis c. 1648–1708 James Scott 1649–1685 Duke of Monmouth Duke of Buccleuch Charlotte Paston 1650–1684 Charles FitzCharles 1657–1680 Earl of Plymouth (possibly) Anne Palmer (Fitzroy) 1661–1722 Henry FitzRoy 1663–1690 Duke of Grafton George FitzRoy 1665–1716 Duke of Northumberland Charles Beauclerk 1670–1726 Earl of Burford Duke of St Albans Charles Lennox 1672–1723 Duke of Richmond Duke of Lennox Mary Tudor 1673-1726 Catherine FitzCharles 1658–1759? Charles FitzRoy 1662–1730 Duke of Cleveland Duke of Southampton Charlotte Fitzroy 1664–1717 (possibly) Barbara FitzRoy 1672–1737 James, Lord Beauclerk 1671–1680

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-reign_1-0)** The traditional date of the Restoration marking the first assembly of King and Parliament together since the abolition of the English monarchy in 1649. The English Parliament recognised Charles as king by unanimous vote on 2 May 1660, and he was proclaimed king in London on 8 May, although royalists had recognised him as such since the execution of his father on 30 January 1649. During Charles's reign all legal documents stating a [regnal year](/source/Regnal_year) did so as if his reign began at his father's death.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** From the death of his father to his defeat at the [Battle of Worcester](/source/Battle_of_Worcester)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** All dates in this article unless otherwise noted are given in the [Julian calendar](/source/Julian_calendar) with the start of year adjusted to 1 January (see [Old Style and New Style dates](/source/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** One thousand pounds was a vast sum at the time, greater than an average workman's lifetime earnings.[14]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Equivalent to between £42.7 million (real cost) and £12.7 billion (economic share) as of 2021.[44]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** The ship's [transom](/source/Transom_(nautical)) is on display at the [Rijksmuseum](/source/Rijksmuseum) in Amsterdam.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** The navy of the time consumed about a third of England's tax revenue in peacetime. That rose to about 50% in time of war. The dockyards were the biggest industrial complexes in the country.[121]

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-thirty_133-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-thirty_133-1) The thirty ship programme was authorised by parliament on 23 February 1677. It was to address the realisation that the English navy was smaller than that of either the French or the Dutch. One [first-rate](/source/First-rate) of 1,400 tons, nine second-rates, each of 1,100 tons, and 20 [third-rates](/source/Third-rate), each of not less than 900 tons, were approved.[125]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-138)** If France were the opponent, naval campaigns could be expected to range from the [Channel](/source/English_Channel) to the Mediterranean. Combat against the Dutch would likely be in the southern part of the North Sea and the eastern end of the Channel.[129]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** The process involved was girdling, the addition of an extra layer of planking below the waterline to provide extra breadth to the hull and therefore make the ship more stable.[132][133]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-168)** Diana was descended from two of Charles II's illegitimate sons: the [Dukes of Grafton](/source/Henry_FitzRoy%2C_1st_Duke_of_Grafton) and [Richmond](/source/Charles_Lennox%2C_1st_Duke_of_Richmond).

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979361–363_4-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 361–363.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1996255–257_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1996255–257_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1996255–257_5-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1996255–257_5-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1996255–257_5-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir1996255–257_5-5) [Weir 1996](#CITEREFWeir1996), pp. 255–257.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 13; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 1–4.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 32; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 6–7.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 38–45; [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), p. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser197955–56_9-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 55–56.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser197957–60_10-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 57–60.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 65–66, 155; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 26; [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), p. 5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERPS1649/1/71_12-0)** [RPS](#CITEREFRPS), 1649/1/71.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 97; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 53.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** David Stevenson, 'Minute Book of the Board of Green Cloth', *Miscellany of the Scottish History Society, XV* (Edinburgh, 2013), pp. 55–132.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 96–97; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 56–57.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 98–128; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 53–69.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979117_17-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 117.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalkus197254_19-0)** [Falkus 1972](#CITEREFFalkus1972), p. 54.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** [Charles II of England](http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/charles2.htm). Excerpted from: Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Ed. Vol XV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. 142.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton198974–112_21-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 74–112.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979156–157_22-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 156–157.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Childs, John. *Army of Charles II*. Routledge, 2013 p. 2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Tucker, S *Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict* p. 212

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979160–165_25-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 160–165.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Diary of [Samuel Pepys](/source/Samuel_Pepys), 16 March 1660.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller199124–25_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller199124–25_27-1) [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), pp. 24–25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaley19855_28-0)** [Haley 1985](#CITEREFHaley1985), p. 5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989131_29-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 131.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeaward2004_30-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeaward2004_30-1) [Seaward 2004](#CITEREFSeaward2004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979190_31-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 190.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Royal_Household2009_32-0)** [The Royal Household 2009](#CITEREFThe_Royal_Household2009).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979185_33-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 185.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalkus197294_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalkus197294_34-1) [Falkus 1972](#CITEREFFalkus1972), p. 94.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 210–202; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 155–156; [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), pp. 43–44.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Diary of [Samuel Pepys](/source/Samuel_Pepys), [23 April 1661](http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180429202445/http://www.pepys.info/coronation.html) 29 April 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989169_37-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 169.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989229_38-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 229.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989185_39-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 185.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Papers of [Thomas Hearne](/source/Thomas_Hearne_(antiquarian)) (17 November 1706) quoted in [Doble 1885](#CITEREFDoble1885), p. 308.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHume1778212_41-0)** [Hume 1778](#CITEREFHume1778), p. 212.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979238_42-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 238.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1991120_43-0)** [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), p. 120.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalkus1972105_44-0)** [Falkus 1972](#CITEREFFalkus1972), p. 105.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorter2007_45-0)** [Porter 2007](#CITEREFPorter2007).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 243–247; [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), pp. 121–122.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Clyde L. Gros, "The Anglo-Portuguese Marriage of 1662" *Hispanic American Historical Review* 10#3 (1930), pp. 313–352 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506378)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** "Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present", [MeasuringWorth](https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/), 2023

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne2004_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne2004_50-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWynne2004_50-2) [Wynne 2004](#CITEREFWynne2004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Malcolm, Alistair; Baker-Bates, Piers (2022). "Spain and England in the later Seventeenth Century: Transnational Cultural and Political Contexts". *Lady Ann y el embajador viajan a Sevilla (Primavera de 1664)*. Enredars. p. 20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Alzina, José Pablo (2001). *Embajadores de España en Londres*. Madrid: Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. p. 121. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [84-95265-19-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-95265-19-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Malcolm, Alistair; Baker-Bates, Piers (2022). "Spain and England in the later Seventeenth Century: Transnational Cultural and Political Contexts". *Lady Ann y el embajador viajan a Sevilla (Primavera de 1664)*. Enredars. p. 20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** di Parma, Carmelo (1993). *Caterina Farnese, principessa e carmelitana*. Edizioni OCD. p. 44.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller199193,_99_55-0)** [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), pp. 93, 99.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989184_56-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 184.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael1998749–750_57-0)** [Israel 1998](#CITEREFIsrael1998), pp. 749–750.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989250–251_59-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 250–251.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 254; [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), pp. 175–176.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979275_61-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 275.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 275–276; [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), p. 180.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** For doubts over his intention to convert before 1685 see, for example, [Seaward 2004](#CITEREFSeaward2004); for doubts over his intention to convert on his deathbed see, for example, [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 443, 456.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911835_64-0)** [Chisholm 1911](#CITEREFChisholm1911), p. 835.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritish_Library_Learning_65-0)** [British Library Learning](#CITEREFBritish_Library_Learning).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989426_66-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), p. 426.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Hudson's_Bay_Company''2017_67-0)** [*Hudson's Bay Company* 2017](#CITEREFHudson's_Bay_Company2017).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 305–308; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 284–285.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaithby1819782–785_69-0)** [Raithby 1819](#CITEREFRaithby1819), pp. 782–785.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaithby1819a894–896_70-0)** [Raithby 1819a](#CITEREFRaithby1819a), pp. 894–896.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), pp. 347–348; [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 345–346.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutton1989359–362_72-0)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 359–362.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979360_73-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 360.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser1979375_74-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 375.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1991278,_301–304_75-0)** [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), pp. 278, 301–304.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** [Hutton 1989](#CITEREFHutton1989), pp. 367–374; [Miller 1991](#CITEREFMiller1991), pp. 306–309.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAiry19047_77-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAiry19047_77-1) [Airy 1904](#CITEREFAiry1904), p. 7.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** [Uglow 2009](#CITEREFUglow2009), p. 220; [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 23

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** [Falkus 1972](#CITEREFFalkus1972), p. 17; [Airy 1904](#CITEREFAiry1904), p. 9

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Carvalho_80-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Carvalho_80-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Carvalho_80-2) Carvalho, Cristina (2014). "Charles II: A Man Caught Between Tradition and Science". *Via Panorâmica*. **3**: 5–24. [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10400.26/7191](https://hdl.handle.net/10400.26%2F7191).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAiry190415_81-0)** [Airy 1904](#CITEREFAiry1904), p. 15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** Stewart, D (October 1946). ["Harvey and the Battle of Edgehill"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1583020). *Canadian Medical Association Journal*. **55** (4): 405. [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1583020](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1583020). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20323936](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20323936).; Young, P. (1995). *Edgehill 1642*. Gloucester: Windrush Press. p. 144.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser197936_83-0)** [Fraser 1979](#CITEREFFraser1979), p. 36.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScottTurtonvon_Arni200479_84-0)** [Scott, Turton & von Arni 2004](#CITEREFScottTurtonvon_Arni2004), p. 79.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScottTurtonvon_Arni2004130_86-0)** [Scott, Turton & von Arni 2004](#CITEREFScottTurtonvon_Arni2004), p. 130.

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- [Pearson, Hesketh](/source/Hesketh_Pearson) (1960). *Charles II: His Life and Likeness*. London: Heinemann.

- [Pepys, Samuel](/source/Samuel_Pepys) (1906a) [1669]. [*Diary of Samuel Pepys*](http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15). Vol. 1. London: Dent & Sons. - —— (1906b) [1669]. [*Diary of Samuel Pepys*](http://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1669/01/15). Vol. 2. London: Dent & Sons.

- Porter, Stephen (January 2007), "The great fire of London", *[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography](/source/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography)* (online ed.), Oxford University Press, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ref:odnb/95647](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F95647) (Subscription, [Wikipedia Library](https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/partners/88/) access or [UK public library membership](https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)

- Raithby, John, ed. (1819). ["Charles II, 1672: An Act for preventing Dangers which may happen from Popish Recusants"](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47451). *Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80*. Retrieved 19 April 2010. - ——, ed. (1819a). ["Charles II, 1678: (Stat. 2.) An Act for the more effectuall preserving the Kings Person and Government by disableing Papists from sitting in either House of Parlyament"](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=47482). *Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80*. Retrieved 19 April 2010.

- Roberts, Jacob (Fall 2015). ["Tryals and tribulations"](https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/tryals-and-tribulations). *Distillations Magazine*. pp. 14–15. Retrieved 22 March 2018.

- Scott, C. L.; Turton, A.; von Arni, E. G. (2004). *Edgehill – The Battle Reinterpreted*. Pen & Sword Books.

- Seaward, Paul (2004), "Charles II (1630–1685)", *[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography](/source/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography)* (online ed.), Oxford University Press, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ref:odnb/5144](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F5144)

- The Royal Household (2009). [*Charles II (r. 1660–1685)*](http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/CharlesII.aspx). Official website of the British Monarchy. Retrieved 19 April 2010.

- [Uglow, Jenny](/source/Jenny_Uglow) (2009). *A Gambling Man: Charles II's Restoration Game*. Faber & Faber. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-571-21733-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-21733-5).

- Weber, Harold (1988). "Representations of the King: Charles II and His Escape from Worcester". *Studies in Philology*. **85** (4): 489–509. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [4174319](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4174319).

- [Weir, Alison](/source/Alison_Weir_(historian)) (1996). *Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy* (Revised ed.). Random House. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7126-7448-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7126-7448-9).

- Wynne, S. M. (2004), "Catherine (1638–1705)", *[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography](/source/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography)* (online ed.), Oxford University Press, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ref:odnb/4894](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F4894) (Subscription, [Wikipedia Library](https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/partners/88/) access or [UK public library membership](https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)

## Further reading

- Edie, Carolyn (1965). "Succession and Monarchy: The Controversy of 1679–1681". *American Historical Review*. **70** (2): 350–370. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1845634](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1845634). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1845634](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845634).

- Hanrahan, David C. (2006). *Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham: The Merry Monarch and the Aristocratic Rogue*. Stroud: Sutton. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7509-3916-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-3916-8).

- [Harris, Tim](/source/Timothy_J._G._Harris) (2005). *Restoration: Charles II and His Kingdoms, 1660–1685*. London: Allen Lane. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7139-9191-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7139-9191-7).

- Hobson, Claire (2025). *Charles II: From the Cradle to the Crown*. London: Pen & Sword. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-39906-451-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-39906-451-4).

- [Keay, Anna](/source/Anna_Keay) (2008). *The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the Ceremonies of Power*. London: Hambledon Continuum. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84725-225-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-225-8).

- [Kenyon, J. P.](/source/John_Philipps_Kenyon) (1957). "Review Article: The Reign of Charles II". *Cambridge Historical Journal*. **XIII**: 82–86. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1474691300000068](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1474691300000068).

- Miller, John (1985). *Restoration England: The Reign of Charles II*. London: Longman. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-582-35396-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-35396-3).

- [Ogg, David](/source/David_Ogg_(historian)) (1934). *England in the Reign of Charles II*. Oxford University Press. - —— (1955). *England in the Reigns of James II and William III*. Oxford University Press.

- Ollard, Richard (1966). *The Escape of Charles II After the Battle of Worcester*. London: Hodder & Stoughton. - —— (1979). *The Image of the King: Charles I and Charles II*. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

- Pepys, Samuel (1956). *King Charles Preserved: An Account of his Escape after the Battle of Worcester dictated by the King Himself to Samuel Pepys*. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: The Rodale Press.. Dictated in 1680.

- Wilson, Derek (2003). *All The King's Women: Love, Sex and Politics in the Life of Charles II*. London: Hutchinson. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-09-179379-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-179379-3).

- Yorke, Philip Chesney (1911). ["Charles II."](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Charles_II._(King_of_England)). In [Chisholm, Hugh](/source/Hugh_Chisholm) (ed.). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition)*. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 912–916.

## External links

**Charles II of England**  at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects)

- [Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_England) from Commons
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_England) from Wikiquote
- [Texts](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Charles_II_of_England) from Wikisource

- [Charles II](https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii) at the official website of the [British monarchy](/source/British_monarchy)

- [Charles II](https://www.rct.uk/collection/people/charles-ii-king-of-great-britain-1630-85#/type/subject) at the official website of the [Royal Collection Trust](/source/Royal_Collection_Trust)

- [Charles II](https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_ii_king.shtml) at BBC History

- [Portraits of King Charles II](https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp00841) at the [National Portrait Gallery, London](/source/National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London)

Charles II of England House of Stuart Born: 29 May 1630 Died: 6 February 1685 Regnal titles Preceded by Charles I King of Scotland 1649–1651 Vacant Military government Vacant English Interregnum Title last held by Charles I King of England and Ireland 1660–1685 Succeeded by James II & VII Vacant Military government King of Scotland 1660–1685 British royalty Vacant Title last held by Charles I Duke of Cornwall Duke of Rothesay 1630–1649 Vacant Title next held by James Francis Edward Prince of Wales 1638–1649

v t e English, Scottish, and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Swein Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold Harefoot Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Louis Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I & VI Charles I The Protectorate Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell Charles II James II & VII William III & II and Mary II Anne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Debated or disputed rulers are in italics.

v t e Pictish and Scottish monarchs Monarchs of the Picts (traditional) Drest I Talorc I Nechtan I Drest II Galan Erilich Drest III Drest IV Gartnait I Cailtram Talorc II Drest V Galam Cennalath Bridei I Gartnait II Nechtan II Cinioch Gartnait III Bridei II Talorc III Talorgan I Gartnait IV Drest VI Bridei III Taran Bridei IV Nechtan III Drest VII Alpín I Óengus I Bridei V Ciniod I Alpín II Talorgan II Drest VIII Conall Constantine (I) Óengus II Drest IX Uuen Uurad Bridei VI Ciniod II Bridei VII Drest X Monarchs of the Scots (traditional) Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I (II) Áed Giric Eochaid (uncertain) Donald II Constantine II (III) Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III (IV) Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Canmore Donald III Duncan II Donald III Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I the Lion Alexander II Alexander III Margaret First Interregnum John Second Interregnum Robert I David II Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary James VI1 Charles I1 Charles II1 James VII1 Mary II1 William II1 Anne1 1 also monarch of England and Ireland.

v t e Princes of Wales Edward of Caernarfon (1301–1307) Edward the Black Prince (1343–1376) Richard of Bordeaux (1376–1377) Henry of Monmouth (1399–1413) Edward of Westminster (1454–1471) Edward (1471–1483) Edward of Middleham (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles (1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1728–1751) George (1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William (2022–present) See also: Principality of Wales

v t e Dukes of Cornwall Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry (1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509) Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) Cornwall Portal

v t e Dukes of Rothesay David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437) James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510) James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick (1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Charles II of England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_England) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_England?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.