# Celtic Britons

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Ancient Celtic people of Great Britain

[Great Britain](/source/Great_Britain) and adjacent islands in the 5th century, before the invasion and subsequent [founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms](/source/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain):
  Mainly (non-Pictish) [Brittonic](/source/Brittonic_languages) areas

  Mainly [Pictish](/source/Pictish_language) areas

  Mainly [Goidelic](/source/Goidelic_languages) areas

The **Britons** ([reconstructed](/source/Linguistic_reconstruction) [P-Celtic](/source/P-Celtic) **Pritanī*, [Latin](/source/Latin_language): *Britanni*, [Welsh](/source/Welsh_language): *Brythoniaid*), also known as **Celtic Britons**[1] or **ancient Britons**, were the [Celtic people](/source/Celts)[2] who inhabited [Great Britain](/source/Great_Britain) from at least the [British Iron Age](/source/British_Iron_Age) until the [High Middle Ages](/source/High_Middle_Ages), at which point they diverged into the [Welsh](/source/Welsh_people), [Cornish](/source/Cornish_people), and [Bretons](/source/Bretons) (among others).[2] They spoke [Common Brittonic](/source/Common_Brittonic), the ancestor of the modern [Brittonic languages](/source/Brittonic_languages).[2]

The earliest written evidence for the Britons is from [Greco-Roman](/source/Greco-Roman_world) writers and dates to the Iron Age.[2] Ancient Britain was made up of many tribes and kingdoms, associated with various [hillforts](/source/Hillforts_in_Britain). The Britons followed an [ancient Celtic religion](/source/Ancient_Celtic_religion) overseen by [druids](/source/Druid). Some of the southern polities had strong links with mainland Europe, especially [Gaul](/source/Gaul) and [Belgica](/source/Gallia_Belgica), and [minted their own coins](/source/Celtic_currency_of_Britain). The [Roman Empire](/source/Roman_Empire) [conquered most of Britain](/source/Roman_conquest_of_Britain) in the 1st century AD, creating the [province of Britannia](/source/Roman_Britain). The Romans [invaded northern Britain](/source/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire), but the Britonnic tribes such as the [Caledonians](/source/Caledonians) and [Picts](/source/Picts) in the north remained unconquered, and [Hadrian's Wall](/source/Hadrian's_Wall) (which bisects the modern [English](/source/England) counties of [Northumberland](/source/Northumberland) and [Cumbria](/source/Cumbria)) became the western edge of the empire. A [Romano-British culture](/source/Romano-British_culture) emerged, mainly in the southeast, and [British Latin](/source/British_Latin) coexisted with Brittonic.[3] It is unclear what relationship the Britons had with the [Picts](/source/Picts), who lived outside of the empire beyond the [Firth of Forth](/source/Firth_of_Forth) in northern Britain; however, most scholars today accept the fact that the [Pictish language](/source/Pictish_language) was closely related to Common Brittonic and the Picts were themselves Brittonic Celts.[4]

Following the [end of Roman rule in Britain](/source/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain) during the 5th century, [Anglo-Saxon settlement](/source/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain) of eastern and southern Britain began. The culture and language of the Britons gradually fragmented, and much of their territory gradually became [Anglo-Saxon](/source/Anglo-Saxons), while the north and the [Isle of Man](/source/Isle_of_Man) became subject to a similar gradual settlement by [Gaelic](/source/Gaels)-speaking tribes from [Ireland](/source/Ireland) who would eventually form [Scotland](/source/Scotland). The extent to which this cultural change was accompanied by wholesale population changes is still debated. During this time, Britons migrated to mainland Europe and established significant colonies in [Brittany](/source/Brittany) (now part of France), the [Channel Islands](/source/Channel_Islands),[5] and [Britonia](/source/Britonia) (now part of [Galicia](/source/Galicia_(Spain)), Spain).[2] By the 11th century, Brittonic-speaking populations had split into distinct groups: the Welsh in Wales, the Cornish in Cornwall, the Bretons in Brittany, the Cumbrians of the *[Hen Ogledd](/source/Hen_Ogledd)* ("Old North") in modern southern Scotland and northern England, and the remnants of the Pictish people in northern Scotland.[6] Common Brittonic developed into the distinct Brittonic languages: [Welsh](/source/Welsh_language), [Cumbric](/source/Cumbric), [Cornish](/source/Cornish_language) and [Breton](/source/Breton_language).[2]

Celtic warrior recreation, including [carnyx](/source/Carnyx) and a replica of the [Waterloo Helmet](/source/Waterloo_Helmet)

Recreated Celtic village at [St Fagans National Museum of History](/source/St_Fagans_National_Museum_of_History), Wales

## Name

Main article: [Britain (placename)](/source/Britain_(placename))

In [Celtic studies](/source/Celtic_studies), 'Britons' refers to native speakers of the [Brittonic languages](/source/Brittonic_languages) in the ancient and medieval periods, "from the first evidence of such speech in the pre-Roman [Iron Age](/source/British_Iron_Age), until the [central Middle Ages](/source/High_Middle_Ages)".[2]

The earliest known reference to the inhabitants of Britain was made by [Pytheas](/source/Pytheas), a [Greek](/source/Ancient_Greece) geographer who made a voyage of exploration around the [British Isles](/source/British_Isles) between 330 and 320 BC. Although none of his writings remain, writers during the following centuries make frequent reference to them. The ancient Greeks called the people of Britain the *Pretanoí* or *Bretanoí*.[2] [Pliny](/source/Pliny_the_Elder)'s *[Natural History](/source/Natural_History_(Pliny))* (77 AD) says the older name for the island was *[Albion](/source/Albion)*,[2] and [Avienius](/source/Avienius) calls it *insula Albionum*, "island of the Albions".[7] The name could have reached Pytheas from the [Gauls](/source/Gaul).[8]

The [P-Celtic](/source/P-Celtic) [ethnonym](/source/Ethnonym) has been reconstructed as **Pritanī*, from [Common Celtic](/source/Common_Celtic) **kʷritu*, which became [Old Irish](/source/Old_Irish) *cruth* and [Old Welsh](/source/Old_Welsh) *pryd*.[2] This likely means "people of the forms, shapely people", and could be linked to the Latin name *Picti* (the [Picts](/source/Picts)), which is usually explained as meaning "painted people".[2] The Old Welsh name for the Picts was *Prydyn*.[9] Linguist Kim McCone suggests the name became restricted to inhabitants of the far north after *Cymry* displaced it as the name for the [Welsh](/source/Welsh_people) and [Cumbrians](/source/Cumbrians).[10] The Welsh *prydydd*, "maker of forms", was also a term for the highest grade of [a bard](/source/Bard).[2]

The medieval Welsh form of Latin *Britanni* was *Brython* (singular and plural).[2] *Brython* was introduced into English usage by [John Rhys](/source/John_Rhys) in 1884 as a term unambiguously referring to the [P-Celtic](/source/P-Celtic_and_Q-Celtic_languages) speakers of Great Britain, to complement *[Goidel](/source/Gaels)*; hence the adjective *Brythonic* refers to the group of languages.[11] "Brittonic languages" is a more recent coinage (first attested in 1923 according to the *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)*).

In the [early Middle Ages](/source/Early_Middle_Ages), following [the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain](/source/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain), the [Anglo-Saxons](/source/Anglo-Saxons) called all Britons *Bryttas* or *Wealas* (Welsh), while they continued to be called *Britanni* or *Brittones* in [Medieval Latin](/source/Medieval_Latin).[2] From the 11th century, they are more often referred to separately as the [Welsh](/source/Welsh_people), [Cumbrians](/source/Cumbrians), [Cornish](/source/Cornish_people), and [Bretons](/source/Bretons), as they had separate political histories from then.[2] From the early 16th century, and especially after the [Acts of Union 1707](/source/Acts_of_Union_1707), the terms *British* and *Briton* could be applied to all inhabitants of the [Kingdom of Great Britain](/source/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain), including the [English](/source/English_people), [Scottish](/source/Scottish_people), and some [Irish](/source/Irish_people), or the subjects of the [British Empire](/source/British_Empire) generally.[12]

## Language

See also: [British Latin](/source/British_Latin)

The [Staffordshire Moorlands Pan](/source/Staffordshire_Moorlands_Pan)

The Britons spoke an [Insular Celtic language](/source/Insular_Celtic_languages) known as [Common Brittonic](/source/Common_Brittonic). Brittonic was spoken throughout the island of Britain (in modern terms, England, Wales, and Scotland) and the [Isle of Man](/source/Isle_of_Man).[2][a] According to early medieval historical tradition, such as *The Dream of [Macsen Wledig](/source/Magnus_Maximus)*, the post-Roman Celtic speakers of [Armorica](/source/Armorica) were colonists from Britain, resulting in the [Breton language](/source/Breton_language), a language related to [Welsh](/source/Welsh_language) and identical to [Cornish](/source/Cornish_language) in the early period, which is still used today. Thus, the area today is called [Brittany](/source/Brittany) (Br. *Breizh*, Fr. *Bretagne*, derived from *[Britannia](/source/Britannia)*).

Common Brittonic developed from the Insular branch of the [Proto-Celtic language](/source/Proto-Celtic_language) that developed in the [British Isles](/source/British_Isles) after arriving from the continent at some point between the 10th and the 7th century BC. The language eventually began to diverge; some linguists have grouped subsequent developments as [Western](/source/Western_Brittonic_languages) and [Southwestern Brittonic languages](/source/Southwestern_Brittonic_languages). Western Brittonic developed into Welsh in [Wales](/source/Wales) and the [Cumbric language](/source/Cumbric_language) in the [Hen Ogledd](/source/Hen_Ogledd) or "Old North" of Britain (modern northern England and southern Scotland), while the Southwestern dialect became [Cornish](/source/Cornish_language) in Cornwall and [South West England](/source/South_West_England) and [Breton](/source/Breton_language) in Armorica. [Pictish](/source/Pictish) is now generally accepted to descend from Common Brittonic rather than being a separate Celtic language. Welsh and Breton survive today; Cumbric and Pictish became extinct in the 12th century. Cornish had become extinct by the 19th century but has been the subject of [language revitalization](/source/Language_revitalization) since the 20th century.[13]

## Tribal groups

Tribal groups in southern Britain c. 150 AD

Celtic Britain was made up of many territories controlled by [Brittonic tribes](/source/Celtic_tribes_in_Britain_and_Ireland). They are generally believed to have dwelt throughout the whole island of [Great Britain](/source/Great_Britain), at least as far north as the [Clyde](/source/Firth_of_Clyde)–[Forth](/source/Firth_of_Forth) [isthmus](/source/Isthmus). The territory north of this was largely inhabited by the [Picts](/source/Picts); little direct evidence has been left of the [Pictish language](/source/Pictish_language), but place names and Pictish personal names recorded in the later [Irish annals](/source/Irish_annals) suggest it was indeed related to the Common Brittonic language.[14][15][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*][16][17] Their [Goidelic (Gaelic)](/source/Goidelic_languages) name, *[Cruithne](/source/Cruthin)*, is cognate with *Pritenī*.

The following is a list of the major Brittonic tribes, in both the Latin and Brittonic languages, as well as their capitals during the Roman period.

Tribe Capital Atrebatēs Calleva Atrebatum Brigantēs/Brigantī Isurium Brigantum Cantiacī Durovernum Cantiacorum Carvetīī (*Carwetīī) Luguvalium Catuvellaunī (*Catuwellaunī) Verulamium Corieltauvī (*Corieltauī) Ratae Corieltauvorum Cornovīī (*Cornowīī) Viroconium Cornoviorum Damnonīī Vanduara (Loudoun Hill or Walls Hill) Deceanglī Canovium or Clwydian hillforts Demetae Moridunum Dobunnī/Bodunnī Corinium Dobunnorum Dumnonīī Isca Dumnoniorum Durotrigēs Durnovaria; Maiden Castle Īcenī/Ecenī Venta Icenorum Novantae (*Nowantī) Rispain? Ordovicēs (*Ordowicī) Dinas Dinorwig? Parisī Petuaria Reginī Noviomagus Reginorum Selgovae (*Selgowī) Eildon Hill? Silurēs Venta Silurum; Llanmelin Textoverdī (*Textowerdī) Coria? Trinovantēs (*Trinowantī) Camulodunum Votadīnī/Otadīnī Traprain

## Art

The [Battersea Shield](/source/Battersea_Shield), a ceremonial bronze shield dated 3rd–1st century BC, is an example of La Tène [Celtic art](/source/Celtic_art) from Britain.

The [La Tène style](/source/La_T%C3%A8ne_style), which covers British [Celtic art](/source/Celtic_art), was late arriving in Britain, but after 300 BC the ancient British seem to have had generally similar cultural practices to the Celtic cultures nearest to them on the continent. There are significant differences in artistic styles, and the greatest period of what is known as the "Insular La Tène" style, surviving mostly in metalwork, was in the century or so before the Roman conquest, and perhaps the decades after it.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

A recreation of a [carnyx](/source/Carnyx) (war trumpet)

The [carnyx](/source/Carnyx), a trumpet with an animal-headed bell, was used by Celtic Britons during war and ceremony.[18][19]

## History

### Origins

There are competing hypotheses for when Celtic peoples, and the Celtic languages, first arrived in Britain, none of which have gained consensus. The traditional view during most of the twentieth century was that Celtic culture grew out of the central European [Hallstatt culture](/source/Hallstatt_culture), from which the Celts and their languages reached Britain in the first millennium BC.[20][21][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] More recently, [John Koch](/source/John_T._Koch) and [Barry Cunliffe](/source/Barry_Cunliffe) have challenged that with their 'Celtic from the West' theory, which has the Celtic languages developing as a maritime [trade language](/source/Lingua_franca) in the [Atlantic Bronze Age](/source/Atlantic_Bronze_Age) cultural zone before it spread eastward.[22] Alternatively, Patrick Sims-Williams criticizes both of these hypotheses to propose 'Celtic from the Centre', which suggests Celtic originated in [Gaul](/source/Gaul) and spread during the first millennium BC, reaching Britain towards the end of this period.[23]

In 2021, a major [archaeogenetics](/source/Archaeogenetics) study uncovered a migration into southern Britain during the [Bronze Age](/source/Bronze_Age_Britain), over a 500-year period from 1,300 BC to 800 BC.[24][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] The migrants were "genetically most similar to ancient individuals from France" and had higher levels of [Early European Farmers](/source/Early_European_Farmers) ancestry.[24][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] From 1000 to 875 BC, their genetic marker swiftly spread through southern Britain,[25] making up around half the ancestry of subsequent [Iron Age](/source/British_Iron_Age) people in this area, but not in northern Britain.[24][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] The "evidence suggests that rather than a violent invasion or a single migratory event, the genetic structure of the population changed through sustained contacts between mainland Britain and Europe over several centuries, such as the movement of traders, intermarriage, and small-scale movements of family groups".[25] The authors describe this as a "plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain".[24][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] There was much less migration into Britain during the subsequent Iron Age, so it is more likely that Celtic reached Britain before then.[24][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] Barry Cunliffe suggests that a branch of Celtic was already being spoken in Britain and that the Bronze Age migration introduced the Brittonic branch.[26]

The *[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle](/source/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle)*, which was originally compiled by the orders of King [Alfred the Great](/source/Alfred_the_Great) in approximately 890, starts with this, incorporated into the *Chronicle* from [Bede](/source/Bede)'s *Ecclesiastical History*:[27]

Brittene igland is ehta hund mila lang ⁊ twa hun brad ⁊ her sind on þis igland fif geþeode Englisc ⁊ Brittisc ⁊ Wilsc[b] ⁊ Scyttisc ⁊ Pyhtisc ⁊ Bocleden. Erest weron bugend þises landes Brittes þa coman of Armenia.

— *The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, original Bodi. Land. 636 text given by [Benjamin Thorpe](/source/Benjamin_Thorpe)[28]

Translation:

The island of Britain is eight hundred miles long and two hundred broad; and here in this island are five languages: English and British and Welsh[c] and Scottish and Pictish and Book-language.[d] The first inhabitants of this land were Britons, who came from [Armorica](/source/Armorica).[e]

— *The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, translated by [Michael Swanton](/source/Michael_Swanton)[29]

Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Britons did not eat chicken or hares.[32] During the late Iron Age and early Roman period, humans were often buried with chickens, thus suggesting a holy veneration to the animal. It is thought that chickens and hares may have been treated as sacred, and were believed to guide souls to the afterlife.[33] Julius Caesar once wrote in [Commentarii de Bello Gallico](/source/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico) that the Britons considered it "contrary to divine law to eat the chicken, the hare, or the goose."[34] In some parts of Britain, chickens weren't widely consumed until the [3rd century CE](/source/3rd_century), and they were primarily eaten in heavily Romanised urban areas. Another view suggests that hares and chicken weren't in fact considered sacred, rather as rare and exotic animals, since their consumption increased with their number even without Romanisation.[35]

### Roman conquest

Main articles: [British Iron Age](/source/British_Iron_Age), [Roman Britain](/source/Roman_Britain), and [Sub-Roman Britain](/source/Sub-Roman_Britain)

A reconstruction drawing of [Pagans Hill Romano-British temple](/source/Pagans_Hill_Roman_Temple)

In 43 AD, the Roman Empire invaded Britain. The British tribes opposed the Roman legions for many decades, but by 84 the Romans had decisively conquered southern Britain and had pushed into Brittonic areas of what would later become northern England and southern Scotland. During the same period, [Belgic](/source/Belgae) tribes from the Gallic-Germanic borderlands settled in southern Britain. Caesar asserts the Belgae had first crossed the channel as raiders, only later establishing themselves on the island.[36] In 122 the Romans fortified the northern border with [Hadrian's Wall](/source/Hadrian's_Wall), which spanned what is now [Northern England](/source/Northern_England). In 142 Roman forces pushed north again and began construction of the [Antonine Wall](/source/Antonine_Wall), which ran between the [Forth](/source/River_Forth)–[Clyde](/source/River_Clyde) isthmus, but they retreated back to Hadrian's Wall after 20 years. Although the native Britons south of Hadrian's Wall mostly kept their land, they were subject to the [Roman governors](/source/Governors_of_Roman_Britain), whilst the Brittonic-Pictish Britons north of the wall probably remained fully independent and unconquered. The Roman Empire retained control of "Britannia" until its departure about 410, although parts of Britain had effectively shrugged off Roman rule decades earlier.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain

Main article: [Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain](/source/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain)

Britons migrated westwards during the [Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain](/source/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain)

Fifty years or so after the time of the Roman departure, the [Germanic](/source/Germanic_languages)-speaking [Anglo-Saxons](/source/Anglo-Saxons) began a migration to the south-eastern coast of Britain, where they began to establish their own kingdoms, and [Old Irish](/source/Old_Irish)-speaking [Scoti](/source/Scoti) migrated from [Dál nAraidi](/source/D%C3%A1l_nAraidi) (modern [Northern Ireland](/source/Northern_Ireland)) to the west coast of Scotland and the Isle of Man.[37][38][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] At the same time, Britons established themselves in what is now called [Brittany](/source/Brittany) and the [Channel Islands](/source/Channel_Islands). There they set up their own small kingdoms and the [Breton language](/source/Breton_language) developed from Brittonic [Insular Celtic](/source/Insular_Celtic_languages) rather than [Gaulish](/source/Gaulish_language) or [Frankish](/source/Frankish_language). A further Brittonic colony, [Britonia](/source/Britonia), was also set up at this time in [Gallaecia](/source/Gallaecia) in northwestern [Spain](/source/Spain).

Many of the old Brittonic kingdoms began to gradually disappear in the centuries after the Anglo-Saxon and Scottish Gaelic invasions; Parts of the regions of modern [East Anglia](/source/East_Anglia), [East Midlands](/source/East_Midlands), [North East England](/source/North_East_England), [Argyll](/source/Argyll), and [South East England](/source/South_East_England) were the first to fall to the Germanic and Gaelic Scots invasions. The kingdom of Ceint (modern Kent) fell in 456 AD. Linnuis (which stood astride modern Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire) was subsumed as early as 500 AD and became the English [Kingdom of Lindsey](/source/Kingdom_of_Lindsey).

[Regni](/source/Regni) (essentially modern [Sussex](/source/Sussex) and eastern [Hampshire](/source/Hampshire)) was likely fully conquered by 510. [Ynys Weith](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ynys_Weith&action=edit&redlink=1) ([Isle of Wight](/source/Isle_of_Wight)) fell in 530, [Caer Colun](/source/Caer_Colun) (essentially modern Essex) by 540. The [Gaels](/source/Gaels) arrived on the northwest coast of Britain from Ireland, dispossessed the native Britons, and founded [Dal Riata](/source/Dal_Riata) which encompassed modern [Argyll](/source/Argyll), [Skye](/source/Skye), and [Iona](/source/Iona) between 500 and 560. [Deifr](/source/Deifr) (Deira) which encompassed modern-day Teesside, Wearside, Tyneside, Humberside, Lindisfarne ([Medcaut](/source/Medcaut)), and the [Farne Islands](/source/Farne_Islands) fell to the Anglo-Saxons in 559, and Deira became an Anglo-Saxon kingdom after this point.[39] Caer Went had officially disappeared by 575, becoming the Anglo-Saxon [kingdom of East Anglia](/source/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia). [Gwent](/source/Kingdom_of_Gwent) was only partly conquered; its capital [Caer Gloui](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caer_Gloui&action=edit&redlink=1) ([Gloucester](/source/Gloucester)) was taken by the Anglo-Saxons in 577, handing [Gloucestershire](/source/Gloucestershire) and [Wiltshire](/source/Wiltshire) to the invaders, while the westernmost part remained in Brittonic hands, and continued to exist in modern Wales.

[Caer Lundein](/source/Caer_Lundein), encompassing [London](/source/London), St. Albans and parts of the [Home Counties](/source/Home_Counties),[40] fell from Brittonic hands by 600, and Bryneich, which existed in modern Northumberland and County Durham with its capital of Din Guardi (modern [Bamburgh](/source/Bamburgh)) and which included Ynys Metcaut ([Lindisfarne](/source/Lindisfarne)), had fallen by 605 becoming Anglo-Saxon Bernicia.[41] Caer Celemion (in modern Hampshire and Berkshire) had fallen by 610. Elmet, a large kingdom that covered much of modern Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire and likely had its capital at modern Leeds, was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons in 627. [Pengwern](/source/Pengwern), which covered [Staffordshire](/source/Staffordshire), [Shropshire](/source/Shropshire), [Herefordshire](/source/Herefordshire), and [Worcestershire](/source/Worcestershire), was largely destroyed in 656, with only its westernmost parts in modern Wales remaining under the control of the Britons, and it is likely that Cynwidion, which had stretched from modern Bedfordshire to Northamptonshire, fell in the same general period as Pengwern, though a sub-kingdom of Calchwynedd may have clung on in the Chilterns for a time.[42]

[Novant](/source/Novant), which occupied Galloway and Carrick, was subsumed by fellow Brittonic-Pictish polities by 700. [Aeron](/source/Aeron_(kingdom)), which encompassed modern [Ayrshire](/source/Ayrshire),[43] was conquered by the Anglo-Saxon [kingdom of Northumbria](/source/Kingdom_of_Northumbria) by 700.

### *Yr Hen Ogledd* (the Old North)

Main article: [Yr Hen Ogledd](/source/Yr_Hen_Ogledd)

*[Yr Hen Ogledd](/source/Yr_Hen_Ogledd)* (the Old North) c. 550 – c. 650

Some Brittonic kingdoms were able to successfully resist these incursions: [Rheged](/source/Rheged) (encompassing much of modern [Northumberland](/source/Northumberland) and [County Durham](/source/County_Durham) and areas of southern Scotland and the [Scottish Borders](/source/Scottish_Borders)) survived well into the 8th century, before the eastern part peacefully joined with the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of [Bernicia](/source/Bernicia)–[Northumberland](/source/Northumberland) by 730, and the west was taken over by the fellow Britons of [Ystrad Clud](/source/Ystrad_Clud).[44][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*][45][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*] Similarly, the kingdom of [Gododdin](/source/Gododdin), which appears to have had its court at [Din Eidyn](/source/Din_Eidyn) (modern [Edinburgh](/source/Edinburgh)) and encompassed parts of modern [Northumberland](/source/Northumberland), [County Durham](/source/County_Durham), [Lothian](/source/Lothian) and [Clackmannanshire](/source/Clackmannanshire), endured until approximately 775 before being divided by fellow Brittonic Picts, Gaelic Scots and Anglo-Saxons.

The [Kingdom of Cait](/source/Kingdom_of_Cait), covering modern [Caithness](/source/Caithness), [Sutherland](/source/Sutherland), [Orkney](/source/Orkney), and [Shetland](/source/Shetland), was conquered by Gaelic Scots in 871. [Dumnonia](/source/Dumnonia) (encompassing [Cornwall](/source/Cornwall), [Devonshire](/source/Devonshire), and the [Isles of Scilly](/source/Scilly_Isles)) was partly conquered during the mid 9th century AD, with most of modern Devonshire being annexed by the Anglo-Saxons, but leaving Cornwall, the Isles of Scilly ([Enesek Syllan](/source/Enesek_Syllan)), and for a time part of western Devonshire (including [Dartmoor](/source/Dartmoor)), still in the hands of the Britons, where they became the Brittonic state of [Kernow](/source/Cornwall). The [Channel Islands](/source/Channel_Islands) (colonised by Britons in the 5th century) came under attack from [Norse](/source/Norsemen) and [Danish](/source/Danes) [Viking](/source/Viking) attack in the early 9th century, and by the end of that century had been conquered by Viking invaders.

The [Kingdom of Ce](/source/Kingdom_of_Ce), which encompassed modern [Marr](/source/Marr%2C_Scotland), [Banff](/source/Banff%2C_Aberdeenshire), [Buchan](/source/Buchan), [Fife](/source/Fife), and much of [Aberdeenshire](/source/Aberdeenshire), disappeared soon after 900. [Fortriu](/source/Fortriu), the largest Brittonic-Pictish kingdom which covered [Strathearn](/source/Strathearn), [Morayshire](/source/Morayshire) and [Easter Ross](/source/Easter_Ross), had fallen by approximately 950 to the Gaelic [Kingdom of Alba](/source/Kingdom_of_Alba) ([Scotland](/source/Scotland)). Other Pictish kingdoms such as [Circinn](/source/Circinn) (in modern [Angus](/source/Angus%2C_Scotland) and [The Mearns](/source/The_Mearns)), [Fib](/source/Kingdom_of_Fib) (modern [Fife](/source/Fife)), [Fidach](/source/Fidach) ([Inverness](/source/Inverness) and [Perthshire](/source/Perthshire)), and [Ath-Fotla](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ath-Fotla&action=edit&redlink=1) ([Atholl](/source/Atholl)), had also all fallen by the beginning of the 11th century or shortly after.

The Brythonic languages in these areas were eventually replaced by the [Old English](/source/Old_English) of the Anglo-Saxons, and [Scottish Gaelic](/source/Scottish_Gaelic), although this was likely a gradual process in many areas. Similarly, the Brittonic colony of [Britonia](/source/Britonia) in northwestern [Spain](/source/Spain) appears to have disappeared soon after 900. The kingdom of [Ystrad Clud](/source/Ystrad_Clud) (Strathclyde) was a large and powerful Brittonic kingdom of the [Hen Ogledd](/source/Hen_Ogledd) (the 'Old North') which endured until the end of the 11th century, successfully resisting Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic Scots and later also Viking attacks. At its peak it encompassed modern Strathclyde, [Dumbartonshire](/source/Dumbartonshire), [Cumbria](/source/Cumbria), [Stirlingshire](/source/Stirlingshire), [Lanarkshire](/source/Lanarkshire), [Ayrshire](/source/Ayrshire), [Dumfries and Galloway](/source/Dumfries_and_Galloway), [Argyll and Bute](/source/Argyll_and_Bute), and parts of [North Yorkshire](/source/North_Yorkshire), the western [Pennines](/source/Pennines), and as far as modern [Leeds](/source/Leeds) in [West Yorkshire](/source/West_Yorkshire).[45][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*][46][47][48][f] Thus the Kingdom of Strathclyde became the last of the Brittonic kingdoms of the 'Old North' to fall in the 1090s when it was effectively divided between England and Scotland.[49][50]

### Wales, Cornwall and Brittany

The Britons also retained control of [Wales](/source/Wales) and Kernow (encompassing [Cornwall](/source/Cornwall), parts of [Devon](/source/Devon) including [Dartmoor](/source/Dartmoor), and the [Isles of Scilly](/source/Isles_of_Scilly)) until the mid 11th century when Cornwall was effectively annexed by the English, with the Isles of Scilly following a few years later, although at times Cornish lords appear to have retained sporadic control into the early part of the 12th century [*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*].

Wales remained free from Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic Scots and Viking control, and was divided among varying Brittonic kingdoms, the foremost being [Gwynedd](/source/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd) (including [Clwyd](/source/Clwyd) and [Anglesey](/source/Anglesey)), [Powys](/source/Kingdom_of_Powys), [Deheubarth](/source/Deheubarth) (originally [Ceredigion](/source/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion), [Seisyllwg](/source/Seisyllwg) and [Dyfed](/source/Dyfed)), [Gwent](/source/Kingdom_of_Gwent), and [Morgannwg](/source/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg) ([Glamorgan](/source/Glamorgan)). These Brittonic-Welsh kingdoms initially included territories further east than the modern borders of Wales; for example, Powys included parts of modern [Merseyside](/source/Merseyside), [Cheshire](/source/Cheshire) and [the Wirral](/source/The_Wirral) and Gwent held parts of modern [Herefordshire](/source/Herefordshire), [Worcestershire](/source/Worcestershire), [Somerset](/source/Somerset) and [Gloucestershire](/source/Gloucestershire), but had largely been confined to the borders of modern Wales by the beginning of the 12th century.

However, by the early 12th century, the Anglo-Saxons and Gaels had become the dominant cultural force in most of the formerly Brittonic ruled territory in Britain, and the language and culture of the native Britons was thereafter gradually replaced in those regions,[51][*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability)*] remaining only in Wales, Cornwall, the Isles of Scilly and [Brittany](/source/Brittany), and for a time in parts of Cumbria, Strathclyde, and eastern Galloway. [Cornwall](/source/Cornwall) (Kernow, [Dumnonia](/source/Dumnonia)) had certainly been largely absorbed by England by the 1050s to early 1100s, although it retained a distinct Brittonic culture and language.[52] Wales and Brittany remained independent for a considerable time, however, with Brittany united with [France](/source/France) in 1532, and Wales united with [England](/source/England) by the [Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542](/source/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%E2%80%931542) in the mid 16th century during the rule of the [Tudors](/source/Tudors) (Y Tuduriaid), who were themselves of Welsh heritage on the male side.

Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and the Isles of Scilly continued to retain a distinct Brittonic culture, identity and language, which they have maintained to the present day. The [Welsh](/source/Welsh_language) and [Breton languages](/source/Breton_language) remain widely spoken, and the [Cornish language](/source/Cornish_language), once close to extinction, has experienced a revival since the 20th century. The vast majority of place names and names of geographical features in Wales, Cornwall, the Isles of Scilly and Brittany are Brittonic, and Brittonic family and personal names remain common. During the 19th century, many Welsh farmers migrated to [Patagonia](/source/Patagonia) in [Argentina](/source/Argentina), forming a community called [Y Wladfa](/source/Y_Wladfa), which today consists of over 1,500 Welsh speakers.

### Eastern England

[Eastern England](/source/East_of_England) was populated by Brythonic tribes such as the [Iceni](/source/Iceni), [Corieltauvi](/source/Corieltauvi), and [Catuvellauni](/source/Catuvellauni). In the most common view, the Britons of Eastern England were assimilated by Anglo-Saxons in the first 200 years of invasion, from 450-600 AD, as their kingdoms were conquered. This view is often supported by the lack of Brythonic toponyms in the region, and by various mentions such as the *[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle](/source/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle)* entry for 491 AD: "[Aelle](/source/%C3%86lle_of_Sussex) and [Cissa](/source/Cissa_of_Sussex) begirt [Andredesceaster](/source/Andredesceaster) and slay all who dwell therein, nor was there for that reason one Briton left alive".[53]

Evidence of continuing Brythonic presence in Eastern England can be found in the *Life of Saint Guthlac*, a biography of the East Anglian [hermit](/source/Hermit) who lived in [the Fens](/source/The_Fens) during the early 8th century. [Saint Guthlac](/source/Guthlac_of_Crowland) was described as attacked on several occasions by people he believed were Britons living in the Fens.[54] The 12th century story *[Havelok the Dane](/source/Havelok_the_Dane)* includes a Saxon king Alsi, of Brittonic origin, who ruled over [Lincoln](/source/Lincolnshire), [Lindsey](/source/Parts_of_Lindsey), [Rutland](/source/Rutland) and [Stamford](/source/Stamford%2C_Lincolnshire). In the year 1090 a monk in [Ramsey](/source/Ramsey%2C_Cambridgeshire) wrote that "the savage and untamable race of the Britons was ravaging far and wide in the province of [Huntingdon](/source/Huntingdon)". This suggests that Britons were still living in the Fens by 11th century and most likely practiced their own style of Christianity, which was considered pagan by local Anglo-Saxons.[54] Another story from Ramsey mentions raids of Britons not far from [Royston](/source/Royston%2C_Hertfordshire) in the 10th century.[55] In *[The Memorials of Cambridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Memorials_of_Cambridge&action=edit&redlink=1)* we can find a line "If any of the gild slay a man, and he be an avenger by compulsion (*neadwraca*) and compensate for his violence, and the slain man be a *twelfhynde* man, let each of the gild give half a mark for his aid: if the slain man be a *ceorl*, two oras: if he be Welsh (*Wylisc*) one ora", where "Wylisc" refers to a Briton. We may infer that, though a Welsh servile population existed in [Cambridgeshire](/source/Cambridgeshire) in the tenth century, it was not so numerous as elsewhere, and that there the Welshman's life was more respected.[54] The legend of [Wandlebury](/source/Wandlebury_Hill), popular in Cambridge, contains several pagan elements, mentioning a town *Cantabrica* and a tribe of *Wandali* near [Ely](/source/Ely%2C_Cambridgeshire), who were "*savagely murdering the Christian*s".[56] The legend was first written in 1211 by [Gervase of Tilbury](/source/Gervase_of_Tilbury), and can be seen an original Celtic story, originated at the end of the Roman Empire during the raids of [Vandals](/source/Vandals), which later passed to local Anglo-Saxon population.[57]

Oosthuizen (2016) mentions six placenames in the region with the "*wealh-*" root, which means 'Briton', including *Walewrth*, *[Walsoken](/source/Walsoken)* and *Walpole*. Other examples of Brythonic toponyms include [River Great Ouse](/source/River_Great_Ouse), from Proto-Celtic ******Udso-s* ('water'), [River Welland](/source/River_Welland) (possibly from "*wealh*-" root), [River Cam](/source/River_Cam) (Granta), from Proto-Celtic *kambos ('crooked'), [Chettisham](/source/Chettisham) (compare Welsh "*coed*", meaning 'wood'), [Chatteris](/source/Chatteris) (from the same root), [King's Lynn](/source/King's_Lynn), from Brythonic **llɨnn* ('lake').[58][59] [Comberton](/source/Comberton), a parish in South Cambridgeshire, is derived from the root "cymry", that refers to all Britons.[60]

### Northern Iberia

Main article: [Britonia](/source/Britonia)

In the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD, a colony called Britonia was established in northern Galicia. The British settlements first appeared at the [First Council of Lugo](/source/First_Council_of_Lugo) in 569 and later, a separate bishopric was established, with the first Bishop being [Maeloc](/source/Mailoc).[61] Despite the exact location of the diocese isn't known, as well as how long did Brythonic culture and language perfromed in the region, several toponyms across [Galicia](/source/Galicia_(Spain)) and [Asturias](/source/Asturias) containing root bret- or brit- can be still found,[62] including Bretelo in [Ourense](/source/Ourense), *Bertoña* in [A Capela](/source/A_Capela) or El Breton in [Corvera](/source/Corvera_de_Asturias), Asturias.[63]

## Genetics

Further information: [Celts § Genetics](/source/Celts#Genetics)

See also: [Bell Beaker culture § Genetics](/source/Bell_Beaker_culture#Genetics), [Urnfield culture § Genetics](/source/Urnfield_culture#Genetics), [Hallstatt culture § Genetics](/source/Hallstatt_culture#Genetics), [La Tène culture § Genetics](/source/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture#Genetics), [Gauls § Genetics](/source/Gauls#Genetics), and [Celtiberians § Genetics](/source/Celtiberians#Genetics)

Schiffels et al. (2016) examined the remains of three Iron Age Britons buried ca. 100 BC.[64] A female buried in [Linton, Cambridgeshire](/source/Linton%2C_Cambridgeshire) carried the maternal haplogroup [H1e](/source/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)), while two males buried in [Hinxton](/source/Hinxton) both carried the paternal haplogroup [R1b1a2a1a2](/source/Haplogroup_R1b-L21), and the maternal haplogroups [K1a1b1b](/source/Haplogroup_K_(mtDNA)) and [H1ag1](/source/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)).[65] Their genetic profile was considered typical for [Northwest European](/source/Northwest_Europe) populations.[64] Though sharing a common Northwestern European origin, the Iron Age individuals were markedly different from later [Anglo-Saxon](/source/Anglo-Saxons) samples, who were closely related to [Danes](/source/Danes) and [Dutch people](/source/Dutch_people).[66]

Martiniano et al. (2018) examined the remains of a female Iron Age Briton buried at [Melton](/source/Melton%2C_East_Riding_of_Yorkshire) between 210 BC and 40 AD.[67] She was found to be carrying the maternal haplogroup [U2e1e](/source/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U2).[68] The study also examined seven males buried in Driffield Terrace near [York](/source/York) between the 2nd century AD and the 4th century AD during the period of [Roman Britain](/source/Roman_Britain).[67] Six of these individuals were identified as native Britons.[69] The six examined native Britons all carried types of the paternal [R1b1a2a1a](/source/Haplogroup_R-L151) and carried the maternal haplogroups [H6a1a](/source/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)), [H1bs](/source/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)), [J1c3e2](/source/Haplogroup_J_(mtDNA)), [H2](/source/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)), [H6a1b2](/source/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)) and [J1b1a1](/source/Haplogroup_J_(mtDNA)).[68] The indigenous Britons of Roman Britain were genetically closely related to the earlier Iron Age female Briton, and displayed close genetic links to modern [Celts](/source/Celts) of the [British Isles](/source/British_Isles), particularly [Welsh people](/source/Welsh_people), suggesting genetic continuity between Iron Age Britain and Roman Britain, and partial genetic continuity between Roman Britain and modern Britain.[70][69] On the other hand, they were genetically substantially different from the examined [Anglo-Saxon](/source/Anglo-Saxon) individual and modern [English](/source/English_people) populations of the area, suggesting that the [Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain](/source/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain) left a [profound genetic impact](/source/Genetic_evidence_of_Anglo-Saxon_migration_in_Britain).[71]

## See also

- [Celtic nations](/source/Celtic_nations)

- [Celtic language decline in England](/source/Celtic_language_decline_in_England)

- [Cornish people](/source/Cornish_people)

- [Cumbric](/source/Cumbric)

- [English people](/source/English_people)

- [Fortriu](/source/Fortriu)

- [Genetic history of the British Isles](/source/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles)

- [Gododdin](/source/Gododdin)

- [History of the British Isles](/source/History_of_the_British_Isles)

- [Kingdom of Cat](/source/Kingdom_of_Cat)

- [Kingdom of Ce](/source/Kingdom_of_Ce)

- [Kingdom of Strathclyde](/source/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde)

- [List of Celtic tribes](/source/List_of_Celtic_tribes)

## Footnotes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** While there have been attempts in the past to align the Pictish language with non-Celtic language, the current academic view is that it was Brittonic. See: [Forsyth 1997](#CITEREFForsyth1997), p. 37: "[T]he only acceptable conclusion is that, from the time of our earliest historical sources, there was only one language spoken in Pictland, the most northerly reflex of Brittonic."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Thorpe's parallel Cott. Tober. B.iv text reads *Brytwylsc*.[28]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Swanton notes that MS E says *Brittisc ond Wilsc* giving six languages and possibly meaning [Cornish](/source/Cornish_language) by *Brittisc*, whereas MS D says *Bryt-Wylsc* as one language.[29]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Swanton notes that this means [Latin](/source/Latin_language).[29]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Swanton's 20th century translation substitutes Armorica directly with a note about the original manuscript.[29] The 19th century translation by [Ingram](/source/James_Ingram_(academic)) retains the original manuscript error in translation and notes that the Saxon transcriber of the *Chronicle* misquoted [Bede](/source/Bede), who wrote *Armoricano* meaning an area in northwestern [Gaul](/source/Gaul) that includes modern [Brittany](/source/Brittany).[30] [Thorpe](/source/Benjamin_Thorpe) notes the same.[31]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** cf. [Bannerman 1999](#CITEREFBannerman1999), Chapter 3/"The Scottish takeover of Pictland and the relics of Columba", representing the "traditional" view.

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebster1996623_1-0)** [Webster 1996](#CITEREFWebster1996), p. 623.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-13) [***o***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-14) [***p***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006291–292Britons_2-15) [Koch 2006](#CITEREFKoch2006), pp. 291–292, Britons.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawyer199869–74_3-0)** [Sawyer 1998](#CITEREFSawyer1998), pp. 69–74.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForsyth19979_4-0)** [Forsyth 1997](#CITEREFForsyth1997), p. 9.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["The Germanic invasions of Britain"](https://www.uni-due.de/SHE/HE_GermanicInvasions.htm). *www.uni-due.de*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Scottish Archaeological Research Framework ([ScARF](https://scarf.scot/)), Highland Framework, [Early Medieval](https://scarf.scot/regional/higharf/early-medieval/) (accessed May 2022).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Snyder, Christopher A. (2008). [*The Britons*](https://books.google.com/books?id=zAn4JPhRInYC&q=albion). John Wiley & Sons. p. 12. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-470-75821-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75821-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Foster, Robert Fitzroy (2001). [*The Oxford History of Ireland*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bD9RFgLaGQkC&q=pythea) (reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 1. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-280202-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280202-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser200948_9-0)** [Fraser 2009](#CITEREFFraser2009), p. 48.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCone201325_10-0)** [McCone 2013](#CITEREFMcCone2013), p. 25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** ["brythonic | Origin and meaning of Brythonic by Online Etymology Dictionary"](https://www.etymonline.com/word/brythonic). *www.etymonline.com*. Retrieved 16 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Briton"](https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Briton). *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)* (online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or [participating institution membership](https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ["Why Cornwall is resurrecting its indigenous language"](https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230423-why-cornwall-is-resurrecting-its-indigenous-language). *www.bbc.com*. 24 April 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForsyth20061447_15-0)** [Forsyth 2006](#CITEREFForsyth2006), p. 1447.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForsyth1997_16-0)** [Forsyth 1997](#CITEREFForsyth1997).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser200952–53_17-0)** [Fraser 2009](#CITEREFFraser2009), pp. 52–53.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoolf2007322–340_18-0)** [Woolf 2007](#CITEREFWoolf2007), pp. 322–340.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECorbishleyGillinghamKellyDawson199636_19-0)** [Corbishley et al. 1996](#CITEREFCorbishleyGillinghamKellyDawson1996), p. 36.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Hunter, Fraser (of Museum of Scotland), [Carnyx and Co](https://web.archive.org/web/20051226184509/http://www.carnyx.musicscotland.com/carnyx/carnyx.htm)- piece by Hunter on the carnyx

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacAulay19921_21-0)** [MacAulay 1992](#CITEREFMacAulay1992), p. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKarl2010_22-0)** [Karl 2010](#CITEREFKarl2010).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffeKoch20161–5_23-0)** [Cunliffe & Koch 2016](#CITEREFCunliffeKoch2016), pp. 1–5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESims-Williams2020523_24-0)** [Sims-Williams 2020](#CITEREFSims-Williams2020), p. 523.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPattersonIsakovBooth2021_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPattersonIsakovBooth2021_25-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPattersonIsakovBooth2021_25-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPattersonIsakovBooth2021_25-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPattersonIsakovBooth2021_25-4) [Patterson, Isakov & Booth 2021](#CITEREFPattersonIsakovBooth2021).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-YorkUni_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-YorkUni_26-1) ["Ancient DNA study reveals large scale migrations into Bronze Age Britain"](https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2021/research/ancient-dna-study-migration-bronze-age/). [University of York](/source/University_of_York). 22 December 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** ["Ancient mass migration transformed Britons' DNA"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59741723). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. 22 December 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles1887303_28-0)** [Giles 1887](#CITEREFGiles1887), p. 303.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorpe18613_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorpe18613_29-1) [Thorpe 1861](#CITEREFThorpe1861), p. 3.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwanton19983_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwanton19983_31-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwanton19983_31-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwanton19983_31-3) [Swanton 1998](#CITEREFSwanton1998), p. 3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIngramGiles1847103_34-0)** [Ingram & Giles 1847](#CITEREFIngramGiles1847), p. 103.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorpe1861394_35-0)** [Thorpe 1861](#CITEREFThorpe1861), p. 394.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Sullivan, Rory (10 April 2020). ["Ancient Britons didn't eat hares or chickens – they venerated them"](https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/10/europe/ancient-briton-hare-chicken-gods-intl-scli-scn-gbr). *CNN*. Retrieved 27 February 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:1_38-0)** Best, Julia; Doherty, Sean; Armit, Ian; Boev, Zlatozar; Büster, Lindsey; Cunliffe, Barry; Foster, Alison; Frimet, Ben; Hamilton-Dyer, Sheila; Higham, Tom; Lebrasseur, Ophélie; Miller, Holly; Peters, Joris; Seigle, Michaël; Skelton, Caroline (7 June 2022). ["Redefining the timing and circumstances of the chicken's introduction to Europe and north-west Africa"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/redefining-the-timing-and-circumstances-of-the-chickens-introduction-to-europe-and-northwest-africa/0797DAA570D51D988B0514C37C2EC534). *Antiquity*. **96** (388): 868–882. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.15184/aqy.2021.90](https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2021.90). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10871/126303](https://hdl.handle.net/10871%2F126303). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0003-598X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-598X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Kisling, Vernon N. Jr., ed. (2022). [*Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections to Conservation Centers*](https://google.com/books/edition/Zoo_and_Aquarium_History/NkZ1EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=“The+Britons+consider+it+contrary+to+divine+law+to+eat+the+hare,+the+chicken,+or+the+goose”&pg=PT63&printsec=frontcover). Boca Raton, FL: [CRC Press](/source/CRC_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781000585384](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000585384).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Addley, Esther (9 April 2020). ["Leap of faith: ancient Britons viewed hares and chickens as gods"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/10/leap-of-faith-ancient-britons-viewed-hares-chickens-as-gods-easter). *The Guardian*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0261-3077](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved 27 February 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 2.4, 5.2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPattison2008[httpspmcncbinlmnihgovarticlesPMC2603190sec2_42-0)** [Pattison 2008](#CITEREFPattison2008), p. [\[1\]](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2603190/#sec2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPattison2011_43-0)** [Pattison 2011](#CITEREFPattison2011).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** ["Kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons - Deira"](https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/EnglandDeira.htm). *www.historyfiles.co.uk*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** [Nennius](/source/Nennius) (c. 828). *History of the Britons*. [Chapter 6: "Cities of Britain"](https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Britons#Cities_of_Britain).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2006515–516Cumbric_46-0)** [Koch 2006](#CITEREFKoch2006), pp. 515–516, Cumbric.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Kessler, P. L. ["Kingdoms of British Celts - Cynwidion"](https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainCynwidion.htm). *The History Files*. Retrieved 4 January 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBromwichFosterJones1978157_48-0)** [Bromwich, Foster & Jones 1978](#CITEREFBromwichFosterJones1978), p. 157.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwickChadwick1940_49-0)** [Chadwick & Chadwick 1940](#CITEREFChadwickChadwick1940).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapelle1979_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapelle1979_50-1) [Kapelle 1979](#CITEREFKapelle1979).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroun1999"Dunkeld_and_the_origin_of_Scottish_identity"_51-0)** [Broun 1999](#CITEREFBroun1999), "Dunkeld and the origin of Scottish identity".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForsyth200528–32_52-0)** [Forsyth 2005](#CITEREFForsyth2005), pp. 28–32.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoolf2007"Constantine_II"_53-0)** [Woolf 2007](#CITEREFWoolf2007), "Constantine II".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards201312,_575_55-0)** [Charles-Edwards 2013](#CITEREFCharles-Edwards2013), pp. 12, 575.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkson201412,_63–66,_154–158_56-0)** [Clarkson 2014](#CITEREFClarkson2014), pp. 12, 63–66, 154–158.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** ["Germanic invaders may not have ruled by apartheid"](https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13752-germanic-invaders-may-not-have-ruled-by-apartheid.html). *New Scientist*, 23 April 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsMartin2002341–357_58-0)** [Williams & Martin 2002](#CITEREFWilliamsMartin2002), pp. 341–357.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Hodgkin, Thomas. ["The history of England, from the earliest times to the Norman Conquest"](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/68870/pg68870-images.html). *www.gutenberg.org*. Retrieved 9 May 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_60-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_60-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:0_60-2) ["Late survival of Celtic population in E. Anglia"](https://www.cantab.net/users/michael.behrend/repubs/gray_2_papers/pages/late_survival.html). *www.cantab.net*. Retrieved 9 May 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** *Chronicon Abbatiae Rameseiensis, p. 140*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Gervase of Tilbury, *Otia Imperialia* (c.13th century)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** ["On The Wandlebury legend"](https://www.cantab.net/users/michael.behrend/repubs/gray_2_papers/pages/wandlebury.html). *www.cantab.net*. Retrieved 21 May 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Oosthuizen, Susan (2016). ["Culture and identity in the early medieval fenland landscape"](https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/35281533.pdf) (PDF).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Green, T., 2012. Britons and Anglo-‐Saxons.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** ["Key to English Place-names"](http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/map/place/Cambridgeshire/Comberton). *kepn.nottingham.ac.uk*. Retrieved 21 August 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Young, Simon (Summer 2003). ["Young, Bishops of the Early Medieval Spanish Diocese of Britonia.pdf"](https://www.academia.edu/35836466). *Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies*. **45**: 1–19.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** Fleuriot, Leon (1980) Les origines de la Bretagne

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Young, Simon (2002). ["Note: Iberian *Addenda* to Fleuriot's *Toponymes*"](https://www.academia.edu/35836577). *Peritia*. **16** (1): 479–482. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1484/j.peri.3.506](https://doi.org/10.1484%2Fj.peri.3.506).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20161_70-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20161_70-1) [Schiffels et al. 2016](#CITEREFSchiffels_et_al.2016), p. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1_71-0)** [Schiffels et al. 2016](#CITEREFSchiffels_et_al.2016), p. 3, Table 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20165_72-0)** [Schiffels et al. 2016](#CITEREFSchiffels_et_al.2016), p. 5.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20181–2_73-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20181–2_73-1) [Martiniano et al. 2018](#CITEREFMartiniano_et_al.2018), pp. 1–2.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1_74-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1_74-1) [Martiniano et al. 2018](#CITEREFMartiniano_et_al.2018), p. 3, Table 1.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Martiniano_2018_6_75-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Martiniano_2018_6_75-1) [Martiniano et al. 2018](#CITEREFMartiniano_et_al.2018), p. 6. "Six of the seven individuals sampled here are clearly indigenous Britons in their genomic signal. When considered together, they are similar to the earlier Iron-Age sample, whilst the modern group with which they show closest affinity are Welsh. These six are also fixed for the Y-chromosome haplotype R1b-L51, which shows a cline in modern Britain, again with maximal frequencies among western populations. Interestingly, these people do not differ significantly from modern inhabitants of the same region (Yorkshire and Humberside) suggesting major genetic change in Eastern Britain within the last millennium and a half. That this could have been, in part, due to population influx associated with the Anglo-Saxon migrations is suggested by the different genetic signal of the later Anglo-Saxon genome."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20181_76-0)** [Martiniano et al. 2018](#CITEREFMartiniano_et_al.2018), pp. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20181,_6_77-0)** [Martiniano et al. 2018](#CITEREFMartiniano_et_al.2018), pp. 1, 6.

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## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Celtic Britons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Celtic_Britons).

- [BBC – History – Native Tribes of Britain](https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/british_prehistory/iron_01.shtml)

- [DNA from ethnic Britons found in Ireland](https://web.archive.org/web/20031011210131/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/bloodofthevikings/genetics_results_07.shtml)

- [Scottish Archaeological Research Framework (ScARF)](https://scarf.scot/)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Celtic Britons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Britons) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Britons?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.