# Cassiterite

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Tin oxide mineral

Cassiterite Cassiterite surrounded by muscovite, from Xuebaoding, Huya, Pingwu, Mianyang, Sichuan, China (size: 100 × 95 mm, 1128 g) General Category Oxide minerals Formula SnO2 IMA symbol Cst[1] Strunz classification 4.DB.05 Crystal system Tetragonal Crystal class Ditetragonal dipyramidal (4/mmm) H-M symbol: (4/m 2/m 2/m) Space group P42/mnm Unit cell a = 4.7382(4) Å, c = 3.1871(1) Å; Z = 2 Identification Color Black, brownish black, reddish brown, brown, red, yellow, gray, white; rarely colorless Crystal habit Pyramidic, prismatic, radially fibrous botryoidal crusts and concretionary masses; coarse to fine granular, massive Twinning Very common on {011}, as contact and penetration twins, geniculated; lamellar Cleavage {100} imperfect, {110} indistinct; partings on {111} or {011} Fracture Subconchoidal to uneven Tenacity Brittle Mohs scale hardness 6–7 Luster Adamantine to adamantine metallic, splendent; may be greasy on fractures Streak White to brownish Diaphaneity Transparent when light colored, dark material nearly opaque; commonly zoned Specific gravity 6.98–7.1 Optical properties Uniaxial (+) Refractive index nω = 1.990–2.010 nε = 2.093–2.100 Birefringence δ = 0.103 Pleochroism Pleochroic haloes have been observed. Dichroic in yellow, green, red, brown, usually weak, or absent, but strong at times Fusibility infusible Solubility insoluble References [2][3][4][5][6]

**Cassiterite** is a [tin](/source/Tin) [oxide mineral](/source/Oxide_mineral), [SnO2](/source/Tin_dioxide). It is generally [opaque](/source/Opacity_(optics)), but it is translucent in thin crystals. Its [luster](/source/Lustre_(mineralogy)) and multiple crystal faces produce a desirable gem. Cassiterite was the chief tin [ore](/source/Ore) throughout [ancient history](/source/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times) and remains the most important source of tin today. It is also a [semiconductor](/source/Semiconductor).[7]

Crystal structure of cassiterite

## Occurrence

Most sources of cassiterite today are found in [alluvial](/source/Alluvium) or [placer](/source/Placer_mining) deposits containing the weathering-resistant grains. The best sources of primary cassiterite are found in the tin mines of [Bolivia](/source/Bolivia), where it is found in crystallised [hydrothermal](/source/Hydrothermal) veins. [Rwanda](/source/Rwanda) has a nascent cassiterite mining industry. Fighting over cassiterite deposits (particularly in [Walikale](/source/Walikale)) is a major cause of the conflict waged in eastern parts of the [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/source/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo).[8][9] This has led to cassiterite being considered a [conflict mineral](/source/Conflict_mineral).

Cassiterite is a widespread minor constituent of [igneous rocks](/source/Igneous_rocks). The Bolivian veins and the 4500 year old workings of [Cornwall](/source/Cornwall) and [Devon](/source/Devon), [England](/source/England), are concentrated in high temperature [quartz](/source/Quartz) veins and [pegmatites](/source/Pegmatite) associated with [granitic](/source/Granite) [intrusives](/source/Intrusive_rock). The veins commonly contain [tourmaline](/source/Tourmaline), [topaz](/source/Topaz), [fluorite](/source/Fluorite), [apatite](/source/Apatite), [wolframite](/source/Wolframite), [molybdenite](/source/Molybdenite), and [arsenopyrite](/source/Arsenopyrite). The mineral occurs extensively in [Cornwall](/source/Cornwall) as surface deposits on [Bodmin Moor](/source/Bodmin_Moor), for example, where there are extensive traces of a hydraulic mining method known as *streaming*. The current major tin production comes from placer or alluvial deposits in [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia), [Thailand](/source/Thailand), [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia), the [Maakhir](/source/Maakhir) region of [Somalia](/source/Somalia), and [Russia](/source/Russia). [Hydraulic mining](/source/Hydraulic_mining) methods are used to concentrate mined ore, a process which relies on the high [specific gravity](/source/Specific_gravity) of the SnO2 ore, of about 7.0.

## Crystallography

[Crystal twinning](/source/Crystal_twinning) is common in cassiterite and most aggregate specimens show crystal twins. The typical twin is bent at a near-60-degree angle, forming an "elbow twin". [Botryoidal](/source/Botryoidal) or reniform cassiterite is called *wood tin*.

Cassiterite is also used as a [gemstone](/source/Gemstone) and collector specimens when quality crystals are found.

## Etymology

The name derives from the [Greek](/source/Greek_language) κασσίτερος (*[transliterated](/source/Transliteration) as "kassiteros")* for "tin".[10] Early references to κασσίτερος can be found in [Homer](/source/Homer)'s [Iliad](/source/Iliad), such as in the description the [Shield of Achilles](/source/Shield_of_Achilles). For example, the passage in book 18 chapter 610:

αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δὴ τεῦξε σάκος μέγα τε στιβαρόν τε,

610τεῦξ᾽ ἄρα οἱ θώρηκα φαεινότερον πυρὸς αὐγῆς,

τεῦξε δέ οἱ κόρυθα βριαρὴν κροτάφοις ἀραρυῖαν

καλὴν δαιδαλέην, ἐπὶ δὲ χρύσεον λόφον ἧκε,

τεῦξε δέ οἱ κνημῖδας ἑανοῦ κασσιτέροιο.[11]

Translated as:

then wrought he for him a [corselet](/source/Corslet) brighter than the blaze of fire, and he wrought for him a heavy helmet, fitted to his temples, a fair helm, richly-dight, and set thereon a crest of gold; and he wrought him [greaves](/source/Greave) of pliant tin. But when the glorious god of the two strong arms had fashioned all the armour[12]

[Liddell-Scott-Jones](/source/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon) suggest the etymology to be originally [Elamite](/source/Elamite_language); citing the [Babylonian](/source/Babylonia) ***kassi-tira,*** hence the [sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) ***kastīram***.[10] However the [Akkadian](/source/Akkadian_language) word (the [lingua franca](/source/Lingua_franca) of the [Ancient Near East](/source/Ancient_Near_East), including Babylonia) for tin was "*anna-ku*"[13] (cuneiform: 𒀭𒈾[14]). [Roman Ghirshman](/source/Roman_Ghirshman) (1954) suggests, from the region of the [Kassites](/source/Kassites), an ancient people in west and central [Iran](/source/Iran); a view also taken by J D Muhly.[15] There are relatively few words in [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) at begin with "κασσ-";[16] suggesting that it is an [ethnonym](/source/Ethnonym).[17] Attempts at understanding the [etymology](/source/Etymology) of the word were made in [antiquity](/source/Classical_antiquity), such as [Pliny the Elder](/source/Pliny_the_Elder) in his [Historia Naturalis](/source/Natural_History_(Pliny)) (book 34 chapter 37.1):

"*White lead (tin) is the most valuable; the Greeks applied to it the name **cassheros***".[18]

And [Stephanus of Byzantium](/source/Stephanus_of_Byzantium) in his *[Ethnica](/source/Stephanus_of_Byzantium)* states:

"Κασσίτερα νησοσ εν τω Ωκεανω, τη [Ίνδικη](/source/Indus_Valley_Civilisation) προσεχης, ως Διονυσιοσ εν Βασσαρικοισ. Εξ ης ο [κασσίτερος](/source/Tin)."[17]

Which can be translated as:

*Kassitera, an island in the [ocean](/source/Persian_Gulf), neighbouring [India](/source/Indus_Valley_Civilisation), as [Dionysius](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysios_(Epiker)) states in the [Bassarika](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysios_(Epiker)). From there comes [tin](/source/Tin).*

## Use

It may be primarily used as a raw material for [tin](/source/Tin) extraction and smelting.

## Gallery

		- Cassiterite [bipyramids](/source/Bipyramids), edge length c. 30 mm, [Sichuan](/source/Sichuan), China

		- Close up of cassiterite crystals, Blue Tier tinfield, [Tasmania](/source/Tasmania), Australia

		- "Wood tin" cassiterite. [Durango](/source/Durango), Mexico

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Warr, L.N. (2021). ["IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols"](https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43). *Mineralogical Magazine*. **85** (3): 291–320. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2021MinM...85..291W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MinM...85..291W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1180/mgm.2021.43](https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [235729616](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235729616).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [Mineralienatlas](https://www.mineralienatlas.de/lexikon/index.php/MineralData?mineral=Cassiterite)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Handbook_3-0)** Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C. (2005). ["Cassiterite"](http://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/cassiterite.pdf) (PDF). *Handbook of Mineralogy*. Mineral Data Publishing. Retrieved 19 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mindat_4-0)** ["Cassiterite"](https://www.mindat.org/show.php?id=917). *[mindat.org](/source/Mindat.org)*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Webmin_5-0)** [Webmineral](http://webmineral.com/data/Cassiterite.shtml)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Klein_6-0)** Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis (1985). [*Manual of Mineralogy*](https://archive.org/details/manualofmineralo00klei/page/306) (20th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. [306–307](https://archive.org/details/manualofmineralo00klei/page/306). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-471-80580-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-80580-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Balachandran, S. B. (1987-03-06). ["The Influence of Point Defects on the Floatability of Cassiterite, I. Properties of Synthetic and Natural Cassiterites"](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0301751687900512). *International Journal of Mineral Processing*. **21** (3–4): 157–171. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1987IJMP...21..157B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987IJMP...21..157B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/0301-7516(87)90051-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0301-7516%2887%2990051-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Watt, Louise (2008-11-01). ["Mining for minerals fuels Congo conflict"](http://www.newsvine.com/_news/2008/11/01/2061627-mining-for-minerals-fuels-congo-conflict). *Yahoo! News*. [Yahoo! Inc](/source/Yahoo!). [Associated Press](/source/Associated_Press). Retrieved 2009-09-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Polgreen, Lydia (2008-11-16). ["Congo's Riches, Looted by Renegade Troops"](https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/16/world/africa/16congo.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&th&emc=th). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. Retrieved 2008-11-16.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_10-1) ["Defininiton of κασσίτερος"](https://logeion.uchicago.edu/%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82). *logeion.uchicago.edu*. Retrieved 2024-11-07.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** ["Homer, Iliad, Book 18, line 590"](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-grc1:18.610). *www.perseus.tufts.edu*. Retrieved 2024-11-07.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["ToposText"](https://topostext.org/work/2#18.61). *topostext.org*. 700. Retrieved 2024-11-07.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Læssøe, Jørgen (1970-01-01). ["Akkadian annakum: "tin" or "lead"?"](https://journals.uio.no/actaorientalia/article/view/5285). *Acta Orientalia*. **24**: 10. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5617/ao.5285](https://doi.org/10.5617%2Fao.5285). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1600-0439](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1600-0439).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Dossin, G. (1970). ["La Route De L'étain En Mésopotamie Au Temps De Zimri-Lim"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23283408). *Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale*. **64** (2): 97–106. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0373-6032](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0373-6032). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [23283408](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23283408).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Muhly, James D. (1985-04-01). ["Sources of Tin and the Beginnings of Bronze Metallurgy"](https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/504330). *American Journal of Archaeology*. **89** (2): 275–291. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/504330](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F504330). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0002-9114](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9114). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [504330](https://www.jstor.org/stable/504330).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** CLASSICS, FACULTY OF (2021). [*CAMBRIDGE GREEK LEXICON*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0VndzQEACAAJ). CAMBRIDGE University Press. pp. 746–7. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-82680-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82680-8).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_17-1) [*STEPHANUS BYZANTIUS Margarethe Billerbeck\] Stephani Byzantii Ethnica, K O. BY MARGARETHE BILLERBECK*](https://archive.org/details/STEPHANUSBYZANTIUSMargaretheBillerbeckStephaniByzantiiEthnicaKO.BYMARGARETHEBILLERBECK/page/237/mode/2up). 2014. pp. 56–7.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["ToposText"](https://topostext.org/work/153#34.47.1). *topostext.org*. Retrieved 2024-11-07.

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Cassiterite](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cassiterite).

v t e Ore minerals, mineral mixtures and ore deposits Ores Oxides Cassiterite (tin) Chromite (chromium) Coltan (niobium and tantalum) Columbite (niobium) Hematite (iron) Ilmenite (titanium) Magnetite (iron) Pyrolusite (manganese) Tantalite (tantalum) Uraninite (uranium) Sulfides Acanthite (silver) Argentite (silver) Bornite (copper) Chalcopyrite (copper) Chalcocite (copper) Cinnabar (mercury) Cobaltite (cobalt) Galena (lead) Molybdenite (molybdenum) Pyrite (iron) Pentlandite (nickel) Sphalerite (zinc) Carbonates Dolomite (magnesium) Magnesite (magnesium) Malachite (copper) Other Baryte (barium) Bauxite (aluminium) Beryl (beryllium) Sperrylite (platinum) Scheelite (tungsten) Wolframite (tungsten) Deposit types Banded iron formation Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc Heavy mineral sands Iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) Kambalda-type komatiitic nickel Lateritic nickel Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE Porphyry copper Sedimentary exhalative (SedEx) Uranium Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) Orogenic gold deposit Minerals portal

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