# Broadcasting

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Distribution of audio or audiovisual content to dispersed audiences

"Broadcast" redirects here. For other uses, see [Broadcast (disambiguation)](/source/Broadcast_(disambiguation)).

A broadcasting antenna in [Stuttgart](/source/Stuttgart)

**Broadcasting** is the [distribution](/source/Data_distribution) of [audio](/source/Sound) and [audiovisual](/source/Audiovisual) content to dispersed audiences via an electronic [mass communications medium](/source/Medium_(communication)), typically using [radio waves](/source/Radio_wave) in a [one-to-many](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/one-to-many) model.[1] Broadcasting began with [AM radio](/source/AM_radio), which became popular around 1920 with the spread of [vacuum tube](/source/Vacuum_tube) [radio transmitters](/source/Radio_transmitter) and [receivers](/source/Radio_receiver). Before this, most implementations of electronic communication (early [radio](/source/Radio), [telephone](/source/Telephone), and [telegraph](/source/Telegraph)) were [one-to-one](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/one-to-one), with the message intended for a single recipient.

The term *broadcasting* evolved from its use as the agricultural method of sowing seeds in a field by casting them broadly about.[2] It was later adopted for describing the widespread distribution of information by printed materials[3] or by telegraph.[4] Examples applying it to "one-to-many" radio transmissions of an individual station to multiple listeners appeared as early as 1898.[5]

Over-the-air broadcasting is usually associated with [radio](/source/Radio_broadcasting) (audio) and [television](/source/Terrestrial_television), though more recently, both radio and television transmissions have begun to be distributed by cable ([cable television](/source/Cable_television)). The receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively small subset; the point is that anyone with the appropriate receiving technology and equipment (e.g., a radio or television set) can receive the signal. The field of broadcasting includes both government-managed services such as [public radio](/source/Public_radio), [community radio](/source/Community_radio) and [public television](/source/Public_television), and private [commercial radio](/source/Commercial_radio) and [commercial television](/source/Commercial_television). The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part 97 defines *broadcasting* as "transmissions intended for reception by the general public, either direct or relayed".[6] Private or two-way [telecommunications](/source/Telecommunications) transmissions do not qualify under this definition. For example, [amateur](/source/Amateur_radio) ("ham") and [citizens band](/source/Citizens_band) (CB) radio operators are not allowed to broadcast. As defined, *transmitting* and *broadcasting* are not the same.

Transmission of radio and television programs from a radio or television station to home receivers by [radio waves](/source/Radio_wave) is referred to as *over the air* (OTA) or [terrestrial](/source/Terrestrial_television) broadcasting and in most countries requires a [broadcasting license](/source/Broadcast_license). Transmissions using a wire or cable, like [cable television](/source/Cable_television) (which also retransmits OTA stations with their [consent](/source/Retransmission_consent)), are also considered broadcasts but do not necessarily require a license (though in some countries, a license is required). In the 2000s, transmissions of television and radio programs via [streaming](/source/Streaming) digital technology have increasingly been referred to as broadcasting as well.[7]

## History

Main article: [History of broadcasting](/source/History_of_broadcasting)

In 1894, Italian inventor [Guglielmo Marconi](/source/Guglielmo_Marconi) began developing a wireless communication using the then-newly discovered phenomenon of [radio waves](/source/Radio_wave), showing by 1901 that they could be transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean.[8] This was the start of [wireless telegraphy](/source/Wireless_telegraphy) by radio. Audio radio broadcasting began experimentally in the first decade of the 20th century. On 17 December 1902, a transmission from the Marconi station in [Glace Bay](/source/Glace_Bay), Nova Scotia, Canada, became the world's first radio message to cross the Atlantic from North America. In 1904, a commercial service was established to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which incorporated them into their onboard newspapers.[9]

[World War I](/source/World_War_I) accelerated the development of radio for [military communications](/source/Military_communications). After the war, commercial radio [AM broadcasting](/source/AM_broadcasting) began in the 1920s and became an important mass medium for entertainment and news. [World War II](/source/World_War_II) again accelerated the development of radio for the wartime purposes of aircraft and land communication, radio navigation, and radar.[10] Development of stereo [FM broadcasting](/source/FM_broadcasting) of radio began in the 1930s in the United States and the 1970s in the United Kingdom, displacing AM as the dominant commercial standard.[11]

On 25 March 1925, [John Logie Baird](/source/John_Logie_Baird) demonstrated the transmission of moving pictures at the London department store [Selfridges](/source/Selfridges). Baird's device relied upon the [Nipkow disk](/source/Nipkow_disk) and thus became known as the [mechanical television](/source/Mechanical_television). It formed the basis of experimental broadcasts done by the [British Broadcasting Corporation](/source/British_Broadcasting_Corporation) beginning on 30 September 1929.[12] However, for most of the 20th century, televisions depended on the [cathode-ray tube](/source/Cathode-ray_tube) invented by [Karl Braun](/source/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun). The first version of such a television to show promise was produced by [Philo Farnsworth](/source/Philo_Farnsworth) and demonstrated to his family on 7 September 1927.[13] After [World War II](/source/World_War_II), interrupted experiments resumed and television became an important home entertainment broadcast medium, using [VHF](/source/VHF) and [UHF](/source/UHF) spectrum. [Satellite broadcasting](/source/Satellite_broadcasting) was initiated in the 1960s and moved into general industry usage in the 1970s, with DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellites) emerging in the 1980s.

Originally, all broadcasting was composed of [analog signals](/source/Analog_signal) using [analog transmission](/source/Analog_transmission) techniques but in the 2000s, broadcasters [switched](/source/Digital_switchover) to [digital signals](/source/Digital_signal_(broadcasting)) using [digital transmission](/source/Digital_transmission). An analog signal is any [continuous signal](/source/Continuous_signal) representing some other quantity, i.e., *analogous* to another quantity. For example, in an analog [audio signal](/source/Audio_signal), the instantaneous signal [voltage](/source/Voltage) varies continuously with the [pressure of the sound waves](/source/Sound_pressure).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] In contrast, a [digital signal](/source/Digital_signal) represents the original time-varying quantity as a [sampled](/source/Sampling_(signal_processing)) sequence of [quantized](/source/Quantization_(signal_processing)) values which imposes some [bandwidth](/source/Nyquist_frequency) and [dynamic range](/source/Dynamic_range) constraints on the representation. In general usage, broadcasting most frequently refers to the transmission of information and entertainment programming from various sources to the general public:[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

- [Analog audio](/source/Analog_audio) radio (AM, FM) vs. [digital audio radio](/source/Digital_audio_radio_service) ([HD radio](/source/HD_radio)), [digital audio broadcasting](/source/Digital_audio_broadcasting) (DAB), [satellite radio](/source/Satellite_radio) and [digital Radio Mondiale](/source/Digital_Radio_Mondiale) (DRM)

- [Analog television](/source/Analog_television) vs. [digital television](/source/Digital_television)

- [Wireless](/source/Wireless)

The world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks more than quadrupled during the two decades from 1986 to 2007, from 432 [exabytes](/source/Exabytes) of (optimally compressed) information, to 1.9 [zettabytes](/source/Zettabytes).[14] This is the information equivalent of 55 newspapers per person per day in 1986, and 175 newspapers per person per day by 2007.[15]

## Methods

In a broadcast system, the central high-powered [broadcast tower](/source/Broadcast_tower) transmits a high-frequency [electromagnetic wave](/source/Electromagnetic_wave) to numerous receivers. The high-frequency wave sent by the tower is modulated with a signal containing visual or audio information. The receiver is then [tuned](/source/Antenna_tuner) so as to pick up the high-frequency wave and a [demodulator](/source/Demodulator) is used to retrieve the signal containing the visual or audio information. The broadcast signal can be either analog (signal is varied continuously with respect to the information) or digital (information is encoded as a set of discrete values).[16][17]

Historically, there have been several methods used for broadcasting [electronic media](/source/Electronic_media) audio and video to the general public:

- [Telephone](/source/Telephone) broadcasting (1881–1932): the earliest form of electronic broadcasting (not counting data services offered by stock [telegraph companies](/source/Electrical_telegraph) from 1867, if [ticker-tapes](/source/Ticker_tape) are excluded from the definition). Telephone broadcasting began with the advent of [Théâtrophone](/source/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2trophone) ("Theatre Phone") systems, which were telephone-based distribution systems allowing subscribers to listen to live [opera](/source/Opera) and [theatre](/source/Theatre) performances over telephone lines, created by French inventor [Clément Ader](/source/Cl%C3%A9ment_Ader) in 1881. Telephone broadcasting also grew to include [telephone newspaper](/source/Telephone_newspaper) services for news and entertainment [programming](/source/Radio_programming) which were introduced in the 1890s, primarily located in large [European](/source/Europe) cities. These telephone-based [subscription services](/source/Subscription_services) were the first examples of electrical/electronic broadcasting and offered a wide variety of programming.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

- [Radio broadcasting](/source/Radio_broadcasting) (experimentally from 1906, commercially from 1920); [audio](/source/Sound) signals sent through the air as [radio waves](/source/Radio_waves) from a [transmitter](/source/Transmitter), picked up by an [antenna](/source/Radio_antenna) and sent to a [receiver](/source/Tuner_(radio)). [Radio stations](/source/Radio_stations) can be linked in [radio networks](/source/Radio_network) to broadcast common [radio programs](/source/Radio_program), either in [broadcast syndication](/source/Broadcast_syndication), [simulcast](/source/Simulcast) or [subchannels](/source/Subchannel). - [Television](/source/Television) broadcasting (telecast), experimentally from 1925, [commercially](/source/Commercial_television) from the 1930s: an extension of radio to include [video](/source/Video) signals.

- [Cable radio](/source/Cable_radio) (also called *cable FM*, from 1928) and [cable television](/source/Cable_television) (from 1932): both via [coaxial cable](/source/Coaxial_cable), originally serving principally as transmission media for programming produced at either radio or [television stations](/source/Television_station), but later expanding into a broad universe of cable-originated [channels](/source/Cable_channel).

- [Direct-broadcast satellite](/source/Direct-broadcast_satellite) (DBS) (from c. 1974) and [satellite radio](/source/Satellite_radio) (from c. 1990): meant for direct-to-home broadcast programming (as opposed to studio network uplinks and down-links), provides a mix of traditional radio or television broadcast programming, or both, with dedicated satellite radio programming. (See also: [Satellite television](/source/Satellite_television))

- [Webcasting](/source/Webcast#Origins) of video/television (from c. 1993) and audio/radio (from c. 1994) streams: offers a mix of traditional radio and television station broadcast programming with dedicated [Internet radio](/source/Internet_radio) and [Internet television](/source/Internet_television).

## Economic models

There are several means of providing financial support for continuous broadcasting:

- [Commercial broadcasting](/source/Commercial_broadcasting): for-profit, usually privately owned stations, channels, networks, or services providing programming to the public, supported by the sale of air time to advertisers for [radio](/source/Radio_advertisement) or [television advertisements](/source/Television_advertisement) during or in breaks between programs, often in combination with cable or [pay cable](/source/Pay_cable) subscription fees.

- [Public broadcasting](/source/Public_broadcasting): usually [non-profit](/source/Non-profit), publicly owned stations or networks supported by license fees, government funds, grants from foundations, corporate [underwriting](/source/Underwriting), audience memberships, contributions or a combination of these.

- Community broadcasting: a form of [mass media](/source/Mass_media) in which a [television station](/source/Television_station), or a [radio station](/source/Radio_station), is owned, operated or [programmed](/source/Broadcast_programming), by a community group to provide programs of local interest known as [local programming](/source/Local_programming). Community stations are most commonly operated by [non-profit groups](/source/Non-profit_group) or [cooperatives](/source/Cooperatives); however, in some cases they may be operated by a local [college](/source/College) or [university](/source/University), a [cable company](/source/Cable_company) or a municipal government.

- Internet Webcast: the audience pays to recharge and buy virtual gifts for the anchor, and the platform converts the gifts into virtual currency. The anchor withdraws the virtual currency, which is drawn by the platform. If the anchor belongs to a trade union, it will be settled by the trade union and the live broadcasting platform, and the anchor will get the salary and part of the bonus. This is the most common profit model of live broadcast products.

Broadcasters may rely on a combination of these [business models](/source/Business_model). For example, in the United States, [National Public Radio](/source/National_Public_Radio) (NPR) and the [Public Broadcasting Service](/source/Public_Broadcasting_Service) (PBS, television) supplement public membership subscriptions and grants with funding from the [Corporation for Public Broadcasting](/source/Corporation_for_Public_Broadcasting) (CPB), which is allocated bi-annually by Congress. US public broadcasting corporate and charitable grants are generally given in consideration of [underwriting spots](/source/Underwriting_spot) which differ from commercial advertisements in that they are governed by specific [FCC](/source/FCC) restrictions, which prohibit the advocacy of a product or a "call to action".

## Recorded and live forms

A [television studio](/source/Television_studio) [production control room](/source/Production_control_room) in [Olympia, Washington](/source/Olympia%2C_Washington), August 2008

An "On Air" sign is illuminated, usually in red, while a broadcast or recording session is taking place.

[Radio Maria](/source/Radio_Maria) studio in [Switzerland](/source/Switzerland)

The first regular television broadcasts started in 1937. Broadcasts can be classified as *recorded* or *live*. The former allows correcting errors, and removing superfluous or undesired material, rearranging it, applying [slow-motion](/source/Slow-motion) and repetitions, and other techniques to enhance the program. However, some live events like [sports television](/source/Sports_television) can include some of the aspects including slow-motion clips of important goals/hits, etc., in between the [live television](/source/Live_television) telecast. American radio-network broadcasters habitually forbade prerecorded broadcasts in the 1930s and 1940s, requiring radio programs played for the Eastern and Central [time zones](/source/Time_zone) to be repeated three hours later for the Pacific time zone (See: [Effects of time on North American broadcasting](/source/Effects_of_time_on_North_American_broadcasting)). This restriction was dropped for special occasions, as in the case of the German [dirigible](/source/Dirigible) airship *[Hindenburg](/source/Hindenburg_disaster)* disaster at [Lakehurst, New Jersey](/source/Lakehurst%2C_New_Jersey), in 1937. During [World War II](/source/World_War_II), prerecorded broadcasts from war correspondents were allowed on U.S. radio. In addition, American radio programs were recorded for playback by [Armed Forces Radio](/source/Armed_Forces_Radio) [radio stations](/source/Radio_station) around the world.

A disadvantage of recording first is that the public may learn the outcome of an event before the recording is broadcast, which may be a [spoiler](/source/Spoiler_(media)). Prerecording may be used to prevent [announcers](/source/Announcer) from deviating from an officially approved [script](/source/Screenplay) during a [live radio](/source/Live_radio) broadcast, as occurred with [propaganda](/source/Propaganda) broadcasts from Germany in the 1940s and with [Radio Moscow](/source/Voice_of_Russia) in the 1980s. Many events are advertised as being live, although they are often recorded live (sometimes called "[live](/source/Live_television)-to-[tape](/source/Video_tape)"). This is particularly true of performances of musical artists on radio when they visit for an in-studio [concert](/source/Concert) performance. Similar situations have occurred in [television production](/source/Television_production) ("*[The Cosby Show](/source/The_Cosby_Show)* is recorded in front of a [live television](/source/Live_television) studio [audience](/source/Audience)") and [news broadcasting](/source/News_broadcasting).

A broadcast may be distributed through several physical means. If coming directly from the [radio studio](/source/Radio_studio) at a single station or [television station](/source/Television_station), it is sent through the [studio/transmitter link](/source/Studio%2Ftransmitter_link) to the [transmitter](/source/Transmitter) and hence from the [television antenna](/source/Television_antenna) located on the [radio masts and towers](/source/Radio_masts_and_towers) out to the world. Programming may also come through a [communications satellite](/source/Communications_satellite), played either live or recorded for later transmission. Networks of stations may [simulcast](/source/Simulcast) the same programming at the same time, originally via [microwave](/source/Microwave) link, now usually by satellite. Distribution to stations or networks may also be through physical media, such as [magnetic tape](/source/Magnetic_tape), [compact disc](/source/Compact_disc) (CD), [DVD](/source/DVD), and sometimes other formats. Usually these are included in another broadcast, such as when [electronic news gathering](/source/Electronic_news_gathering) (ENG) returns a story to the station for inclusion on a [news programme](/source/News_program).

The final leg of broadcast distribution is how the signal gets to the listener or viewer. It may come over the air as with a [radio station](/source/Radio_station) or [television station](/source/Television_station) to an [antenna](/source/Antenna_(radio)) and [radio receiver](/source/Radio_receiver), or may come through [cable television](/source/Cable_television)[18] or [cable radio](/source/Cable_radio) (or [wireless cable](/source/Wireless_cable)) via the station or directly from a network. The [Internet](/source/Internet) may also bring either [internet radio](/source/Internet_radio) or [streaming media](/source/Streaming_media) television to the recipient, especially with [multicasting](/source/Multicast) allowing the signal and [bandwidth](/source/Bandwidth_(computing)) to be shared. The term *[broadcast network](/source/Broadcast_network)* is often used to distinguish networks that broadcast over-the-air television signals that can be received using a [tuner](/source/Tuner_(television)) inside a [television set](/source/Television_set) with a [television antenna](/source/Television_antenna) from so-called networks that are broadcast only via [cable television](/source/Cable_television) ([cablecast](/source/Cablecast)) or [satellite television](/source/Satellite_television) that uses a [dish antenna](/source/Dish_antenna). The term *[broadcast television](/source/Broadcast_television)* can refer to the [television programs](/source/Television_program) of such networks.

## Social impact

[Radio station](/source/Radio_station) [WTUL](/source/WTUL) studio, [Tulane University](/source/Tulane_University), [New Orleans](/source/New_Orleans)

The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a [schedule](/source/Scheduling_(broadcasting)). As with all technological endeavors, a number of technical terms and [slang](/source/Slang) have developed. A list of these terms can be found at [List of broadcasting terms](/source/List_of_broadcasting_terms).[19] [Television](/source/Television) and [radio](/source/Radio) programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or [cable](/source/Cable_television), often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having a [cable converter box](/source/Cable_converter_box) with [decoding](/source/Code_(cryptography)) equipment in [homes](/source/Home), the latter also enables [subscription](/source/Subscription)-based channels, [pay-tv](/source/Pay-tv) and [pay-per-view](/source/Pay-per-view) services. In his essay, [John Durham Peters](/source/John_Durham_Peters) wrote that [communication](/source/Communication) is a tool used for dissemination. Peters stated, "[Dissemination](/source/Dissemination) is a lens—sometimes a usefully distorting one—that helps us tackle basic issues such as interaction, presence, and space and time ... on the agenda of any future [communication theory](/source/Communication_theory) in general".[20]: 211 Dissemination focuses on the message being relayed from one main source to one large [audience](/source/Audience) without the exchange of [dialogue](/source/Dialogue) in between. It is possible for the message to be [changed or corrupted by government officials](/source/Propaganda) once the main source releases it. There is no way to predetermine how the larger population or audience will absorb the message. They can choose to listen, analyze, or ignore it. Dissemination in communication is widely used in the world of broadcasting.

Broadcasting focuses on getting a message out and it is up to the general public to do what they wish with it. Peters also states that broadcasting is used to address an open-ended destination.[20]: 212 There are many forms of broadcasting, but they all aim to distribute a signal that will reach the target [audience](/source/Audience). Broadcasters typically arrange audiences into entire assemblies.[20]: 213 In terms of media broadcasting, a [radio show](/source/Radio_show) can gather a large number of followers who tune in every day to specifically listen to that specific [disc jockey](/source/Disc_jockey). The disc jockey follows the script for their radio show and just talks into the [microphone](/source/Microphone).[20] They do not expect immediate feedback from any listeners. The message is broadcast across airwaves throughout the community, but the listeners cannot always respond immediately, especially since many radio shows are recorded prior to the actual air time. Conversely, receivers can select opt-in or opt-out of getting broadcast messages using an Excel file, offering them control over the information they receive.

## Broadcast engineering

Main article: [Broadcast engineering](/source/Broadcast_engineering)

Broadcast engineering is the field of [electrical engineering](/source/Electrical_engineering), and now to some extent [computer engineering](/source/Computer_engineering) and [information technology](/source/Information_technology), which deals with [radio](/source/Radio) and [television](/source/Television) broadcasting. [Audio engineering](/source/Audio_engineering) and [RF engineering](/source/RF_engineering) are also essential parts of broadcast engineering, being their own [subsets](/source/Subset) of electrical engineering.[21]

Broadcast engineering involves both the [studio](/source/Television_studio) and [transmitter](/source/Transmitter) aspects (the entire [airchain](/source/Airchain)), as well as [remote broadcasts](/source/Remote_broadcast). Every [station](/source/Broadcast_network) has a broadcast [engineer](/source/Engineer), though one may now serve an entire station group in a city. In small [media markets](/source/Media_market) the engineer may work on a [contract](/source/Contract) basis for one or more stations as needed.[21][22][23]

## See also

- [Analog television](/source/Analog_television)

- [Bandplan](/source/Bandplan)

- [Broadcast engineering](/source/Broadcast_engineering)

- [Broadcast quality](/source/Broadcast_quality)

- [Broadcast television systems](/source/Broadcast_television_systems) – contains the standards of the topic

- [Broadcasting in the United States](/source/Broadcasting_in_the_United_States)

- [Cablecast](/source/Cablecast)

- [Frank Conrad](/source/Frank_Conrad)

- [Dead air](/source/Dead_air)

- [Digital television](/source/Digital_television)

- [Electronic media](/source/Electronic_media)

- [European Broadcasting Union](/source/European_Broadcasting_Union) (EBU)

- [List of broadcast satellites](/source/List_of_broadcast_satellites)

- [List of broadcasting terms](/source/List_of_broadcasting_terms)

- [List of radio awards](/source/List_of_radio_awards)

- [List of television awards](/source/List_of_television_awards)

- [Narrowcasting](/source/Narrowcasting)

- [NaSTA](/source/NaSTA)

- [Nonbroadcast Multiple Access Network](/source/Nonbroadcast_Multiple_Access_Network) (NBMA)

- [North American broadcast television frequencies](/source/North_American_broadcast_television_frequencies)

- [Outside broadcast](/source/Outside_broadcast)

- [Radio Act of 1927](/source/Radio_Act_of_1927), United States

- [Reality television](/source/Reality_television)

- [Society of Broadcast Engineers](/source/Society_of_Broadcast_Engineers) (SBE)

- [Television broadcasting in Australia](/source/Television_broadcasting_in_Australia)

- [Television transmitter](/source/Television_transmitter)

- [Transposer](/source/Transposer)

- [Wilkinsburg](/source/Wilkinsburg)

## Notes and references

1. **[^](#cite_ref-peters_1-0)** Peters, John Durham (1999). [*Speaking Into the Air: A History of the Idea of Communication*](/source/Speaking_Into_The_Air). University of Chicago Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-66277-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66277-0). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [40452957](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40452957).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-douglas_2-0)** Douglas, Susan J. (1987). [*Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899–1922*](https://archive.org/details/inventingamerica00doug). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8018-3832-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-3832-3). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [15485739](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15485739).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Strahorn, Robert Edmund (1877). "Forest Productions". *The Hand-book of Wyoming and Guide to the Black Hills and Big Horn Regions: For Citizen, Emigrant and Tourist*. R.E. Strahorn. [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2027/uc1.31822031033079](https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.31822031033079?urlappend=%3Bseq=80%3Bownerid=9007199276777726-84). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-5-87089-407-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-87089-407-2). p. 74: in the case of the estimates sent broadcast by the Department of Agriculture, in its latest annual report, the extent has been sadly underestimated. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Medical Advertising"](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015070278273;view=1up;seq=340) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200801211136/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015070278273;view=1up;seq=340) 1 August 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *Saint Louis Medical and Surgical Journal*, December 1886, p. 334: "operations formerly described in the city press alone, are now sent broadcast through the country by multiple telegraph".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Wireless Telegraphy"](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101050973286;view=1up;seq=841) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200727033000/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101050973286;view=1up;seq=841) 27 July 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *The Electrician* (London), 14 October 1898, p. 815: "there are rare cases where, as Dr. Lodge once expressed it, it might be advantageous to 'shout' the message, spreading it broadcast to receivers in all directions".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Electronic Code of Federal Regulation. (28 September 2017). Retrieved 2 October 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Maccise, Diana Larrea; Montaser Marai (2018). ["Mobile Journalism"](https://institute.aljazeera.net/sites/default/files/2018/mobile%20journalisn%20english.pdf) (PDF). AlJazeera Media Training and Development Centre. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205928/https://institute.aljazeera.net/sites/default/files/2018/mobile%20journalisn%20english.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Vujovic, Ljubo (1998). ["Tesla Biography"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160114205727/http://www.teslasociety.com/biography.htm). Tesla Memorial Society of New York. Archived from [the original](http://www.teslasociety.com/biography.htm) on 14 January 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** ["TR Center – Talking Across the Ocean"](https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Blog/Item/Talking%20Across%20the%20Ocean). theodorerooseveltcenter.org. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210417162827/https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Blog/Item/Talking%20Across%20the%20Ocean) from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Thompson, R.J. Jr. (2011). *Crystal Clear: The Struggle for Reliable Communications Technology in World War II*. Wiley. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781118104644](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118104644).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Théberge, P.; Devine, K.; Everrett, T (2015). *Living Stereo: Histories and Cultures of Multichannel Sound*. Bloomsbury Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781623566654](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781623566654).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["The Pioneers"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130514070220/http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?content=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mztv.com%2Fpioneers.html). MZTV Museum of Television. 2006. Archived from [the original](http://www.mztv.com/newframe.asp?content=http://www.mztv.com/pioneers.html) on 14 May 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Postman, Neil (29 March 1999). ["Philo Farnsworth"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090930214902/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html). *Time magazine*. Archived from [the original](http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html) on 30 September 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HilbertLopez2011_14-0)** Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (April 2011). "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information". *Science*. **332** (6025): 60–65. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.1200970](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21310967](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21310967).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Hilbertvideo2011_15-0)** ["video animation on The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120118072720/https://ideas.economist.com/video/giant-sifting-sound-0). Ideas.economist.com. Archived from [the original](https://ideas.economist.com/video/giant-sifting-sound-0) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-stallings-intro_16-0)** Haykin, Simon (2001). [*Communication Systems*](https://archive.org/details/communicationsy000simo) (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. [1](https://archive.org/details/communicationsy000simo/page/n21)–3. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-471-17869-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-17869-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [How Radio Works](http://www.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160102215734/http://www.howstuffworks.com/radio.htm) 2 January 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), HowStuffWorks.com, 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["Информационно – развлекательный портал – DIWAXX.RU – мобильная связь, безопасность ПК и сетей, компьютеры и программы, общение, железо, секреты Windows, web-дизайн, раскрутка и оптимизация сайта, партнерские программы"](https://www.diwaxx.ru/). *Diwaxx.ru*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171103065154/http://www.diwaxx.ru/) from the original on 3 November 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** ["Broadcast Terminology"](https://web.archive.org/web/20171116173416/https://www.qsl.net/n2jac/jota2k/BROADCAST%20GLOSSARY.htm). *Qsl.net*. Archived from [the original](https://www.qsl.net/n2jac/jota2k/BROADCAST+GLOSSARY.htm) on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-jpeters_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-jpeters_20-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-jpeters_20-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-jpeters_20-3) Peters, John Durham (2006), ["Communication as Dissemination"](https://sk.sagepub.com/books/communication-as/n23.xml), *Communication as…: Perspectives on Theory*, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 211–222, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4135/9781483329055.n23](https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781483329055.n23), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4129-0658-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0658-6), [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220822070805/https://sk.sagepub.com/books/communication-as/n23.xml) from the original on 22 August 2022, retrieved 22 August 2022{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_21-1) Pizzi, Skip (2014). *A Broadcast Engineering Tutorial for Non-Engineers*. Graham Jones (4th ed.). Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-90683-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-90683-4). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [879025861](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/879025861).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["about.com – Broadcast Technician or Sound Engineering Technician: Career Information"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050918203626/http://careerplanning.about.com/cs/occupations/p/broadcst_sound.htm). Careerplanning.about.com. 8 November 2010. Archived from [the original](http://careerplanning.about.com/cs/occupations/p/broadcst_sound.htm) on 18 September 2005. Retrieved 3 August 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["Transmission Engineer – TV"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070508172948/http://www.skillset.org/tv/jobs/Studio_Broadcast/article_5477_1.asp). skillset. 25 July 2012. Archived from [the original](http://www.skillset.org/tv/jobs/Studio_Broadcast/article_5477_1.asp) on 8 May 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2013.

## Bibliography

- Carey, James (1989), *Communication as Culture*, New York and London: Routledge, pp. 201–30

- Kahn, Frank J., ed. *Documents of American Broadcasting*, fourth edition (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984).

- Lichty Lawrence W., and Topping Malachi C., eds, *American Broadcasting: A Source Book on the History of Radio and Television* (Hastings House, 1975).

- Meyrowitz, Joshua, *Mediating Communication: What Happens?* in Downing, J., Mohammadi, A., and Sreberny-Mohammadi, A. (eds), *Questioning The Media* (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 1995), pp. 39–53

- Peters, John Durham (2006), ["Communication as Dissemination"](https://sk.sagepub.com/books/communication-as/n23.xml), *Communication as…: Perspectives on Theory*, Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 211–222, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4135/9781483329055.n23](https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781483329055.n23), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4129-0658-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0658-6), [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220822070805/https://sk.sagepub.com/books/communication-as/n23.xml) from the original on 22 August 2022, retrieved 22 August 2022{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

- Thompson, J., *The Media and Modernity*, in Mackay, H., and O'Sullivan, T. (eds), *The Media Reader: Continuity and Transformation* (London: Sage, 1999), pp. 12–27

- [International bibliography – History of wireless and radio broadcasting](https://www.histv.net/histoire-de-la-t-s-f-et-de-la-radio)

## Further reading

- Barnouw Erik. *The Golden Web* (Oxford University Press, 1968); *The Sponsor* (1978); *A Tower in Babel* (1966).

- Covert Cathy, and Stevens John L. *Mass Media Between the Wars* (Syracuse University Press, 1984). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8156-2307-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2307-6)

- Tim Crook; *International Radio Journalism: History, Theory and Practice* Routledge, 1998

- John Dunning; *On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio* Oxford University Press, 1998

- Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. *Broadcasting: Radio and Television* (Harper & Brothers, 1952).

- Maclaurin W. Rupert. *Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry* (The Macmillan Company, 1949).

- Robert W. McChesney; *Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928–1935* Oxford University Press, 1994

- Gwenyth L. Jackaway; *Media at War: Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers, 1924–1939* Praeger Publishers, 1995

- Lazarsfeld Paul F. *The People Look at Radio* (University of North Carolina Press, 1946).

- Schramm Wilbur, ed. *Mass Communications* (University of Illinois Press, 1960).

- Schwoch James. *The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900–1939* (University of Illinois Press, 1990). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-252-01690-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-01690-5)

- Slater Robert. *This ... is CBS: A Chronicle of 60 Years* (Prentice Hall, 1988). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-13-919234-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-919234-0)

- Sterling Christopher H. *Electronic Media, A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and Newer Technologies 1920–1983* (Praeger, 1984). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-275-91277-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-91277-2)

- Sterling Christopher, and Kittross John M. *Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting* (Wadsworth, 1978).

- Wells, Alan, [*World Broadcasting: A Comparative View*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3zpeKLHPVBQC), [Greenwood Publishing Group](/source/Greenwood_Publishing_Group), 1996. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-56750-245-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56750-245-8)

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Broadcasting](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Broadcasting).

Look up ***[broadcasting](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/broadcasting)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [Radio Locator](https://www.radio-locator.com), for American radio station with format, power, and coverage information.

- [Jim Hawkins' Radio and Broadcast Technology Page](https://www.hawkins.pair.com/radio.html) – History of broadcast transmitter

- [Indie Digital Cinema Services](https://web.archive.org/web/20130918081316/https://www.indiedcp.com/broadcast-industry-terminology.html) – Broadcast Industry Glossary

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v t e Wireless video and data distribution methods Radio Digital radio Internet radio Radio broadcasting Satellite radio Video Amateur television Mobile television Satellite television Streaming television Terrestrial television Digital Visual sensor network Data Mobile broadband Satellite Internet access Wireless broadband Wireless local loop Standards 3GPP family Long-Term Evolution (LTE) 5G New Radio (5G NR) Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service (MBMS) Digital Video Broadcasting Terrestrial (DVB-T) Handheld (DVB-H) Satellite (DVB-S2) IEEE 802 family Mobile WiMAX Mobile broadband wireless access IEEE 802.15.3 (UWB) Wi-Fi WiMAX WRAN Advanced Wireless Services (AWS) Educational Broadband Service (EBS) HomeRF Multichannel Video and Data Distribution Service (MVDDS) Multipoint Video Distribution System (MVDS) Wireless USB Technologies Local multipoint distribution service (LMDS) Multichannel multipoint distribution service (MMDS) Related Broadcasting Ku band Microwave

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Broadcasting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.