# Black yeast

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Group of fungi

**Black yeasts**, sometimes also **black fungi**, **dematiaceous fungi**, **microcolonial fungi** or **meristematic fungi**[1] is a diverse group of slow-growing [microfungi](/source/Microfungi) which reproduce mostly [asexually](/source/Asexual_reproduction) ([fungi imperfecti](/source/Fungi_imperfecti)). Only few genera reproduce by [budding cells](/source/Budding), while in others [hyphal](/source/Hypha) or meristematic (isodiametric) reproduction is preponderant.[2][3][4][5] Black yeasts share some distinctive characteristics, in particular a dark colouration ([melanisation](/source/Melanin)) of their [cell wall](/source/Cell_wall#Fungal_cell_walls). [Morphological](/source/Morphology_(biology)) plasticity, incrustation of the cell wall with melanins and presence of other protective substances like [carotenoids](/source/Carotenoid) and [mycosporines](/source/Mycosporine-like_amino_acid)[6] represent passive physiological adaptations which enable black fungi to be highly resistant against [environmental stresses](/source/Environmental_stresses).[7] The term "[polyextremotolerance](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polyextremotolerance&action=edit&redlink=1)" has been introduced to describe this phenotype, an example of which is the species *[Aureobasidium pullulans](/source/Aureobasidium_pullulans)*.[8] Presence of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in the cell wall[9] confers to the microfungi their characteristic olivaceous to dark brown/black colour.

The consortium comprises two [phylogenetically](/source/Phylogenetics) very different fungal groups.[10][11] Many are found in the orders [Capnodiales](/source/Capnodiales), [Dothideales](/source/Dothideales), and [Pleosporales](/source/Pleosporales) (class [Dothideomycetes](/source/Dothideomycetes)). These black fungi mostly have an extremotolerant life style. Many representatives of this group can colonize bare rocks, e.g. in the Mediterranean basin or in hot and cold dry deserts, and are therefore referred to as **rock-inhabiting fungi**,[10][11] or occur in salterns.[12] These black yeasts are believed to be the most resistant [eukaryotic](/source/Eukaryotic) organisms known to-date.[7] They were firstly described in the early 80s by three almost concomitant seminal research articles.[13][14][15] Members of [Chaetothyriales](/source/Chaetothyriales) (class [Eurotiomycetes](/source/Eurotiomycetes))[10][11] are found in [hydrocarbon](/source/Hydrocarbon)-rich environments or in nutrient-poor, moist indoor environments, and may occur as [opportunistic pathogens](/source/Opportunistic_infection) of vertebrate hosts, such as [*Exophiala* (*Wangiella*) *dermatitidis*](/source/Exophiala_dermatitidis).[16] Several species are associated with [lichens](/source/Lichens)[17][18] as well as other [phototrophs](/source/Phototrophs)[19] and sometimes with ants in specific [ant-fungi associations](/source/Ant-fungus_mutualism).[20]

In recent years, black fungi such as *E. dermatitidis* or *[Hortaea werneckii](/source/Hortaea_werneckii)* have attracted increasingly attention as model microorganisms in studies on [astrobiology](/source/Astrobiology),[21] [bioremediation](/source/Bioremediation) of polluted ecosystems by [biofiltration](/source/Biofiltration),[22] effect of [ionizing radiation](/source/Ionizing_radiation) in contaminated areas,[23][24] biodeterioration of materials,[25][26] and mechanisms of [adaptation to high salt concentrations](/source/Halotolerance).[12] A collaborative effort coordinated by the [Broad Institute](/source/Broad_Institute) is currently ongoing to [sequence the genomes](/source/Whole_genome_sequencing) of several black fungi to shed light into their ecology, phylogeny and pathogenicity.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Certain dematiaceous fungi cause [phaeohyphomycosis](/source/Phaeohyphomycosis), in which melanin is a virulence factor, as well as chromoblastomycosis and eumycetoma. *[Sporothrix schenckii](/source/Sporothrix_schenckii)*, the causal agent of sporothricosis, is also a dematiaceous fungus.[27]

In 2011, a research paper about occurrence of potentially pathogenic black fungi in household dishwashers[28] was partially misreported by the media and went [viral](/source/Viral_marketing).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Black yeasts are *not* related to the edible [cloud ear fungus](/source/Cloud_ear_fungus) *Auricularia polytricha*.[10][11]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Sterflinger, Katja (2006). ["Black Yeasts and Meristematic Fungi: Ecology, Diversity and Identification"](https://books.google.com/books?id=GgIN0vU1B_0C&pg=PA501). In Rosa, Carlos; Gábor, Péter (eds.). *Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts*. The Yeast Handbook. pp. 501–14. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/3-540-30985-3_20](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-30985-3_20). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-540-26100-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-26100-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Sudhadham, M.; Prakitsin, S.; Sivichai, S.; Chaiyarat, R.; Dorrestein, G. M.; Menken, S.B.J.; De Hoog, G.S. (2008). ["The neurotropic black yeast Exophiala dermatitidis has a possible origin in the tropical rain forest"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610309). *Studies in Mycology*. **61**: 145–55. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3114/sim.2008.61.15](https://doi.org/10.3114%2Fsim.2008.61.15). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2610309](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610309). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19287537](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19287537).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** de Hoog, GS; Hermanides-Nijhof, EJ (1977). "The Black Yeasts and Allied Hyphomycetes". *Studies in Mycology*. **15**: 1–222. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [222951121](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/222951121).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Butinar, Lorena; Sonjak, Silva; Zalar, Polona; Plemenitaš, Ana; Gunde-Cimerman, Nina (2005). "Melanized halophilic fungi are eukaryotic members of microbial communities in hypersaline waters of solar salterns". *Botanica Marina*. **48**. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/BOT.2005.007](https://doi.org/10.1515%2FBOT.2005.007). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [12181468](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12181468).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Matos, T; De Hoog, GS; De Boer, AG; De Crom, I; Haase, G (2002). ["High prevalence of the neurotrope Exophiala dermatitidis and related oligotrophic black yeasts in sauna facilities"](https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1439-0507.2002.00779.x). *Mycoses*. **45** (9–10): 373–7. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1046/j.1439-0507.2002.00779.x](https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1439-0507.2002.00779.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12421284](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12421284). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [4842988](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4842988).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Gorbushina, A.A.; Kotlova, E.R.; Sherstneva, O.A. (2008). ["Cellular responses of microcolonial rock fungi to long-term desiccation and subsequent rehydration"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610304). *Studies in Mycology*. **61**: 91–7. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3114/sim.2008.61.09](https://doi.org/10.3114%2Fsim.2008.61.09). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2610304](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610304). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19287531](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19287531).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Krumbein, W. E.; Jens, K. (1981). "Biogenic rock varnishes of the Negev Desert (Israel) an ecological study of iron and manganese transformation by cyanobacteria and fungi". *Oecologia*. **50** (1): 25–38. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1981Oecol..50...25K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981Oecol..50...25K). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/BF00378791](https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00378791). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [28310059](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28310059). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [27020398](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27020398).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Friedmann, E. I. (1982). "Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert". *Science*. **215** (4536): 1045–53. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1982Sci...215.1045I](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982Sci...215.1045I). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.215.4536.1045](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.215.4536.1045). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17771821](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17771821). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [42255976](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42255976).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** De Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras MJ (2009). [*Atlas of Clinical Fungi*](http://www.clinicalfungi.org/), third ed. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Muggia, Lucia; Gueidan, Cecile; Knudsen, Kerry; Perlmutter, Gary; Grube, Martin (2012). "The Lichen Connections of Black Fungi". *Mycopathologia*. **175** (5–6): 523–35. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s11046-012-9598-8](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11046-012-9598-8). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23161018](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23161018). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [14170265](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14170265).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Harutyunyan, S.; Muggia, L.; Grube, M. (2008). ["Black fungi in lichens from seasonally arid habitats"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610299). *Studies in Mycology*. **61**: 83–90. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3114/sim.2008.61.08](https://doi.org/10.3114%2Fsim.2008.61.08). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2610299](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610299). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19287530](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19287530).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Gostinčar, Cene; Muggia, Lucia; Grube, Martin (2012). ["Polyextremotolerant black fungi: Oligotrophism, adaptive potential, and a link to lichen symbioses"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3492852). *Frontiers in Microbiology*. **3**: 390. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/fmicb.2012.00390](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2012.00390). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3492852](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3492852). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23162543](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23162543).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Onofri, S.; Barreca, D.; Selbmann, L.; Isola, D.; Rabbow, E.; Horneck, G.; De Vera, J.P.P.; Hatton, J.; Zucconi, L. (2008). ["Resistance of Antarctic black fungi and cryptoendolithic communities to simulated space and Martian conditions"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610303). *Studies in Mycology*. **61**: 99–109. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3114/sim.2008.61.10](https://doi.org/10.3114%2Fsim.2008.61.10). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2610303](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610303). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [19287532](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19287532).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Gorbushina, A. A.; Krumbein, W. E.; Hamman, C. H.; Panina, L.; Soukharjevski, S.; Wollenzien, U. (1993). "Role of black fungi in color change and biodeterioration of antique marbles". *Geomicrobiology Journal*. **11** (3–4): 205–221. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1993GmbJ...11..205G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993GmbJ...11..205G). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/01490459309377952](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01490459309377952).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Revankar, Sanjay G.; Sutton, Deanna A. (2010). ["Melanized Fungi in Human Disease"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2952981). *Clinical Microbiology Reviews*. **23** (4): 884–928. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1128/cmr.00019-10](https://doi.org/10.1128%2Fcmr.00019-10). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2952981](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2952981). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20930077](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20930077).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Zalar, P.; Novak, M.; De Hoog, G.S.; Gunde-Cimerman, N. (2011). ["Dishwashers – A man-made ecological niche accommodating human opportunistic fungal pathogens"](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110620133138.htm). *Fungal Biology*. **115** (10): 997–1007. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.007](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.funbio.2011.04.007). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21944212](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21944212). Retrieved June 20, 2011.

## External links

- Website of the [Working Group Black Yeast](http://www.blackyeast.org/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120115151310/http://www.blackyeast.org/) 2012-01-15 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

- [Black Yeast Database](http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/genome/Black_Yeasts/MultiHome.html) from the [Broad Institute](/source/Broad_Institute)

- [Shed LighT in the daRk lineagES of the Fungal tree of life (STRES)](https://www.stresblackfungi.org/) website on resolving the black yeast lineages.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Black yeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_yeast) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_yeast?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.