# Black people

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Racialized classification of people

"Blacks" redirects here. For other uses, see [Blacks (disambiguation)](/source/Blacks_(disambiguation)).

Black people African diaspora Americas Canada Caribbean Latin America United States Arab world Australia Europe India and Pakistan Iran Turkey Sri Lanka New Zealand Malaysia Indonesia Israel Japan Asia-Pacific Indigenous Australians Melanesians Negrito Papuans African-derived culture African-American art Black music Afro-American religion African-American culture History African-American Afro-Caribbean Indigenous Australian Trans-Saharan slave trade East African slave trade Atlantic slave trade Triangular trade Muslim conquests Sahel and Sudan Scramble for Africa Assimilados Évolués Bantu expansion Blackbirding Race-related Race (human categorization) Race in Brazil in the United States Race and health in the United States in Australia Race and sports Historical race concepts Australoid race Negroid race Black pride Black is beautiful Négritude Negrophobia Apartheid Colorism Jim Crow laws Racial profiling Racial whitening Blanqueamiento Related topics Lists of black people Africa portal Oceania portal v t e

**Black** is a [racial](/source/Racial) classification of people, usually a [political](/source/Politics) and [skin color](/source/Human_skin_color)-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark brown [complexion](/source/Complexion). Often in countries with socially based systems of [racial classification](/source/Racial_classification) in the [Western world](/source/Western_world), the term "black" is used to describe persons who are perceived as darker-skinned in contrast to other populations. It is most commonly used for people of [African ancestry](/source/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa), [Indigenous Australians](/source/Indigenous_Australians), [Melanesians](/source/Melanesians), and [Negritos](/source/Negritos), though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever. However, not all people considered "black" have [dark skin](/source/Dark_skin) and often additional [phenotypical](/source/Phenotype) characteristics are relevant, such as certain facial and hair-texture features. Indigenous African societies do not use the term *black* as a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures.

Contemporary [anthropologists](/source/Anthropologist) and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a "Black race" as [social construct](/source/Social_constructionism).[1] Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified "black", and these social constructs have changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. Some perceive the term 'black' as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonial [racial segregation](/source/Racial_segregation).[2]

In the [anglosphere](/source/Anglosphere), the term can carry a variety of meanings depending on the country. While the term "person of color" is commonly used and accepted in the [United States](/source/United_States),[3] the near-sounding term "[colored person](/source/Colored)" is considered highly offensive, except in South Africa, where [Coloureds](/source/Coloureds) are a specific multiracial group. In other regions such as [Australia](/source/Australia) and [Melanesia](/source/Melanesia), settlers applied the adjective "black" to the indigenous population. It was universally regarded as highly offensive in Australia until the 1960s and 1970s. "Black" was generally not used as a noun, but rather as an adjective qualifying some other descriptor. As desegregation progressed after the 1967 referendum, some Indigenous Australians adopted the term, following the American fashion, but it remains problematic.[4]

Several American style guides,[5][6] including the *[AP Stylebook](/source/AP_Stylebook)*, changed their guides to capitalize the 'b' in 'black', following the 2020 [murder of George Floyd](/source/Murder_of_George_Floyd), an [African American](/source/African_Americans).[5][6] The *[ASA Style Guide](/source/ASA_style)* says that the 'b' should not be capitalized.[7]

## Africa

Main articles: [Indigenous peoples of Africa](/source/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa) and [List of ethnic groups of Africa](/source/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa)

### Northern Africa

Marble portrait of a [Nubian](/source/Nubians) man c. 120–100 BC.[8]

Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in [North Africa](/source/North_Africa), some dating from prehistoric communities. Others descend from migrants via the historical [trans-Saharan trade](/source/Trans-Saharan_trade) or, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from the [trans-Saharan slave trade](/source/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade) in North Africa.[9][10]

[Haratin](/source/Haratin) women, a community residing in the [Maghreb](/source/Maghreb) (Northwest Africa)

In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan [Moulay Ismail](/source/Moulay_Ismail) "the Warrior King" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called his [Black Guard](/source/Black_Guard).[11][12]

Notable Islamic [caliphs](/source/Caliphs) with African ancestry include [Abu al-Misk Kafur](/source/Abu_al-Misk_Kafur)[13] [Al-Mustansir Billah](/source/Al-Mustansir_Billah)[14], [Yaqub al-Mansur](/source/Yaqub_al-Mansur),[15] [Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman](/source/Abu_al-Hasan_Ali_ibn_Othman), Sultan of the [Marinid dynasty](/source/Marinid_dynasty)[16] and [Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif](/source/Ismail_Ibn_Sharif).[17]

According to [Carlos Moore](/source/Carlos_Moore_(writer)), resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in the [Arab world](/source/Arab_world), including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials in [Latin America](/source/Latin_America). He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-toned [Latin Americans](/source/Latin_Americans), consider themselves [white](/source/White_people) because they have some distant white ancestry.[18]

Egyptian president [Anwar Sadat](/source/Anwar_Sadat) had a mother who was a dark-skinned [Nubian](/source/Nubians) Sudanese ([Sudanese Arab](/source/Sudanese_Arabs)) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinned [Egyptian](/source/Egyptians). In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".[19]

Due to the [patriarchal](/source/Patriarchy) nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men. The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture. The men interpreted the [Quran](/source/Quran) to permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (see [Ma malakat aymanukum and sex](/source/Ma_malakat_aymanukum_and_sex)),[20][21] leading to many [mixed-race](/source/Mixed-race) children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered as *[umm walad](/source/Umm_walad)* or "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights. The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father.[22] Because the society was [patrilineal](/source/Patrilineal), the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free.

Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as Sultan [Ahmad al-Mansur](/source/Ahmad_al-Mansur), who ruled [Morocco](/source/Morocco) from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother was [Fulani](/source/Fulani) and a [concubine](/source/Concubine) of his father.[22]

In early 1991, non-Arabs of the [Zaghawa people](/source/Zaghawa_people) of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab [apartheid](/source/Apartheid) campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people of [Nilotic](/source/Nilotic_peoples) ancestry).[23] Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and [ethnic cleansing](/source/Ethnic_cleansing).[24]

[Sudanese Arabs](/source/Sudanese_Arabs) are also black people in that they are culturally and linguistically [Arabized](/source/Arabization) indigenous peoples of [Sudan](/source/Sudan) of mostly [Nilo-Saharan](/source/Nilo-Saharan_languages), [Nubian](/source/Nubians),[25] and [Cushitic](/source/Cushitic_languages)[26] ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people.

[American University](/source/American_University) economist [George Ayittey](/source/George_Ayittey) accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens.[27] According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid."[28] Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid.[29]

#### Sahara

An [Ibenheren](/source/Ikelan) (Bella) woman

The Tuareg people have in the past had a highly socially stratified society, with specific social roles (warriors, religious leaders) or professions (blacksmiths, farmers, merchants) assigned to specific castes. The tiny aristocratic caste of warrior elite which once sat atop a pyramid of Tuareg society was decimated during the wars of the colonial period, and this, along with economic necessity, post-colonial border restrictions, and modern education, have broken down many traditional caste barriers.

Tuareg higher caste traditions value a [nomadic](/source/Nomad) life, warfare, study, animal husbandry, and trade. Consequently, higher caste communities travel, at least seasonally, if able. Lower caste groups, not limited to the Ikelan, are more likely to live in settled communities, either in [Sahara](/source/Sahara) oasis towns or in villages scattered among other ethnic groups in the [Sahel](/source/Sahel) region to the south.[30][31][32]

### Horn of Africa

In [Ethiopia](/source/Ethiopia) and [Somalia](/source/Somalia), the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders[33] or other surrounding areas of [Nilotic](/source/Nilotic_peoples) and [Bantu](/source/Somali_Bantus) peoples who were collectively known as *[Shanqella](/source/Shanqella)*[34] and *Adone* (both analogues to "negro" in an English-speaking context).[35] Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants.[36] The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to the [Kingdom of Damat](/source/D%CA%BFmt).[37]

These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished as *tsalim barya* (dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles or *saba qayh* ("red men") or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate between *saba qayh* ("red men"—light-skinned) or *saba tiqur* ("black men"—dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as "black people" (and in some case "negro") according to Western society's notion of race.[38][39][40]

### Southern Africa

Further information: [Bantu peoples of South Africa](/source/Bantu_peoples_of_South_Africa), [Khoisan](/source/Khoisan), and [Coloureds](/source/Coloureds)

[Cape Coloured](/source/Cape_Coloured) school children of [South Africa](/source/South_Africa)

In [South Africa](/source/South_Africa), the period of colonisation resulted in many unions and marriages between [European](/source/European_ethnic_groups) and Africans ([Bantu peoples of South Africa](/source/Bantu_peoples_of_South_Africa) and [Khoisans](/source/Khoisan)) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children. As the European [colonialists](/source/Colonialists) acquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status. During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups: *Black*, *White*, *[Asian](/source/Asian_people)* (mostly [Indian](/source/Indian_South_Africans)), and *[Coloured](/source/Coloureds)*. The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with some [Malay](/source/Cape_Malays) ancestry, especially in the [Western Cape](/source/Western_Cape)). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known as [apartheid](/source/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era).

The [apartheid](/source/Apartheid) bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the [Population Registration Act](/source/Population_Registration_Act) of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the "[pencil test](/source/Pencil_test_(South_Africa))" was used. A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair. If so, the person was classified as Black.[41] Such classifications sometimes divided families.

[Sandra Laing](/source/Sandra_Laing) is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her [skin colour](/source/Human_skin_colour) and [hair texture](/source/Hair#Texture), although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film *[Skin](/source/Skin_(2008_film))*, which won numerous awards. During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against. But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black". The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks.

In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of [affirmative action](/source/Affirmative_action) policies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Some [affirmative action](/source/Affirmative_action) policies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC ([African National Congress](/source/African_National_Congress))".[42][43][44]

In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that [Chinese South Africans](/source/Chinese_South_Africans) who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people", solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.[45]

Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language. Most speak [Afrikaans](/source/Afrikaans) or English as a [first language](/source/First_language), as opposed to [Bantu languages](/source/Bantu_languages) such as [Zulu](/source/Zulu_language) or [Xhosa](/source/Xhosa_language). They also tend to have more European-sounding names than [Bantu](/source/Bantu_peoples) names.[46]

## Asia

### Afro-Asians

Main article: [Afro-Asians](/source/Afro-Asians)

"[Afro-Asians](/source/Afro-Asians)" or "African-Asians" are persons of mixed African and [Asian](/source/Asian_people) ancestry. In the United States, they are also called "black Asians" or "Blasians".[47] Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict.[48]

		- [Tiger Woods](/source/Tiger_Woods), of [African American](/source/African_Americans) and [Thai heritage](/source/Thailand)

		- [Tommy Pham](/source/Tommy_Pham) is of [African-American](/source/African_Americans) and Vietnamese descent.

		- Former Vice President of the United States and former presidential candidate [Kamala Harris](/source/Kamala_Harris) is of [Indian](/source/Indian_Americans) and [Afro-Jamaican](/source/Afro-Jamaicans) descent

### Western Asia

#### Arab world

Main article: [Afro-Arabs](/source/Afro-Arabs)

See also: [Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate](/source/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate), [Trans-Saharan slave trade](/source/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade), and [Red Sea slave trade](/source/Red_Sea_slave_trade)

[Bilal ibn Ribah](/source/Bilal_ibn_Ribah) (*pictured* atop the [Kaaba](/source/Kaaba), Mecca) was a former Ethiopian slave and the first [muezzin](/source/Muezzin), c. 630.

In the medieval Arab world, the ethnic designation of "Black" encompassed not only [Zanj](/source/Zanj), or Africans, but also communities like [Zutt](/source/Zutt), Sindis and Indians from the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent).[49] Historians estimate that between the advent of [Islam](/source/Islam) in 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in the [Arabian Peninsula](/source/Arabian_Peninsula) in the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved by [east African slave traders](/source/East_African_slave_trade) and transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.[50] This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas.[51] [Slavery in Saudi Arabia](/source/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia) and [slavery in Yemen](/source/Slavery_in_Yemen) was abolished in 1962, [slavery in Dubai](/source/Slavery_in_Dubai) in 1963, and [slavery in Oman](/source/Slavery_in_Oman) in 1970.[52]

Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve as [concubines](/source/Concubinage_in_Islam) in harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. Male slaves were castrated in order to serve as [harem](/source/Harem) guards. The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high. The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under the [patrilineal](/source/Patrilineal) [kinship system](/source/Kinship_system). As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.[53][54]

Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people ([Afro-Iraqis](/source/Afro-Iraqis)), and they attest to a history of discrimination. These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population.[55] According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab.[56]

#### Iran

Main article: [Afro-Iranians](/source/Afro-Iranians)

[Afro-Iranians](/source/Afro-Iranians) are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran. During the [Qajar dynasty](/source/Qajar_dynasty), many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work. This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who were [Bantu](/source/Bantu_languages)-speaking peoples that lived along the [African Great Lakes](/source/African_Great_Lakes), in an area roughly comprising modern-day [Tanzania](/source/Tanzania), [Mozambique](/source/Mozambique) and [Malawi](/source/Malawi).[57][58]

		- A [Safavid oil painting](/source/Safavid_art) of an African soldier in [Safavid Iran](/source/Safavid_Iran), last quarter of the 17th century.

		- Non-eunuch slaves were sometimes assigned to the Qajar elite armies. The 14 slaves in this photo belonged to Prince [Zell-e Soltan](/source/Mass'oud_Mirza_Zell-e_Soltan) of Qajar, Ghameshlou, Isfahan, 1904[15].

		- Gholam Hoseyn Mirza Masoud, one of Zell-e-Soltan’s sons, with his personal African slave, Julfa, Isfahan, 1880s

		- [Zār](/source/Z%C4%81r) ceremony on [Hormuz Island](/source/Hormuz_Island)

#### Israel

Main articles: [Beta Israel](/source/Beta_Israel) and [African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem](/source/African_Hebrew_Israelites_of_Jerusalem)

About 150,000 East African and black people live in [Israel](/source/Israel), amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population. The vast majority of these, some 120,000, are [Beta Israel](/source/Beta_Israel),[59] most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s from [Ethiopia](/source/Ethiopia).[60] In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of the [African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem](/source/African_Hebrew_Israelites_of_Jerusalem) movement that are ancestry of [African Americans](/source/African_Americans) who emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in the [Negev](/source/Negev) town of [Dimona](/source/Dimona). Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.

Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum. Most of the migrants are from communities in [Sudan](/source/Sudan) and [Eritrea](/source/Eritrea), particularly the [Niger-Congo](/source/Niger-Congo_languages)-speaking [Nuba](/source/Nuba_peoples) groups of the southern [Nuba Mountains](/source/Nuba_Mountains); some are illegal immigrants.[61][62]

		- [Beta Israel](/source/Beta_Israel) women in Israel

		- An [ethnic Jewish](/source/Jews) ([Beta Israel](/source/Beta_Israel) Ethiopian Jew) [Israeli](/source/Israel) [Border Policeman](/source/Israel_Border_Police)

		- An [African Hebrew Israelite](/source/African_Hebrew_Israelites_of_Jerusalem) child in [Dimona](/source/Dimona)

#### Turkey

Main articles: [Africans in Turkey](/source/Africans_in_Turkey) and [Afro-Turks](/source/Afro-Turks)

[A Bashi-bazouk](/source/Bashi-bazouk) of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire), painting by [Jean-Léon Gérôme](/source/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me), 1869

[Ahmet Ali Çelikten](/source/Ahmet_Ali_%C3%87elikten) was the first black pilot in aviation history.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Beginning several centuries ago, during the period of the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire), tens of thousands of [Zanj](/source/Zanj) captives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated between [Antalya](/source/Antalya_Province) and [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul), which gave rise to the [Afro-Turk](/source/Afro-Turks) population in present-day [Turkey](/source/Turkey).[63] Some of their ancestry remained *in situ*, and many migrated to larger cities and towns. Other black slaves were transported to [Crete](/source/Crete), from where they or their descendants later reached the [İzmir](/source/%C4%B0zmir) area through the [population exchange between Greece and Turkey](/source/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey) in 1923, or indirectly from [Ayvalık](/source/Ayval%C4%B1k) in pursuit of work.[64]

Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s. The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal. According to official figures 1.5 million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located in [Istanbul](/source/Istanbul).[65] Other studies state the majority of Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and report [Tarlabaşı](/source/Tarlaba%C5%9F%C4%B1), [Dolapdere](/source/Dolapdere), [Kumkapı](/source/Kumkap%C4%B1), [Yenikapı](/source/Yenikap%C4%B1) and [Kurtuluş](/source/Kurtulu%C5%9F) as having a strong African presence.[66]

Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe. Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven.[66] It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic and social challenges, notably [racism](/source/Racism_in_Turkey) and [opposition to immigration](/source/Opposition_to_immigration) by locals.[67]

### Southern Asia

Main articles: [Afro-Asians in South Asia](/source/Afro-Asians_in_South_Asia) and [Siddi](/source/Siddi)

A Siddi girl from the town of [Yellapur](/source/Yellapur) in [Uttara Karnataka](/source/Uttara_Karnataka) district, Karnataka, India

The [Siddi](/source/Siddi) are an ethnic group inhabiting [India](/source/India) and [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan). Members are descended from the [Bantu peoples](/source/Bantu_peoples) of [Southeast Africa](/source/Southeast_Africa). Some were merchants, sailors, [indentured servants](/source/Indentured_servitude), slaves or mercenaries. The Siddi population is currently estimated at 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly in [Karnataka](/source/Karnataka), [Gujarat](/source/Gujarat), and [Hyderabad](/source/Hyderabad) in India and [Makran](/source/Makran) and [Karachi](/source/Karachi) in Pakistan.[68] In the [Makran](/source/Makran) strip of the [Sindh](/source/Sindh) and [Balochistan](/source/Balochistan%2C_Pakistan) provinces in southwestern [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan), these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani.[69] There was a brief "Black Power" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry.[70][71]

### Southeastern Asia

Main articles: [Negritos](/source/Negritos) and [Africans in Malaysia](/source/Africans_in_Malaysia)

Population genomic "TreeMix" analysis of Malaysian Negritos (Semang) and closely related populations (e.g. East Asians and Andamanese peoples)

[Ati](/source/Ati_people) woman, Philippines – the Negritos are an indigenous people of Southeast Asia.

[Negritos](/source/Negrito), are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancient [East Eurasian](/source/Genetic_history_of_East_Asians) meta-population which gave rise to modern [East Asian peoples](/source/East_Asian_peoples), and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity.[72][73][74] They inhabit isolated parts of [Southeast Asia](/source/Southeast_Asia), and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand,[75] the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India.[76]

Negrito means "little black people" in [Spanish](/source/Spanish_language) (negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i.e., "little black person"); it is what the Spaniards called the aboriginal people that they encountered in the [Philippines](/source/Philippines).[77] The term *Negrito* itself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptable [Semang](/source/Semang),[78] although this term actually refers to a specific group.

They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.[79][80][81]

Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination. Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment.[82]

## Europe

### Western Europe

#### France

Main article: [Black people in France](/source/Black_people_in_France)

While census collection of ethnic background is illegal in [France](/source/France), it is estimated that there are about 2.5 – 5 million [black people residing there](/source/Black_French_people).[83][84]

		- Young black boy with a bow and a [slave collar](/source/Slave_collar), by [Hyacinthe Rigaud](/source/Hyacinthe_Rigaud), c. 1697

		- General [Thomas-Alexandre Dumas](/source/Thomas-Alexandre_Dumas) (1762-1806), father of the writter [Alexandre Dumas](/source/Alexandre_Dumas)

		- *Portrait of Madeleine* (1800), sometimes nicknamed the ″Black Mona Lisa″[85]

		- French [African tirailleurs](/source/African_Tirailleurs) going to the front in 1914 and receiving gifts and encouragement from [metropolitan](/source/Metropole) women

		- French actor [Omar Sy](/source/Omar_Sy)

		- French footballers at the [2022 FIFA World Cup](/source/2022_FIFA_World_Cup) in [Qatar](/source/Qatar)

#### Germany

Main article: [Afro-Germans](/source/Afro-Germans)

See also: [Persecution of black people in Nazi Germany](/source/Persecution_of_black_people_in_Nazi_Germany)

As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany.[86]

#### Netherlands

Main article: [Afro-Dutch](/source/Afro-Dutch)

Afro-Dutch are residents of the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) who are of Black African or [Afro-Caribbean](/source/Afro-Caribbean) ancestry. They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories of [Aruba](/source/Aruba), [Bonaire](/source/Bonaire), [Curaçao](/source/Cura%C3%A7ao), [Sint Maarten](/source/Sint_Maarten) and [Suriname](/source/Suriname). The Netherlands also has sizable [Cape Verdean](/source/Cape_Verde) and other African communities.

#### Portugal

See also: [Afro-Portuguese people](/source/Afro-Portuguese_people)

As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living in [Portugal](/source/Portugal). They mainly live in the regions of [Lisbon](/source/Lisbon), [Porto](/source/Porto), [Coimbra](/source/Coimbra). As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquired [Portuguese citizenship](/source/Portuguese_nationality_law) from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now [Portuguese citizens](/source/Portuguese_people).[87][88]

#### Spain

1283 A.D. Miniature from [Alfonso X](/source/Alfonso_X_of_Castile)'s *Book of chess, dice and boards*. African Muslims playing chess. The book also has pictures of white and Arab Muslims playing chess in [al-Andalusia](/source/Al-Andalus). Europeans loosely called the invading Muslims *Moors*, blending the name for both people of Arab and Berber ancestry.[89][90][91]

Main article: [Afro-Spaniard](/source/Afro-Spaniard)

The term "[Moors](/source/Moors)" has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to [Muslims](/source/Muslim),[92] especially those of [Arab](/source/Arab_people) or [Berber](/source/Berber_people) ancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia.[89] Moors were not a distinct or [self-defined](/source/Ethnonym) people.[93] Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Africans and Europeans alike.[90]

[Isidore of Seville](/source/Isidore_of_Seville), writing in the 7th century, claimed that the [Latin](/source/Latin) word Maurus was derived from the [Greek](/source/Greek_language) *mauron*, μαύρον, which is the Greek word for "black". Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write his *Etymologies*, the word Maurus or "Moor" had become an adjective in Latin, "for the Greeks call black, mauron". "In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition..."[94]

Afro-Spaniards are [Spanish nationals](/source/Spanish_nationality_law) of [West](/source/West_Africa)/[Central African](/source/Central_Africa) ancestry. Today, they mainly come from [Cameroon](/source/Cameroon), [Equatorial Guinea](/source/Equatorial_Guinea), [Ghana](/source/Ghana), [Gambia](/source/Gambia), [Mali](/source/Mali), [Nigeria](/source/Nigeria) and Senegal. Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colony [Equatorial Guinea](/source/Equatorial_Guinea). Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards in [Spain](/source/Spain).

#### United Kingdom

Main article: [Black British](/source/Black_British)

Racial groups in the United Kingdom ([2021 census](/source/2021%E2%80%932022_United_Kingdom_censuses))[95]

1. [Blacks](/source/Black_British) (3.71%)

1. Other groups (96.3%)

According to the [Office for National Statistics](/source/Office_for_National_Statistics), at the [2001 census](/source/2001_United_Kingdom_census) there were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".[96] Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was of those who came on the ship the *[Empire Windrush](/source/Empire_Windrush)* and, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known as [the Windrush generation](/source/British_African-Caribbean_people#The_"Windrush_generation"). The preferred official [umbrella term](/source/Umbrella_term) is "black, Asian and minority ethnic" ([BAME](/source/Classification_of_ethnicity_in_the_United_Kingdom#Collective_terms_for_minority_ethnic_groups)), but sometimes the term "black" [is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism](/source/Political_blackness), as in the [Southall Black Sisters](/source/Southall_Black_Sisters), which started with a mainly [British Asian](/source/British_Asian) constituency, and the [National Black Police Association](/source/National_Black_Police_Association_(United_Kingdom)), which has a membership of "African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin".[97]

### Eastern Europe

Main articles: [Afro-Russian](/source/Afro-Russian), [Afro-Romanians](/source/Afro-Romanians), [Afro-Ukrainians](/source/Afro-Ukrainians), and [Afro-Greeks](/source/Afro-Greeks)

Bust of Russian general [Abram Gannibal](/source/Abram_Gannibal), who was the great-grandfather of [Alexander Pushkin](/source/Alexander_Pushkin)

As African states [became independent](/source/Decolonization_of_Africa) in the 1960s, the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) offered many of their citizens the chance to study in [Russia](/source/Russia). Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans.[98][99] This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the [Eastern bloc](/source/Eastern_bloc).

#### Balkans

Due to the [slave trade](/source/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire) in the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) that had flourished in the [Balkans](/source/Balkans), the coastal town of [Ulcinj](/source/Ulcinj) in [Montenegro](/source/Montenegro) had its own black community.[100] In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people.[101]

## Oceania

### Indigenous Australians

Main article: [Indigenous Australians](/source/Indigenous_Australians)

Children of an [Aboriginal](/source/Aboriginal_Australians) tribe, 2014

[Indigenous Australians](/source/Indigenous_Australians) have been referred to as "black people" in Australia since the [early days of European settlement](/source/History_of_Australia_(1788%E2%80%931850)).[102] While originally related to [skin colour](/source/Skin_colour), the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal or [Torres Strait Islander](/source/Torres_Strait_Islanders) ancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.[103]

Being identified as either "black" or "white" in [Australia](/source/Australia) during the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects. Various state-based [Aboriginal Protection Boards](/source/Aboriginal_Protection_Board) were established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents.[104][105][106] Indigenous Australians were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced into low paid or effectively slave labour.[107][108] The social position of mixed-race or "[half-caste](/source/Half-caste)" individuals varied over time. A 1913 report by [Baldwin Spencer](/source/Walter_Baldwin_Spencer) states that:

Aboriginal dancers in 1981

the half-castes belong neither to the aboriginal nor to the whites, yet, on the whole, they have more leaning towards the former; ... One thing is certain and that is that the white population as a whole will never mix with half-castes... the best and kindest thing is to place them on reserves along with the natives, train them in the same schools and encourage them to marry amongst themselves.[109]

After the [First World War](/source/First_World_War), however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the "half-caste menace" undermining the [White Australia](/source/White_Australia_policy) ideal from within was being taken as a serious concern.[110] [Cecil Cook](/source/Cecil_Cook_(physician)), the [Northern Territory](/source/Northern_Territory) [Protector of Natives](/source/Protector_of_Aborigines), noted that:

generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white.[111]

Director and activist [Bob Maza](/source/Bob_Maza), 1972

The official policy became one of biological and [cultural assimilation](/source/Cultural_assimilation): "Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white".[112] This led to different treatment for "black" and "half-caste" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as "white" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as the [Stolen Generation](/source/Stolen_Generation).[113]

[Aboriginal](/source/Indigenous_Australians) [activist](/source/Activism) [Sam Watson](/source/Sam_Watson_(activist)) addressing Invasion Day Rally 2007 in an "Australia has a Black History" T-shirt

The second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people. In [a 1967 referendum](/source/Australian_referendum%2C_1967_(Aboriginals)), more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Indigenous Australians in the national [census](/source/Census).[114] During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term "black" and use their ancestry as a source of pride. Activist [Bob Maza](/source/Bob_Maza) said:

I only hope that when I die I can say I'm black and it's beautiful to be black. It is this sense of pride which we are trying to give back to the aborigine [*sic*] today.[115]

In 1978, Aboriginal writer [Kevin Gilbert](/source/Kevin_Gilbert_(author)) received the National Book Council award for his book *Living Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert*, a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature for *Inside Black Australia*, a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography.[116] In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any:

person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he [or she] lives[117]

This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander.[118][119] The [reappropriation](/source/Reappropriation) of the term "black" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets,[120] government agencies,[121] and private companies.[122] In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxer [Anthony Mundine](/source/Anthony_Mundine) being widely criticized for questioning the "blackness" of another boxer[123] and journalist [Andrew Bolt](/source/Andrew_Bolt) being successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin.[124]

### Melanesians

Group of [Fijian](/source/Fiji) children, 2008

Main article: [Melanesians](/source/Melanesians)

The region of [Melanesia](/source/Melanesia) is named from Greek μέλας, *black*, and νῆσος, *island*, [etymologically](/source/Place_name_origins) meaning "islands of black [people]", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples. Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorer [Yñigo Ortiz de Retez](/source/Y%C3%B1igo_Ortiz_de_Retez), noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa.[125]

[Kanaka workers](/source/Kanaka_(Pacific_Island_worker)) in a sugar cane plantation in Queensland, late 19th century

Melanesians, along with other [Pacific Islanders](/source/Pacific_Islanders), were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known as [blackbirding](/source/Blackbirding). In [Queensland](/source/Queensland), some 55,000 to 62,500[126] were brought from the [New Hebrides](/source/New_Hebrides), the [Solomon Islands](/source/Solomon_Islands), and [New Guinea](/source/New_Guinea) to work in sugarcane fields. Under the [Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901](/source/Pacific_Island_Labourers_Act_1901), most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands.[127] Those who remained in Australia, commonly called [South Sea Islanders](/source/South_Sea_Islanders), often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society. Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, including [Faith Bandler](/source/Faith_Bandler), [Evelyn Scott](/source/Evelyn_Scott_(activist)) and [Bonita Mabo](/source/Bonita_Mabo).

Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people. Stephanie Lawson writes that the term "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation".[128]: 14 For instance, the term is used in the [Melanesian Spearhead Group](/source/Melanesian_Spearhead_Group), which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries.

### Other

Main articles: [African Australians](/source/African_Australians) and [African New Zealanders](/source/African_New_Zealanders)

[John Caesar](/source/John_Caesar), nicknamed "Black Caesar", a [convict](/source/Convicts_in_Australia) and [bushranger](/source/Bushranger) with parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia.[129]

At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they were [born in Africa](/source/African_Australian). This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includes [white Africans](/source/White_Africans_of_European_ancestry).

## North America

### Canada

Main article: [Black Canadians](/source/Black_Canadians)

Racial groups in Canada ([2021 census](/source/2021_Canadian_census))[130]

1. [Blacks](/source/Black_Canadians) (4.34%)

1. Other groups (95.7%)

"Black Canadians" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents of [Canada](/source/Canada).[131][132] The majority of black Canadians are of [Caribbean](/source/Caribbean) origin, though the population also consists of [African American](/source/African_American) immigrants and their descendants (including [black Nova Scotians](/source/Black_Nova_Scotians)), as well as many [African](/source/Africa) immigrants.[133][134]

Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those of [Afro-Caribbean](/source/Afro-Caribbean) ancestry and those of other African roots. The term *African Canadian* is occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland.[132] Promised freedom by the British during the [American Revolutionary War](/source/American_Revolutionary_War), thousands of [Black Loyalists](/source/Black_Loyalists) were resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such as [Thomas Peters](/source/Thomas_Peters_(revolutionary)). In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousand [fugitive slaves](/source/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States) reached freedom in Canada from the [Southern United States](/source/Southern_United_States) during the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad.

Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term "African Canadian" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage,[135] and instead identify as *Caribbean Canadian*.[135] Unlike in the United States, where "African American" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term "black Canadian" being widely accepted there.[136]

### United States

Main article: [Black Americans](/source/Black_Americans)

Racial groups in the United States ([2020 census](/source/2020_United_States_census))[137]

1. [Blacks](/source/Black_Americans) (12.4%)

1. Other groups (87.6%)

Civil rights activist [Martin Luther King Jr.](/source/Martin_Luther_King_Jr.)

There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the [Western Hemisphere](/source/Western_Hemisphere). The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million [enslaved West Africans](/source/Slavery_in_the_United_States) arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:[138]

- [Senegambia](/source/Senegambia_(geography)) (Senegal and [The Gambia](/source/The_Gambia)): 4.8%

- [Upper Guinea](/source/Upper_Guinea) ([Guinea-Bissau](/source/Guinea-Bissau), [Guinea](/source/Guinea) and [Sierra Leone](/source/Sierra_Leone)): 4.1%

- [Windward Coast](/source/Pepper_Coast) ([Liberia](/source/Liberia) and [Ivory Coast](/source/Ivory_Coast)): 1.8%

- [Gold Coast](/source/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)) ([Ghana](/source/Ghana) and east of [Ivory Coast](/source/Ivory_Coast)): 10.4%

- [Bight of Benin](/source/Bight_of_Benin) ([Togo](/source/Togo), [Benin](/source/Benin) and [Nigeria](/source/Nigeria) west of the Niger Delta): 20.2%

- [Bight of Biafra](/source/Bight_of_Biafra) ([Nigeria](/source/Nigeria) east of the [Niger Delta](/source/Niger_Delta), [Cameroon](/source/Cameroon), [Equatorial Guinea](/source/Equatorial_Guinea) and [Gabon](/source/Gabon)): 14.6%

- West Central Africa ([Republic of the Congo](/source/Republic_of_the_Congo), [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/source/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo) and [Angola](/source/Angola)): 39.4%

- Southeastern Africa ([Mozambique](/source/Mozambique) and [Madagascar](/source/Madagascar)): 4.7%

The main slave routes in the [Atlantic Slave Trade](/source/Atlantic_Slave_Trade)

By the early 1900s, *[nigger](/source/Nigger)* had become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the term *[colored](/source/Colored)* became the mainstream alternative to *[negro](/source/Negro)* and its derived terms. After the [American Civil Rights Movement](/source/American_Civil_Rights_Movement), the terms *colored* and *negro* gave way to "black". *Negro* had superseded *colored* as the most polite word for [African Americans](/source/African_Americans) at a time when *black* was considered more offensive.[139][*[failed verification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability)*] This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later [Civil Rights](/source/Civil_Rights) movement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the use by Dr. Rev. [Martin Luther King Jr.](/source/Martin_Luther_King_Jr.) of "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963, [I Have a Dream](/source/I_Have_a_Dream). During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably [Malcolm X](/source/Malcolm_X), objected to the word *Negro* because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse.[140] Malcolm X preferred *Black* to *Negro*, but later gradually abandoned that as well for *Afro-American* after leaving the [Nation of Islam](/source/Nation_of_Islam).[141]

Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage. Aside from *black American*, these include *Afro-American* (in use from the late 1960s to 1990) and *African American* (used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past as *American Negroes*).[142]

In the first 200 years that black people were in the [United States](/source/United_States), they primarily identified themselves by their specific [ethnic group](/source/Ethnic_groups_of_Africa) (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals identified themselves, for example, as [Ashanti](/source/Ashanti_people), [Igbo](/source/Igbo_people), [Bakongo](/source/Kongo_people), or [Wolof](/source/Wolof_people). However, when the first captives were brought to [the Americas](/source/The_Americas), they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists. In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together. This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching from [Senegal](/source/Senegal) to [Angola](/source/Angola) and in some cases from the south-east coast such as [Mozambique](/source/Mozambique). A new *African-American* identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the [Black church](/source/Black_church) and [African-American English](/source/African-American_English). This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group.[143]

By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.[144]

The U.S. racial or ethnic classification "black" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, including [albinos](/source/Albinism_in_humans), if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage). There are also certain cultural traits associated with being "[African American](/source/African_American)", a term used effectively as a synonym for "black person" within the United States.

In March 1807, [Great Britain](/source/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland), which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared [the transatlantic slave trade illegal](/source/Slave_Trade_Act_1807), as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on which [Congress](/source/United_States_Congress) had the power to do so after protecting the slave trade under [Article I, Section 9](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America#Section_9) of the [United States Constitution](/source/United_States_Constitution).)

By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United States. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "[Negro](/source/Negro)" or "Colored American". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the [African Methodist Episcopal Church](/source/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church). African Americans popularly used the terms "Negro" or "colored" for themselves until the late 1960s.[145]

The term *black* was used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "[I Have a Dream](/source/I_Have_a_Dream)" speech,[146] [Martin Luther King Jr.](/source/Martin_Luther_King_Jr.) uses the terms *negro* fifteen times and *black* four times. Each time that he uses *black*, it is in parallel construction with *white*; for example, "black men and white men".[147]

With the successes of the [American Civil Rights Movement](/source/American_Civil_Rights_Movement), a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of *Negro*, activists promoted the use of *black* as standing for racial pride, militancy, and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "[Black Power](/source/Black_Power)" by Kwame Ture ([Stokely Carmichael](/source/Stokely_Carmichael)) and the popular singer [James Brown](/source/James_Brown)'s song "[Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud](/source/Say_It_Loud_%E2%80%93_I'm_Black_and_I'm_Proud)".

In 1988, the civil rights leader [Jesse Jackson](/source/Jesse_Jackson) urged Americans to use instead the term "African American" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However, controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate. [Maulana Karenga](/source/Maulana_Karenga) argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Others have argued that "black" is a better term because "African" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States.[148] Still others believe that the term "black" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.[149][150] Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for "African American" or "black",[151] although they have a slight preference for "black" in personal settings and "African American" in more formal settings.[152]

In the [U.S. census race definitions](/source/Race_(United_States_Census)), black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa.[153] According to the [Office of Management and Budget](/source/Office_of_Management_and_Budget), the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Africa.[154] The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from Africa are "black".[153] The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.[155]

According to U.S. Census Bureau data, [African immigrants](/source/African_immigration_to_the_United_States) generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%).[156] Immigrants from some [Caribbean](/source/Afro-Caribbean), [Central American](/source/Afro-Latin_Americans) and [South American](/source/Afro-Latin_American) nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.[157]

Recent surveys of African Americans using a [genetic testing](/source/Genetic_testing) service have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–80.9% [West African](/source/West_African_people), 18–24% European, and 0.8–0.9% [Native American](/source/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States) genetic heritage, with large variation between individuals.[158][159][160]

According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U.S. residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men.[161]

### New Great Migration

The New Great Migration is not evenly distributed throughout the South. As with the earlier Great Migration, the New Great Migration is primarily directed toward cities and large urban areas, such as [Atlanta](/source/Atlanta), [Charlotte](/source/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina), [Houston](/source/Houston), [Dallas](/source/Dallas), [Raleigh](/source/Raleigh%2C_North_Carolina), [Washington, D.C.](/source/Washington%2C_D.C.), [Tampa](/source/Tampa%2C_Florida), [Virginia Beach](/source/Virginia_Beach%2C_Virginia), [San Antonio](/source/San_Antonio), [Memphis](/source/Memphis%2C_Tennessee), [Orlando](/source/Orlando%2C_Florida), [Nashville](/source/Nashville%2C_Tennessee), [Jacksonville](/source/Jacksonville%2C_Florida), and so forth. North Carolina's [Charlotte metro](/source/Charlotte_metropolitan_area) area in particular, is a hot spot for African American migrants in the US. Between 1975 and 1980, [Charlotte](/source/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina) saw a net gain of 2,725 African Americans in the area. This number continued to rise as between 1985 and 1990 as the area had a net gain of 7,497 African Americans, and from 1995 to 2000 the net gain was 23,313 African Americans.

This rise in net gain points to Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas, and Houston being a growing hot spots for the migrants of The New Great Migration. The percentage of Black Americans who live in the South has been increasing since 1990, and the biggest gains have been in the region's large urban areas, according to census data. The Black population of metro Atlanta more than doubled between 1990 and 2020, surpassing 2 million in the most recent census. The Black population also more than doubled in metro Charlotte while Greater Houston and Dallas-Fort Worth both saw their Black populations surpass 1 million for the first time. Several smaller metro areas also saw sizable gains, including San Antonio;[162] Raleigh and Greensboro, N.C.; and Orlando.[163] Primary destinations are states that have the most job opportunities, especially [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(U.S._state)), [North Carolina](/source/North_Carolina), [Maryland](/source/Maryland), [Virginia](/source/Virginia), [Tennessee](/source/Tennessee), [Florida](/source/Florida) and [Texas](/source/Texas). Other southern states, including [Mississippi](/source/Mississippi), [Louisiana](/source/Louisiana), [South Carolina](/source/South_Carolina), [Alabama](/source/Alabama) and [Arkansas](/source/Arkansas), have seen little net growth in the African American population from return migration.

#### One-drop rule

Multiracial social reformer [Frederick Douglass](/source/Frederick_Douglass)

From the late 19th century, the South used a [colloquial](/source/Colloquial) term, the *[one-drop rule](/source/One-drop_rule)*, to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry. This practice of [hypodescent](/source/Hypodescent) was not put into law until the early 20th century.[164] Legally, the definition varied from state to state. Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before the [American Civil War](/source/American_Civil_War). For instance, President [Thomas Jefferson](/source/Thomas_Jefferson) held in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle of *[partus sequitur ventrem](/source/Partus_sequitur_ventrem)*, which Virginia adopted into law in 1662.

Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop "rule" applies varies greatly from country to country.

The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves[165] and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure".[166][*[unreliable source](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources)*] One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community.[164] Some of the most prominent abolitionists and civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such as [Frederick Douglass](/source/Frederick_Douglass), [Robert Purvis](/source/Robert_Purvis) and James Mercer Langston. They advocated equality for all.

#### Blackness

[Barack Obama](/source/Barack_Obama)—the first person of color, biracial, and self-identified African American President of the United States[167]—was throughout [his campaign](/source/Barack_Obama_2008_presidential_campaign) criticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".[168][169][170]

The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream [African-American culture](/source/African-American_culture), politics,[171][172] and values.[173] To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation,[171][172] culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with "[acting white](/source/Acting_white)", where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music,[174] and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement.[175]

Due to the often political[171][172] and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people. [Toni Morrison](/source/Toni_Morrison) once described [Bill Clinton](/source/Bill_Clinton) as the first black [President of the United States](/source/President_of_the_United_States),[176] because, as she put it, he displayed "almost every trope of blackness".[177] Clinton welcomed the label.[178]

The question of blackness also arose in [Barack Obama](/source/Barack_Obama)'s [2008 presidential campaign](/source/2008_United_States_presidential_election). Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was "black enough", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was a [white American](/source/White_American) and his father was a black student visitor from Kenya.[168][170] Obama chose to identify as black and [African American](/source/African_American).[179]

### Mexico

Main article: [Black Mexicans](/source/Black_Mexicans)

Further information: [Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas](/source/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system)

Racial groups in Mexico (2020 census)[180]

1. [Blacks](/source/Black_Mexicans) (2.04%)

1. Other groups (98.0%)

The 2015 preliminary survey to the 2020 census allowed Afro-Mexicans to self-identify for the first time in Mexico and recorded a total of 1.4 million (1.2% of the total Mexican population). The majority of Afro-Mexicans live in the [Costa Chica of Guerrero](/source/Costa_Chica_of_Guerrero) region.[181]

## Caribbean

Main article: [Afro-Caribbean people](/source/Afro-Caribbean_people)

Further information: [Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas](/source/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system)

### Dominican Republic

Main article: [Afro-Dominicans](/source/Afro-Dominicans)

The first [Afro-Dominican](/source/Afro-Dominicans) slaves were shipped to the [Dominican Republic](/source/Dominican_Republic) by Spanish conquistadors during the [Transatlantic slave trade](/source/Atlantic_slave_trade).

		- African slaves harvesting gold for Spanish colonists in [Hispaniola](/source/Hispaniola), 16th-century engraving by Théodore de Bry

		- General Gregorio Luperón, son of a [Spanish Dominican](/source/White_Dominicans) and a black migrant from the [Anglo-Caribbean](/source/Anglo-Caribbean).

		- Black Dominicans in [Bayahibe](/source/Bayahibe)

		- [Adrián Beltré Pérez](/source/Adri%C3%A1n_Beltr%C3%A9), professional baseball player.

### Haiti

Main article: [Afro-Haitians](/source/Afro-Haitians)

In 2012, the [Republic of Haiti](/source/Haiti) became the first non-African country to join the [African Union](/source/African_Union) as an observer member.[182]

		- Battles between Napoleonic soldiers and insurgents from Saint-Domingue during the [Haitian Revolution](/source/Haitian_Revolution) (1791-1804).

		- Revolutionary [Jean-Jacques Dessalines](/source/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines)

		- Haitian Carnival (Kanaval)

		- Rapper [Wyclef Jean](/source/Wyclef_Jean)

		- Newly graduated Haitian National Police officers in 2025

### Puerto Rico

Main article: [Afro-Puerto Ricans](/source/Afro-Puerto_Ricans)

Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa to [Puerto Rico](/source/Puerto_Rico). [Afro-Puerto Ricans](/source/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans) in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island.

		- Spanish Planter of Puerto Rico with House Slave, ca.1808

		- [Peones](/source/Peon) in Puerto Rico, 1898

		- fro-Puerto Rican women in [Bomba](/source/Bomba_(Puerto_Rico)) dance wear

## South America

Main articles: [Afro-Cuban](/source/Afro-Cuban), [Afro-Guatemalan](/source/Afro-Guatemalan), [Afro-Hondurans](/source/Afro-Hondurans), [Afro-Argentines](/source/Afro-Argentines), [Afro-Chileans](/source/Afro-Chileans), [Black Peruvians](/source/Black_Peruvians), [Afro-Bolivians](/source/Afro-Bolivians), [Afro-Surinamese people](/source/Afro-Surinamese_people), [Afro-Ecuadorians](/source/Afro-Ecuadorians), [Afro-Guyanese people](/source/Afro-Guyanese_people), [Afro–French Guianans](/source/Afro%E2%80%93French_Guianans), and [Afro-Uruguayans](/source/Afro-Uruguayans)

Further information: [Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas](/source/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system)

[Capoeira](/source/Capoeira), an Afro-Brazilian martial art

Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to the [Americas](/source/Americas) during the [Atlantic slave trade](/source/Atlantic_slave_trade) from 1492 to 1888. Of these, 11.5 million of those shipped to [South America](/source/South_America) and the [Caribbean](/source/Caribbean).[183] Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5.5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2.76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1.59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1.32 million.[184] Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean.[185] In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean.[186][187] In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of "[blanqueamiento](/source/Blanqueamiento)" (racial whitening) and related concepts.[187][188]

### Brazil

Main article: [Black Brazilians](/source/Black_Brazilians)

Racial groups in Brazil ([2022 census](/source/2022_Brazilian_census))[189]

1. [Blacks](/source/Black_Brazilians) (10.2%)

1. Other groups (89.8%)

The concept of race in [Brazil](/source/Brazil) is complex. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very light [mulatto](/source/Mulatto) individual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations of [hair color](/source/Human_hair_color), [hair texture](/source/Hair#Texture), [eye color](/source/Eye_color), and [skin color](/source/Human_skin_color). These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity.[190]

Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that achieving [upward mobility](/source/Social_mobility) and education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin. The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree, arguing that "[whitening](/source/Racial_whitening)" of one's social status may be open to people of [mixed race](/source/Mixed_race), a large part of the population known as *[pardo](/source/Pardo)*, but a person perceived as *preto* (black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status.[191][192]

#### Statistics

Brazilian Population, by Race, from 1872 to 1991 (Census Data)[193] Ethnic group White Black Brown Yellow (East Asian) Undeclared Total 1872 3,787,289 1,954,452 4,188,737 – – 9,930,478 1940 26,171,778 6,035,869 8,744,365 242,320 41,983 41,236,315 1991 75,704,927 7,335,136 62,316,064 630,656 534,878 146,521,661

Demographics of Brazil Year White Pardo Black 1835 24.4% 18.2% 51.4% 2000 53.7% 38.5% 6.2% 2010 48.4% 42.4% 6.7%

[Enslaved people](/source/Slavery_in_Brazil) working on a Brazilian coffee plantation, c.1882

From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3.5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil. The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas.[194] Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended from these individuals. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa. In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-[miscegenation](/source/Miscegenation) or segregation laws. As in other Latin American countries, [intermarriage](/source/Interracial_marriage) was prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward. In addition, people of [mixed race](/source/Mixed_race) (*[pardo](/source/Pardo)*) often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white. As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6.2% identified as black, and 39.5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons.[195]

In the 19th century, a philosophy of [racial whitening](/source/Racial_whitening) emerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population was *preto* (black; most were [enslaved](/source/Slavery_in_Latin_America)), a further 20% was *pardo* (brown), and 25% white, with the remainder [Amerindian](/source/Amerindian). Some classified as pardo were tri-racial.

By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing.[190] A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.[196]

#### Race relations in Brazil

Brazilian [Candomblé](/source/Candombl%C3%A9) ceremony

According to the 2022 census, 10.2% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 7.6% in 2010, and 45.3% said they were racially mixed, up from 43.1%, while the proportion of self-declared white Brazilians has fallen from 47.7% to 43.5%. Activists from Brazil's Black movement attribute the racial shift in the population to a growing sense of pride among African-descended Brazilians in recognising and celebrating their ancestry.[197]

The philosophy of the [racial democracy](/source/Racial_democracy) in Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in ancestry. One-third of the population lives under the [poverty line](/source/Poverty_threshold), with blacks and other [people of color](/source/People_of_color) accounting for 70 percent of the poor.[198]

Fruit sellers in [Rio de Janeiro](/source/Lapa%2C_Rio_de_Janeiro), c. 1820

In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people. By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014.[199] The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color. Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.[200]

Black people in Brazil, c. 1821

Some commentators[*[who?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions)*] observe that the United States practice of [segregation](/source/Racial_segregation) and [white supremacy](/source/White_supremacy) in the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the country as an example of post-colonial harmony. This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians.[199]

Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage[201] of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians. The city of [Salvador, Bahia](/source/Salvador%2C_Bahia), for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color.

Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese term *negro* to encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a "black" consciousness and identity.[202]

### Colombia

Main article: [Black Colombians](/source/Black_Colombians)

Racial groups in Colombia ([2018 census](/source/2018_Colombian_census))[203]

1. [Blacks](/source/Black_Colombians) (9.34%)

1. Other groups (90.7%)

[Afro-Colombians](/source/Afro-Colombians) are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after [Afro-Brazilians](/source/Afro-Brazilians) and [Afro-Haitians](/source/Afro-Haitians).

### Venezuela

Main article: [Black Venezuelan](/source/Black_Venezuelan)

Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization;[204] others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia. Many blacks were part of the [independence movement](/source/Venezuelan_War_of_Independence), and several managed to be heroes. There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as the [Tambor](/source/Tambor_(dance)), a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or the [Llanera music](/source/Joropo) or the [Gaita zuliana](/source/Gaita_zuliana) that both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage. Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy.

There are entire communities of blacks in the [Barlovento](/source/Barlovento%2C_Venezuela) zone, as well as part of the [Bolívar state](/source/Bol%C3%ADvar_(state)) and in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela. Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actually [mixed people](/source/Multiracial).

## See also

- [African diaspora](/source/African_diaspora)

- [Afrophobia](/source/Afrophobia)

- [Black elite](/source/Black_elite)

- [Black supremacy](/source/Black_supremacy)

- [Black women](/source/Black_women)

- [Lists of black people](/source/Lists_of_black_people)

- [Mulatto](/source/Mulatto)

- [Negrito](/source/Negrito)

- [San Basilio de Palenque](/source/San_Basilio_de_Palenque) – the first free African town in the Americas

- [Scientific racism](/source/Scientific_racism)

- [Zambo](/source/Zambo)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Landau, Rom (1967). [*Morocco: Marrakesh, Fez, Rabat*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTWAAAAMAAJ&q=Yaqub+al-Mansur+mother). Elek. p. 74. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-236-30866-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-236-30866-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Badawi, Zeinab (18 April 2024). [*An African History of Africa: Instant Sunday Times bestseller and shortlisted for the Nero Book Awards*](https://books.google.com/books?id=7PzLEAAAQBAJ&dq=Yakub+al-Mansour+had+a+black+mother.&pg=PT109). Ebury Publishing. pp. 186–200. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7535-6015-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7535-6015-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Hamel, Chouki El (27 February 2014). [*Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam*](https://books.google.com/books?id=UwogAwAAQBAJ). Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–164. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-139-62004-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-62004-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Musselman, Anson. ["The Subtle Racism of Latin America"](https://web.archive.org/web/20030604165848/http://international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125). UCLA International Institute. Archived from [the original](http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125) on 4 June 2003.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** [Joseph Finklestone, *Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PoW4pO4q9VwC), pp. 5–7, 31. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7146-3487-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-3487-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** See [Tahfeem ul Qur'an](/source/Tahfeem_ul_Qur'an) by [Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi](/source/Maududi), Vol. 2, pp. 112–113, footnote 44. See also commentary on verses [[Quran](/source/Quran) [23:1-6](https://quran.com/23?startingVerse=1&translations=95) -[Tafhim-ul-Quran](/source/Tafhim-ul-Quran)]: Vol. 3, notes 7–1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** [Tafsir ibn Kathir](/source/Tafsir_ibn_Kathir) 4:24.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-hunwick_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-hunwick_22-1) Hunwick, John. ["Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery"](https://glc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/events/race/Hunwick.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://glc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/events/race/Hunwick.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Johnson2011_23-0)** Johnson, Hilde F. (2011). [*Waging Peace in Sudan: The Inside Story of the Negotiations that Ended Africa's Longest Civil War*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WhlarBGyoQQC). Sussex Academic Press. p. 38. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84519-453-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-453-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lasaga_24-0)** Vukoni Lupa Lasaga, "The slow, violent death of apartheid in Sudan," 19 September 2006, Norwegian Council for Africa.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:02_25-0)** Richard A. Lobban Jr. (2004): "Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia". The Scarecrow Press, p. 37.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:12_26-0)** Jakobsson, Mattias; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Babiker, Hiba; Günther, Torsten; Schlebusch, Carina M.; Hollfelder, Nina (24 August 2017). "Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations". *PLOS Genetics*. **13**(8): e1006976. [doi](/source/Digital_object_identifier):10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976. [ISSN](/source/International_Standard_Serial_Number) 1553-7404. [PMC](/source/PubMed_Central) 5587336. [PMID](/source/PubMed_Identifier) 28837655.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** George Ayittey, "Africa and China," *[The Economist](/source/The_Economist),* 19 February 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Ayittey, George B.N. (1999). "How the Multilateral Institutions Compounded Africa's Economic Crisis". *Law and Policy in International Business*. **30**.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Koigi wa Wamwere (2003). [*Negative Ethnicity: From Bias to Genocide*](https://archive.org/details/negativeethnicit0000koig). Seven Stories Press. p. [152](https://archive.org/details/negativeethnicit0000koig/page/152). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-58322-576-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58322-576-9). George B.N. Ayittey (15 January 1999). [*Africa in Chaos: A Comparative History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5HtUn_dUmSYC). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-312-21787-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-21787-7). George B. N. Ayittey (2006). [*Indigenous African Institutions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ltMjAQAAIAAJ). Transnational Publishers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57105-337-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57105-337-4). Diallo, Garba (1993). ["Mauritania, the other apartheid?"](http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/amcdouga/Hist247/winter_2011/resources/mauritania_other_apartheid.pdf) (PDF). *Current African Issues* (16). Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/amcdouga/Hist247/winter_2011/resources/mauritania_other_apartheid.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Samuel Decalo. *Historical Dictionary of Niger*. Scarecrow Press, London and New Jersey (1979). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8108-1229-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-1229-0)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Jolijn Geels. *Niger*. Bradt London and Globe Pequot New York (2006). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-84162-152-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84162-152-8)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Alcobé, Santiago (November 1947). "The Physical Anthropology of the West Saharan Nomads". *Man*. **47** (160–168): 141–143. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2791649](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2791649). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2791649](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2791649). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18895492](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18895492).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Division, American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies (1964). [*Area Handbook for Ethiopia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YVAsAAAAYAAJ&q=%22A+number+of+Negro+peoples+live+along+the+Sudanese-Ethiopian+border%22&pg=PA73). U.S. Government Printing Office.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** [*Dynamics of Religion: Past and Present. Proceedings of the XXI World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bMnJDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT306). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 2017. p. PT306. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-11-045110-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-045110-8). Gorgoryos had already named another concept in Ge'ez[...] (shanqella), which means something like 'negro' in a pejorative sense.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Trimingham, James (2013). [*Islam in Ethiopia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=UfrcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA221). Routledge. p. 221. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-136-97022-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-97022-1). These negroes are the remnants of the original inhabitants of the fluvial region of Somaliland who were overwhelmed by the wave of Somali conquest.[...] The Dube and Shabeli are often referred to as the Adone

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Division, American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies (1964). [*Area Handbook for Ethiopia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YVAsAAAAYAAJ&q=Area+Handbook+for+Ethiopia&pg=PP7). U.S. Government Printing Office.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Hoyland, Robert. ["Sabbatical Notes"](http://isaw.nyu.edu/news/n-in-ainitial-prospectioncient-axum-ethiopia). ISAW. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200729104554/https://isaw.nyu.edu/news/n-in-ainitial-prospectioncient-axum-ethiopia) from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tibe_38-0)** Tibebu, Teshale (1995). [*The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896–1974*](https://books.google.com/books?id=DeD4gruvuNEC). The Red Sea Press. pp. 60–61. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-56902-001-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56902-001-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** ["About Race"](https://www.census.gov/topics/population/race/about.html). *The United States Census Bureau*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220102114054/https://www.census.gov/topics/population/race/about.html) from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Chacko, Elizabeth (2003). "Identity and Assimilation among Young Ethiopian Immigrants in Metropolitan Washington". *Geographical Review*. **93** (4): 491–506. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003GeoRv..93..491C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003GeoRv..93..491C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1931-0846.2003.tb00044.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1931-0846.2003.tb00044.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0016-7428](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7428). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [30033939](https://www.jstor.org/stable/30033939). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145226876](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145226876).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Nullis, Clare (8 January 2007). ["Township tourism booming in South Africa"](https://www.denverpost.com/2007/01/08/township-tourism-booming-in-south-africa/). Associated Press. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180506174141/https://www.denverpost.com/2007/01/08/township-tourism-booming-in-south-africa/) from the original on 6 May 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Eusebius McKaiser (15 February 2012). ["Not White Enough, Not Black Enough"](https://latitude.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/15/in-south-africa-after-apartheid-colored-community-is-the-big-loser/). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034118/https://latitude.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/15/in-south-africa-after-apartheid-colored-community-is-the-big-loser/) from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Hatred for Black People; by Shehu Sani; Xlibris Corporation, 2013; [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4931-2076-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4931-2076-5); page 43.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Mohamed Adhikari (2004). ["'Not Black Enough': Changing Expressions of Coloured Identity in Post-Apartheid South Africa"](http://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/21228/Adhikari_article_2004.pdf?sequence=1) (PDF). *South African Historical Journal*. **51**: 168. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190412030139/http://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/21228/Adhikari_article_2004.pdf?sequence=1) (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** ["We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese"](https://web.archive.org/web/20081012061449/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4168245.ece). *Times Online*. 19 June 2008. Archived from [the original](http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4168245.ece) on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 7 August 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** du Preez, Max (13 April 2006). ["Coloureds – the most authentic SA citizens"](http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857). *The Star*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20081013154218/http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857) from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Bird, Stephanie Rose (2009). [*Light, bright, and damned near white: biracial and triracial culture in America*](https://archive.org/details/lightbrightdamne0000bird). Westport, Conn.: Praeger. p. [118](https://archive.org/details/lightbrightdamne0000bird/page/118). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-275-98954-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98954-5). blasian definition. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: |work= ignored ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Reicheneker, Sierra (January 2011). ["The Marginalization of Afro-Asians in East Asia: Globalization and the Creation of Subculture and Hybrid Identity"](http://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/globaltides/vol5/iss1/6/). *Global Tides*. **5** (1). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200726185230/https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/globaltides/vol5/iss1/6/) from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2012. There are several models for analyzing the marginalization of ethnic minorities. The Afro-Asian population exemplifies Park's definition of marginalization, in that they are the "product of human migrations and socio-cultural conflict." Born into relatively new territory in the area of biracial relations, there entrance into the culture of these Asian states often causes quite a stir. They also fit into Green and Goldberg's definition of psychological marginalization, which constitutes multiple attempts at assimilation with the dominant culture followed by continued rejection. The magazine *Ebony*, from 1967, outlines a number of Afro-Asians in Japan who find themselves as outcasts, most of which try to find acceptance within the American military bubble, but with varying degrees of success.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** [*Islam on the Margins: Studies in Memory of Michael Bonner*](https://books.google.com/books?id=JQqtEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA222). BRILL. 6 February 2023. p. 222. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-52783-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-52783-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** ["Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History"](https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070223090720/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156) from the original on 23 February 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** ["Focus on the slave trade"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1523100.stm), BBC.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** A. Klein (2002), *Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition*, Page xxii, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8108-4102-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-4102-9)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-hidden_53-0)** Labb, Theola (11 January 2004). ["A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10). *The Washington Post*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180714101733/https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10) from the original on 14 July 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** ["Dr Susan"](http://members.tripod.com/~yajaffar/african.html). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200519221342/http://members.tripod.com/~yajaffar/african.html/) from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Timothy Williams, ["In Iraq's African Enclave, Color is Plainly Seen"](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/03/world/middleeast/03basra.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20091203060958/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/03/world/middleeast/03basra.html) 3 December 2009 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *The New York Times*, 2 December 2009: "But on the packed dirt streets of Zubayr, Iraq's scaled-down version of Harlem, African-Iraqis talk of discrimination so steeped in Iraqi culture that they are commonly referred to as "abd" – slave in Arabic – prohibited from interracial marriage and denied even menial jobs...Historians say that most African-Iraqis arrived as slaves from East Africa as part of the Arab slave trade starting about 1,400 years ago. They worked in southern Iraq's salt marshes and sugarcane fields. Though slavery – which in Iraq included Arabs as well as Africans – was banned in the 1920s, it continued until the 1950s, African-Iraqis say. Recently, they have begun to campaign for recognition as a minority population, which would grant them the same benefits as Christians, including reserved seats in Parliament..."Black people here are living in fear," said Jalal Dhiyab Thijeel, an advocate for the country's estimated 1.2 million African-Iraqis. "We want to end that.""

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Alamin M. Mazrui et al., *Debating the African Condition* (2004), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-59221-145-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59221-145-3), p. 324: "But many Arabs were themselves Black. To the present day there are Arab princes in Saudi Arabia who, in the Western world, would be regarded as 'black'. One of the main reasons why the African Diaspora in the Arab world is so small is that people with African blood are much more readily accepted as Arabs than they would be accepted as 'whites' in the Americas."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bagley_57-0)** F.R.C. Bagley et al., *The Last Great Muslim Empires*, (Brill: 1997), p.174.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ogot_58-0)** Bethwell A. Ogot, *Zamani: A Survey of East African History*, (East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** ["The Ethiopian Population In Israel"](http://www.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2009n/11_09_252b.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20101113172224/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2009n/11_09_252b.pdf) 13 November 2010 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), [Reuters](/source/Reuters). 16 July 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Mitnick, Joshua. "[Why Jews see racism in Israel"](https://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0902/p06s01-wome.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090905132556/http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0902/p06s01-wome.html) 5 September 2009 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *[The Christian Science Monitor](/source/The_Christian_Science_Monitor)*, 1 September 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Collins, Toby (18 August 2012). ["Israel deports Sudanese asylum seekers as S. Sudanese nationals"](http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article43625). *Sudan Tribune*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170620163347/http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article43625) from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Sherwood, Harriet (20 May 2012). ["Israel PM: Illegal African immigrants threaten identity of Jewish state"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/20/israel-netanyahu-african-immigrants-jewish). *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161115023630/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/20/israel-netanyahu-african-immigrants-jewish) from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** ["Ayvalık'ın renkli derneği"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090131011922/http://www.afro-turk.org/index.php/ayvalikin-renkli-dernegi/). Archived from [the original](http://www.afro-turk.org/index.php/ayvalikin-renkli-dernegi) on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 28 August 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Walz, Terence; Cuno, Kenneth M. (2010). *Race and Slavery in the Middle East: Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in Nineteenth-century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean*. American University in Cairo Press. p. 190. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-977-416-398-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-398-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** ["Africans in Turkey leave lasting impression on locals"](https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/africans-in-turkey-leave-lasting-impression-on-locals/1001490). *www.aa.com.tr*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210927110457/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/africans-in-turkey-leave-lasting-impression-on-locals/1001490) from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_66-1) Şimşek, Doğuş (25 July 2019). ["İSTANBUL'DAKİ AFRİKALI GÖÇMENLERİN ULUSÖTESİ SOSYAL ALANLARININ ENTEGRASYON SÜREÇLERİNE ETKİSİ"](https://doi.org/10.14783%2Fmaruoneri.594943). *Öneri Dergisi*. **14** (52): 216–235. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.14783/maruoneri.594943](https://doi.org/10.14783%2Fmaruoneri.594943). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1300-0845](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1300-0845).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** ["Türkiye'de Afrikalı göçmenler: Bize insan değilmişiz gibi bakılıyor"](https://tr.euronews.com/2020/09/18/turkiye-de-siyahiler-yasad-g-m-z-haks-zl-klar-n-nedeni-hala-kole-olarak-gorulmemiz). *euronews* (in Turkish). 18 September 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210813123642/https://tr.euronews.com/2020/09/18/turkiye-de-siyahiler-yasad-g-m-z-haks-zl-klar-n-nedeni-hala-kole-olarak-gorulmemiz) from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Shah_68-0)** Shah, Anish M.; et al. (15 July 2011). ["Indian Siddis: African ancestry with Indian Admixture"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135801). *American Journal of Human Genetics*. **89** (1): 154–161. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2011.05.030). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3135801](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135801). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21741027](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21741027).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** John B. Edlefsen, Khalida Shah, Mohsin Farooq, "[Makranis, the Negroes of West Pakistan](https://www.scribd.com/doc/17031732/Makranis-the-Negroes-of-West-Pakistan) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121104150132/http://www.scribd.com/doc/17031732/Makranis-the-Negroes-of-West-Pakistan) 4 November 2012 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)", *Phylon* (1960–), Vol. 21, No. 2 (2nd Qtr 1960), pp. 124–130. Published by: Clark Atlanta University.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:0_70-0)** [Albinia, Alice](/source/Alice_Albinia) (2012). [*Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VRSbjdPQirYC&q=sheedi). UK: Hachette. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-393-06322-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06322-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** ["Services of Sheedis for Sindh recalled"](https://www.dawn.com/news/1074229/services-of-sheedis-for-sindh-recalled). *[Dawn](/source/Dawn_(newspaper))*. 16 December 2013. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030213/https://www.dawn.com/news/1074229/services-of-sheedis-for-sindh-recalled) from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Randall_89-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Randall_89-1) [John Randall Baker](/source/John_Baker_(biologist)) (1974). [*Race*](https://archive.org/details/race00bake). [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). p. [226](https://archive.org/details/race00bake/page/226). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-212954-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-212954-3). In one sense the word 'Moor' means Mohammedan Berbers and Arabs of North-western Africa, with some Syrians, who conquered most of Spain in the 8th century and dominated the country for hundreds of years.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Shepherd, Tony (19 October 2012). ["Anthony Mundine echoes the Ku Klux Klan: Mansell"](http://www.news.com.au/national/mundine-echoes-the-ku-klux-klan-mansell/news-story/4a699fce80e5bda2456d78866947c73f). *[news.com.au](/source/News.com.au)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200923184111/https://www.news.com.au/national/mundine-echoes-the-ku-klux-klan-mansell/news-story/4a699fce80e5bda2456d78866947c73f) from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** ["Bolt breached discrimination act, judge rules"](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-09-28/bolt-found-guilty-of-breaching-discrimination-act/3025918). [Australian Broadcasting Corporation](/source/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation). 29 September 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200121060514/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-09-28/bolt-found-guilty-of-breaching-discrimination-act/3025918) from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** Quanchi, Max (2005). *Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands*. The Scarecrow Press. p. 215. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8108-5395-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-5395-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-AHRC_126-0)** Tracey Flanagan, Meredith Wilkie, and Susanna Iuliano. ["Australian South Sea Islanders: A Century of Race Discrimination under Australian Law"](http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/forum/Erace/south_sea.html)[Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110314080249/http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/forum/Erace/south_sea.html) 14 March 2011 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Australian Human Rights Commission.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-127)** ["Documenting Democracy: Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (Cth)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091026225820/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=86). National Archives of Australia: Foundingdocs.gov.au. Archived from [the original](http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=86) on 26 October 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lawson_2013_128-0)** Lawson, Stephanie (2013). "'Melanesia': The History and Politics of an Idea". *Journal of Pacific History*. **48** (1): 1–22. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00223344.2012.760839](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223344.2012.760839). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [219627550](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219627550).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** Sparrow, Jeff (17 June 2006). ["Black Founders: The Unknown Story of Australia's First Black Settlers"](http://www.theage.com.au/news/book-reviews/black-founders-the-unknown-story-of-australias-first-blacksettlers/2006/06/16/1149964726285.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1). *The Age*. Melbourne. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170525085929/http://www.theage.com.au/news/book-reviews/black-founders-the-unknown-story-of-australias-first-blacksettlers/2006/06/16/1149964726285.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1) from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-population2021_130-0)** Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (26 October 2022). ["Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts"](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810035601). *www12.statcan.gc.ca*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221026230217/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810035601) from the original on 26 October 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** [Harrison, Faye Venetia](/source/Faye_Harrison) (2005). [*Resisting racism and xenophobia: global perspectives on race, gender, and human rights*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-mHGl5HnEBIC&q=Resisting%20racism%20and%20xenophobia%3A%20global%20perspectives%20on%20race&pg=PA180). AltaMira Press. p. 180. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7591-0482-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0482-2).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_Canada's_Peoples_132-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_Canada's_Peoples_132-1) Magocsi, Paul Robert (1999). [*Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&q=Encyclopedia%20of%20Canada%27s%20Peoples&pg=PA139). University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8020-2938-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2938-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230210205524/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&q=Encyclopedia%20of%20Canada%27s%20Peoples&pg=PA139) from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-133)** ["2006 Census of Canada – Ethnic Origin"](http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=92333&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=80&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190418150154/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R) from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-canada_134-0)** ["Blacks in Canada: A long history"](http://www.statcan.gc.ca/studies-etudes/11-008/feature-caracteristique/5018918-eng.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/studies-etudes/11-008/feature-caracteristique/5018918-eng.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-walcott_135-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-walcott_135-1) [Rinaldo Walcott](/source/Rinaldo_Walcott), *Black Like Who?: Writing Black Canada*. 2003, [Insomniac Press](/source/Insomniac_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-894663-40-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-894663-40-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-pruegger_136-0)** "As for terminology, in Canada, it is still appropriate to say Black Canadians." Valerie Pruegger, "Black History Month". *Culture and Community Spirit*, Government of Alberta.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-White_Population_2020_137-0)** ["Race and Ethnicity in the United States"](https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html). [United States Census Bureau](/source/United_States_Census_Bureau). 12 August 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210815165418/https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html) from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lovejoy_138-0)** Lovejoy, Paul E. *Transformations in Slavery*. Cambridge University Press, 2000.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** Nguyen, Elizabeth, ["Origins of Black History Month"](http://www.thespartandaily.com/news/2004/02/24/CampusNews/Origins.Of.Black.History.Month.Discussed-1498219.shtml) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20111002025209/http://www.thespartandaily.com/news/2004/02/24/CampusNews/Origins.Of.Black.History.Month.Discussed-1498219.shtml) 2 October 2011 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *Spartan Daily*, Campus News. San Jose State University, 24 February 2004. Accessed 12 April 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** Smith, Tom W (1992). "Changing racial labels: from 'Colored' to 'Negro' to 'Black' to 'African American'". *Public Opinion Quarterly*. **56** (4): 496–514. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/269339](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F269339). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [143826058](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143826058).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** Liz Mazucci, ["Going Back to Our Own: Interpreting Malcolm X's Transition From 'Black Asiatic' to 'Afro-American'"](http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/Souls.Going_Back_To_Our_Own.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200927172025/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/Souls.Going_Back_To_Our_Own.pdf) 27 September 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *Souls* 7(1), 2005, pp. 66–83.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** Christopher H. Foreman, *The African-American predicament*, Brookings Institution Press, 1999, p. 99.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** ["LINGUISTICS AND AFRICA | Black or African | Sub-Saharan Africa | Feminism | Pre-Colonial | Spiritual vs Religious"](https://web.archive.org/web/20201105231955/https://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm). *www.africanholocaust.net*. Archived from [the original](http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm) on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, [*Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Arybfb4UWtwC), Louisiana State University Press, 1992/1995.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-145)** [*African American Journeys to Africa*](https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1594200831/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131217010421/http://www.amazon.com/Middle-Passages-American-Journeys-1787-2005/dp/1594200831) 17 December 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), pp. 63–64.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** Martin Luther King, Jr. (28 August 1963). [*I Have a Dream*](https://web.archive.org/web/20100315154454/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493) (Google Video). Washington, D.C. Archived from [the original](http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493) on 15 March 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** Smith, Tom W. (Winter 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"". *The Public Opinion Quarterly*. **56** (4). Oxford University Press: 496–514. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/269339](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F269339). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2749204](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2749204). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [192150485](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/192150485). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [143826058](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143826058).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** McWhorter, John H. (8 September 2004). ["Why I'm Black, Not African American"](https://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/why-im-black-not-african-american-0153.html). *Los Angeles Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041420/https://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/why-im-black-not-african-american-0153.html) from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Relethford2000_149-0)** Relethford, JH (2000). "Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping". *Human Biology; an International Record of Research*. **72** (5): 773–80. [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11126724](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11126724).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Shriver2003_150-0)** Shriver M.D.; Parra E.J.; Dios S.; et al. (April 2003). ["Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping"](https://homepages.uc.edu/~nortonhr/MoCHA/Publications_files/Shriver%20et%20el%202003.pdf) (PDF). *Human Genetics*. **112** (4): 387–399. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-002-0896-y). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12579416](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12579416). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [7877572](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7877572). [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://homepages.uc.edu/~nortonhr/MoCHA/Publications_files/Shriver%20et%20el%202003.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** Newport, Frank (28 September 2007). ["Black or African American"](http://news.gallup.com/poll/28816/black-african-american.aspx). Gallup. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201225053635/https://news.gallup.com/poll/28816/Black-African-American.aspx) from the original on 25 December 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). [*What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1OzZr_U2x_wC&pg=PA8). Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. p. 8. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9725290-9-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9725290-9-9). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [61694280](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61694280).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-IOM_153-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-IOM_153-1) ["Race, Ethnicity, and Language data – Standardization for Health Care Quality Improvement"](https://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/publications/files/iomracereport.pdf) (PDF). Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/publications/files/iomracereport.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2010USCBAA_154-0)** Sonya Tastogi; Tallese D. Johnson; Elizabeth M. Hoeffel; Malcolm P. Drewery, Jr. (September 2011). ["The Black Population: 2010"](https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-06.pdf) (PDF). *United States Census Bureau*. United States Department of Commerce. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-06.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-155)** ["2000 US Census basics"](https://www.census.gov/mso/www/c2000basics/00Basics.pdf) (PDF). [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/mso/www/c2000basics/00Basics.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-156)** Kusow, Abdi M. ["African Immigrants in the United States: Implications for Affirmative Action"](https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1005&context=soc_las_pubs). Iowa State University. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201124071712/https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1005&context=soc_las_pubs) from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-LewisM_157-0)** ["The size and regional distribution of the black population"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071012170004/http://mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/BlackWhite/BlackDiversityReport/black-diversity03.htm). Lewis Mumford Center. Archived from [the original](http://mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/BlackWhite/BlackDiversityReport/black-diversity03.htm) on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 1 October 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bryc2009_158-0)** Katarzyna Bryc; Adam Auton; Matthew R. Nelson; Jorge R. Oksenberg; Stephen L. Hauser; Scott Williams; Alain Froment; Jean-Marie Bodo; Charles Wambebe; Sarah A. Tishkoff; Carlos D. Bustamante (12 January 2010). ["Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2818934). *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America*. **107** (2): 786–791. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2010PNAS..107..786B](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107..786B). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.0909559107](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0909559107). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2818934](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2818934). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [20080753](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20080753).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bryc_2015_159-0)** Katarzyna Bryc; Eric Y. Durand; J. Michael Macpherson; David Reich; Joanna L. Mountain (8 January 2015). ["The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4289685). *The American Journal of Human Genetics*. **96** (1): 37–53. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2014.11.010). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4289685](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4289685). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [25529636](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25529636).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-160)** Soheil Baharian; Maxime Barakatt; Christopher R. Gignoux; Suyash Shringarpure; Jacob Errington; William J. Blot; Carlos D. Bustamante; Eimear E. Kenny; Scott M. Williams; Melinda C. Aldrich; Simon Gravel (27 May 2015). ["The Great Migration and African-American Genomic Diversity"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4883799). *PLOS Genetics*. **12** (5) e1006059. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pgen.1006059](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1006059). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4883799](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4883799). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [27232753](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27232753).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-161)** ["People overestimate the size of black men, perceive them as more threatening than white men, study finds"](https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-black-men-threatening-20170313-story.html). *Los Angeles Times*. 14 March 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170314203550/http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-black-men-threatening-20170313-story.html) from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-expressnews.com_162-0)** O'Hare, Peggy (13 August 2021). ["Latinos, Blacks Show Strong Growth in San Antonio as White Population Declines"](https://www.expressnews.com/news/local/article/Latinos-Black-communities-grow-in-San-Antonio-16385595.php). *San Antonio Express-News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230301110840/https://www.expressnews.com/news/local/article/Latinos-Black-communities-grow-in-San-Antonio-16385595.php) from the original on 1 March 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-163)** Felton, Emmanuel; Harden, John D.; Schaul, Kevin (14 January 2022). ["Still looking for a 'Black mecca,' the new Great Migration"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221223173307/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/01/14/black-migration-south/). *[The Washington Post](/source/The_Washington_Post)*. Archived from [the original](https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/01/14/black-migration-south/) on 23 December 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Davis_164-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Davis_164-1) James, F. Davis. ["Who is Black? One Nation's Definition"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html). [PBS](/source/Public_Broadcasting_Service). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190607111245/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html) from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-165)** [Clarence Page](/source/Clarence_Page), [A Credit to His Races](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/essays/page_5-1.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130801041928/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/essays/page_5-1.html) 1 August 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer](/source/The_NewsHour_with_Jim_Lehrer)*, 1 May 1997.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-166)** Sweet, Frank (1 April 2006). ["Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule"](http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25). *The One-Drop Rule*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080610074507/http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25) from the original on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-167)** Jolivétte, Andrew (2012). [*Obama and the Biracial Factor: The Battle for a New American Majority*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cNVeD3KO8fcC&pg=PR13). Policy Press. p. xiii. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4473-0100-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4473-0100-4). He is not only the first self-identified African American/person of color to be elected President of the United States—but he is also the first biracial person to hold this office.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-obama-speech_168-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-obama-speech_168-1) ["Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: "A More Perfect Union" (transcript)"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf) (PDF). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. 18 March 2008. p. 2. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2018. This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough". Racial tensions bubbled to the surface during the week before the [South Carolina primary](/source/United_States_presidential_election_in_South_Carolina%2C_2008#Democratic_primary). The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well. See also: [video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWe7wTVbLUU)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-169)** Adesioye, Lola (27 June 2008). ["Ralph Nader's guilt complex"](https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-obama-time_170-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-obama-time_170-1) Coates, Ta-Nehisi Paul (1 February 2007). ["Is Obama Black Enough?"](http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1584736,00.html). *Time*. Retrieved 6 May 2018. Barack Obama's real problem isn't that he's too white—it's that he's too black.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Eze_171-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Eze_171-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Eze_171-2) Eze, Chielozona (2011). [*Postcolonial Imaginations and Moral Representations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BD88R4MxZmkC). Lexington Books. p. 25. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7391-4508-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-4508-1). For Du Bois, blackness is political, it is existential, but above all, it is moral, for in it values abound; these values spring from the fact of being an oppressed.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Olson_172-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Olson_172-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Olson_172-2) Olson, Barbara (2003). [*The Final Days*](https://books.google.com/books?id=EXqxzRjUC80C). Regnery. p. 58. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-89526-125-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89526-125-0). In fact, Bill Clinton had promoted an even worse variation, that authentic blackness is political...

1. **[^](#cite_ref-173)** Olatunde, Allen Timilehin. [*Missions in the Dark Soil: Life and Work of Thomas Jefferson Bowen in Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BnnTBQAAQBAJ). aiconcept. p. [92](https://books.google.com/books?id=BnnTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA92). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-978-52387-6-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-978-52387-6-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-174)** Edler, Melissa (Spring 2007). ["Acting White"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080929041631/http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm). *Kent State Magazine*. Archived from [the original](http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm) on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-175)** Ogbu, J. "Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement". Erlbaum Associates Press. Mahwah, NJ. 2003.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-176)** Hansen, Suzy (20 February 2002). ["Blacks and Bill Clinton"](https://www.salon.com/2002/02/21/clinton_88/). *Salon*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201112003948/https://www.salon.com/2002/02/21/clinton_88/) from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-177)** [Morrison, Toni](/source/Toni_Morrison) (5 October 1998). ["Comment"](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1998/10/05/comment-6543). *[The New Yorker](/source/The_New_Yorker)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210109141224/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1998/10/05/comment-6543) from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Halpern_178-0)** Martin Halpern (2003). ["Unions, Radicals, and Democratic Presidents: Seeking Social Change in the Twentieth Century"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-2M6cwS5). Praeger. p. 220.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kroft_179-0)** Kroft, Steve (11 February 2007). ["A Transcript Excerpt of Steve Kroft's Interview With Sen. Obama"](https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transcript-excerpt-sen-barack-obama/). *CBS News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201101124801/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transcript-excerpt-sen-barack-obama/) from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ReferenceD_180-0)** ["Principales resultados del Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020"](https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/702825198060.pdf) (PDF). *inegi.org.mx* (in Spanish). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240420074127/https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/702825198060.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2024. Retrieved 3 March 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-181)** ["Afro-Mexicans"](https://minorityrights.org/minorities/afro-mexicans/). [Minority Rights Group International](/source/Minority_Rights_Group_International). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230330153800/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/afro-mexicans/) from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-182)** ["Haiti becomes a member of the African Union"](https://www.haitilibre.com/en/news-4863-haiti-diplomacy-haiti-becomes-a-member-of-the-african-union.html). *HaitiLibre.com*. 2 February 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-183)** [United Nations Slavery Memorial](http://www.unslaverymemorial.org/history.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131210063033/http://unslaverymemorial.org/history.html) 10 December 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine): "Accurate figures are still not available but at a conservative estimate, using the figures that have been generated by the latest Slave Trade Database, of the estimated millions transported, Portugal dominated the trade with 5.8 million or 46%, while Great Britain transported 3.25 million or 26%, France accounted for 1.38 million or 11%, and Spain 1.06 million or 8%. So it is unmistakable, that the 4 leading colonial powers accounted for a combined total of 11.5 million Africans or 92% of the overall trade. The remainder was transported by the US 305,326, the Netherlands 554,336, and Denmark/Baltic 111,041. There were several stages to the trade. During the first phase between 1501 and 1600, an estimated 277,509 Africans or just 2% of the overall trade, were sent to the Americas and Europe. During the 17th century, some 15% or 1,875,631 Africans embarked for the Americas. The period from 1701 to the passage of the British Abolition Act in 1807 was the peak of the trade. Here an estimated 7,163,241 or 57% of the trafficking in Africans transpired, with the remaining 26% or 3,204,935 occurring between 1808 and 1866."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-184)** [United Nations Slavery Memorial](http://www.unslaverymemorial.org/history.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131210063033/http://unslaverymemorial.org/history.html) 10 December 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine):"In the Americas, Brazil was the largest importer of Africans, accounting for 5.5 million or 44%, the British Caribbean with 2.76 million or 22%, the French Caribbean 1.32 million, and the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland accounting for 1.59 million. The relatively high numbers for Brazil and the British Caribbean is largely a reflection of the dominance and continued expansion of the plantation system in those regions. Even more so, the inability of the enslaved population in these regions to reproduce meant that the replacement demand for laborers was significantly high. In other words, Africans were imported to make up the demographic deficit on the plantations."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-185)** ["Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5](http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/galci/Archive.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200727004719/http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/galci/Archive.htm) 27 July 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative*, 4 February 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-186)** De La Torre, Miguel A. (2009). [*Hispanic American Religious Cultures*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GFrwuj-ZXMkC). ABC-Clio. p. 386. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59884-139-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-139-8). The ways of defining blackness range from characteristics of skin tones, hair textures, facial features...

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Whitten1998_187-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Whitten1998_187-1) Whitten, Norman E.; Torres, Arlene, eds. (1998). [*Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mB-r3L3PMNEC&q=hair+texture). Indiana University Press. p. 161. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-253-21194-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21194-1). In still other instances, persons are counted in reference to equally ambiguous phenotypical variations, particularly skin color, facial features, or hair texture.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-188)** Hernandez, Tanya Kateri (2012). [*Racial Subordination in Latin America*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e_ARE8CLMToC&q=blanqueamiento+). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-02486-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02486-1). Given the larger numbers of persons of African and indigenous descent in Spanish America, the region developed its own form of eugenics with the concepts of blanqueamiento (whitening) ...blanqueamiento was meant to benefit the entire nation with a white image, and not just individual persons of African descent seeking access to the legal rights and privileges of colonial whites.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-189)** ["Censo 2022 - Panorama"](https://censo2022.ibge.gov.br/panorama/). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230628195406/https://censo2022.ibge.gov.br/panorama/) from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-skidmore_190-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-skidmore_190-1) Skidmore, Thomas E. (April 1992). ["Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil"](http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf) (PDF). *Working Paper*. **173**. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-191)** Telles, Edward Eric (2004). [*Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YwJoyyXm7ZkC). Princeton University Press. pp. [95–98](https://archive.org/details/raceinanotherame0000tell/page/95). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-11866-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11866-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-192)** Telles, Edward E. (3 May 2002). ["Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050115211322/http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf) (PDF). *Ethnic and Racial Studies*. **25** (3). California Center for Population Research: 415–441. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/01419870252932133](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01419870252932133). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [51807734](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51807734). Archived from [the original](http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf) (PDF) on 15 January 2005.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-193)** ["Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090923103736/http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/povoamento/) (in Brazilian Portuguese). IBGE. Archived from [the original](http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/povoamento/) on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-194)** Telles, Edward Eric (2004). [*Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YwJoyyXm7ZkC). Princeton University Press. p. [24](https://archive.org/details/raceinanotherame0000tell/page/24). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-11866-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11866-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-195)** ["Brazil"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211205000000/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2018.zip). *[The World Factbook](/source/The_World_Factbook)* (2018 ed.). [Central Intelligence Agency](/source/Central_Intelligence_Agency). Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-196)** V.F. Gonçalves, F. Prosdocimi, L. S. Santos, J. M. Ortega and S. D. J. Pena, ["Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians"](http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2007/vol2-6/gmr0330_full_text.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200725004529/http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2007/vol2-6/gmr0330_full_text.htm) 25 July 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *GMR*, 2007, Vol. 12, No. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-197)** Malleret, Constance (22 December 2023). ["Mixed-race people become Brazil's biggest population group | Brazil | The Guardian"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/dec/22/mixed-race-brazil-largest-population-group). *theguardian.com*. Retrieved 4 June 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-198)** Barrolle, Melvin Kadiri. ["African 'Americans' in Brazil"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070516030431/http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6). New America Media. Archived from the original on 16 May 2007. Retrieved 5 August 2009.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-EconomistSlaverysLegacies_199-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-EconomistSlaverysLegacies_199-1) ["Slavery's legacies"](https://www.economist.com/news/international/21706510-american-thinking-about-race-starting-influence-brazil-country-whose-population). *The Economist*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201108163103/https://www.economist.com/international/2016/09/08/slaverys-legacies) from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-200)** Roland, Edna Maria Santos. ["The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070614014314/http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc). Archived from [the original](http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc) on 14 June 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Phillips_201-0)** Tom Phillips, ["Brazil census shows African-Brazilians in the majority for the first time"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/17/brazil-census-african-brazilians-majority) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201117161532/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/17/brazil-census-african-brazilians-majority) 17 November 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *The Guardian*, 17 November 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-202)** Rodriguez, Gregory (3 September 2006). ["Brazil Separates into a World of Black and White"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-sep-03-oe-rodriguez3-story.html). *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Grupos_étnicos_203-0)** ["visibilización estadística de los grupos étnicos"](https://geoportal.dane.gov.co/geovisores/sociedad/cnpv-2018/?lt=4.456007353293281&lg=-73.2781601239999&z=5). *Censo General 2018*. Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica (DANE). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210816231845/https://geoportal.dane.gov.co/geovisores/sociedad/cnpv-2018/?lt=4.456007353293281&lg=-73.2781601239999&z=5) from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-204)** [University of the Andes (Venezuela)](/source/University_of_the_Andes_(Venezuela)) (3 March 2011), [*Historia de Venezuela – Procedencia de los Esclavos Negros en Venezuela*](http://antropologiayecologiaupel.blogspot.com/2011/03/procedencia-de-los-esclavos-negros-en.html), [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011756/http://antropologiayecologiaupel.blogspot.com/2011/03/procedencia-de-los-esclavos-negros-en.html) from the original on 12 April 2022, retrieved 6 May 2018

## External links

- Media related to [Black people](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Black_people) at Wikimedia Commons

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Black people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.