# Benthic zone

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Ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water

The **benthic zone**, from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) [βένθος](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B2%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek)*(*bénthos*)* 'the depths of the ocean',[1] is the ecological region at the lowest level of a [body of water](/source/Body_of_water), such as a [stream](/source/Stream), [river](/source/River), [lake](/source/Lake), or [ocean](/source/Ocean), including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers.

Organisms living in this zone are called [*benthos*](#Benthos), or more informally *bottom dwellers*. They include [microorganisms](/source/Microorganisms) such as [bacteria](/source/Bacteria) and [fungi](/source/Fungus),[2][3] as well as larger [invertebrates](/source/Invertebrates) such as [crustaceans](/source/Crustacean) and [polychaetes](/source/Polychaete).[4] Benthos generally live in close relationship with the substrate and many are permanently attached to the bottom. The [benthic boundary layer](/source/Benthic_boundary_layer), which includes the bottom layer of water and the uppermost layer of sediment directly influenced by the overlying water, is an integral part of the benthic zone, as it greatly influences the biological activity that takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include [sand](/source/Sand) bottoms, rocky outcrops, [coral](/source/Coral), and [bay mud](/source/Bay_mud).

## Physical description

### Oceans

The benthic region of the ocean begins at the shore line ([intertidal](/source/Intertidal_zone) or [littoral zone](/source/Littoral_zone)) and extends downward along the surface of the [continental shelf](/source/Continental_shelf) out to sea. Thus, the region incorporates a great variety of physical conditions differing in depth, light penetration and pressure.[5] The benthic zone includes all areas of bottom that are below the water.

The continental shelf is a benthic region of a tectonic plate that extends away from the shoreline of a land mass. At the continental shelf edge, usually about 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the gradient greatly increases and is known as the continental slope. The continental slope drops down to the deep sea floor. The generally flat part of the deep-sea floor is called the [abyssal plain](/source/Abyssal_plain) and is usually about 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) deep. The ocean floor is not all flat but has [submarine ridges](/source/Mid-ocean_ridge), [seamounts](/source/Seamount) and deep [ocean trenches](/source/Ocean_trench) known as the [hadal zone](/source/Hadal_zone).[6] For comparison, the [pelagic zone](/source/Pelagic_zone) is the ecological region above the benthos, comprising the [water column](/source/Water_column) up to the surface. The benthos of the deep ocean includes the bottom levels of the oceanic [abyssal zone](/source/Abyssal_zone).[7]

The deeper areas of the oceans beyond the penetration of daylight are the [aphotic zone](/source/Aphotic_zone). Generally, this region is inhabited by life forms that tolerate cool [temperatures](/source/Temperature) and low [oxygen](/source/Oxygen) levels, depending on the depth of the water.[8]

### Lakes

As with oceans, the *benthic zone* is the floor of the lake, which may be covered by accumulated sunken [organic matter](/source/Organic_matter) and mineral sediments, and the organisms that live in and on it. The *littoral zone* is the zone bordering the shore; light penetrates easily and aquatic plants thrive. The *pelagic zone* is the water between the surface and the bottom. the [photic zone](/source/Photic_zone) is the water column down to the depth to which no light penetrates. This depth varies depending on clarity of the water.[9]

## Benthos

Benthos (organisms that live at the ocean floor) can be contrasted with [neuston](/source/Neuston) (organisms that live at the ocean surface) [plankton](/source/Plankton) (organisms that drift with water currents) and [nekton](/source/Nekton) (organisms that can swim against water currents)

Part of a series related to Benthic life Benthos Benthic zone Benthopelagic coupling Seabed By size Macrobenthos Meiobenthos Microbenthos By trophic type Phytobenthos Zoobenthos By location Endobenthos Epibenthos Hyperbenthos By habitat Shallow: Tide pool Bay mud Bivalve reef Mangrove forest Coral reef Seagrass meadow Deep Seamount Cold seep Hydrothermal vent Communities Benthic fish Benthopelagic fish Bottom feeder Deep sea Deep sea communities Demersal fish Intertidal ecology Hydrothermal vent microbial communities Related Epibenthic sled Van Veen grab sampler Bioirrigation Bioturbation Demersal zone Marine sediment Marine life portal v t e

**Benthos** is the [community](/source/Community_(ecology)) of [organisms](/source/Organism) that live in the benthic zone, that is, on, in, or near the bottom of a [stream](/source/Stream), [river](/source/River), [lake](/source/Lake), or [ocean](/source/Ocean).[10] This community lives in or near marine or freshwater [sedimentary environments](/source/Depositional_environment), from [tidal pools](/source/Tidal_pool) along the [foreshore](/source/Intertidal_zone), out to the [continental shelf](/source/Continental_shelf), and then down to the [abyssal depths](/source/Abyssal_zone).

The term *benthos*, coined by [Haeckel](/source/Haeckel) in 1891,[11] comes from the [Greek](/source/English_words_of_Greek_origin) noun βένθος 'depth of the ocean'.[10][12] Additionally to oceans, *benthos* is also used in [freshwater biology](/source/Freshwater_Biology) to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater [bodies of water](/source/Body_of_water), such as streams, rivers, and lakes.[13] There is also a redundant, occasionally used synonym, *benthon*.[14] Benthos is also referred to more loosely and informally as *bottom dwellers* or *[bottom feeders](/source/Bottom_feeder)*.

Light is an important energy source for shallow benthic systems. However, because light is [absorbed](/source/Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water) before it can reach deep ocean water, the energy source for deep benthic ecosystems is often organic matter from higher up in the water column that drifts down to the depths. This [dead and decaying matter](/source/Detritus) sustains the benthic [food chain](/source/Food_chain); most organisms in the benthic zone are [scavengers](/source/Scavengers) or [detritivores](/source/Detritivores).

Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the [water column](/source/Water_column). The pressure difference can be significant (approximately one [atmosphere](/source/Atmosphere_(unit)) for every 10 metres of water depth).[15]

Compared to the relatively featureless [pelagic zone](/source/Pelagic_zone), the benthic zone offers physically diverse habitats. There is a huge range in how much light and warmth is available, and in the depth of water or extent of [intertidal](/source/Intertidal) immersion. The seafloor varies widely in the types of [sediment](/source/Marine_sediment) it offers. [Burrowing animals](/source/Burrow) can find protection and food in soft, loose sediments such as [mud](/source/Mud), [clay](/source/Clay) and [sand](/source/Sand). [Sessile species](/source/Sessility_(motility)) such as [oysters](/source/Oyster) and [barnacles](/source/Barnacle) can attach themselves securely to hard, rocky substrates. As adults they can remain at the same site, shaping depressions and crevices where mobile animals find refuge. This greater diversity in benthic habitats has resulted in a higher diversity of benthic species. The number of benthic animal species exceeds one million. This far exceeds the number of pelagic animal species (about 5000 larger zooplankton species, 22,000 pelagic fish species and 110 marine mammal species).[16]

Benthos are the organisms that live in the benthic zone, and are different from those elsewhere in the [water column](/source/Water_column); even within the benthic zone variations in such factors as substrate, light penetration, temperature and salinity give rise to distinct differences, delineated vertically, in the groups of organisms supported.[17] Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the water column:[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*][*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*] the pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one [atmosphere](/source/Atmosphere_(unit)) for each 10 meters of water depth). Many have adapted to live on the substrate (bottom) or within the upper layers of the bottom. In their habitats they can be considered as dominant creatures, but they are often a source of prey for [Carcharhinidae](/source/Carcharhinidae) such as the [lemon shark](/source/Lemon_shark).[18]

Because light does not penetrate very deep into ocean-water, the energy source for the benthic ecosystem is often [marine snow](/source/Marine_snow). Marine snow is organic matter from higher up in the water column that drifts down to the depths.[19] This [dead and decaying matter](/source/Detritus) sustains the benthic [food chain](/source/Food_chain); most organisms in the benthic zone are [scavengers](/source/Scavenger) or [detritivores](/source/Detritivore). Some [microorganisms](/source/Microorganism) use [chemosynthesis](/source/Chemosynthesis) to produce [biomass](/source/Biomass_(ecology)).

Benthic organisms can be divided into two categories based on whether they make their home on the ocean floor or a few centimeters into the ocean floor. Those living on the surface of the ocean floor are known as [epifauna](/source/Epifauna).[20] Those who live burrowed into the ocean floor are known as [infauna](/source/Infauna).[17] Extremophiles, including [piezophiles](/source/Piezophile), which thrive in high pressures, may also live there.

### By taxon

### By size

#### Macrobenthos

[Photomicrograph](/source/Photomicrograph) of typical benthic animals, including (from top to bottom) [amphipods](/source/Amphipods), a [polychaete](/source/Polychaete) worm, a [snail](/source/Sea_snail), and a [chironomous](/source/Chironomidae) midge larva

Main article: [Macrobenthos](/source/Macrobenthos)

Macrobenthos, prefix from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) *makrós* 'long', comprises the larger, visible to the naked eye, benthic organisms greater than about 1 mm in size. In shallow waters, [seagrass meadows](/source/Seagrass_meadow), coral reefs and kelp forests provide particularly rich habitats for macrobenthos. Some examples are [polychaete worms](/source/Polychaete), [bivalves](/source/Bivalve), [echinoderms](/source/Echinoderm), [sea anemones](/source/Sea_anemone), [corals](/source/Coral), [sponges](/source/Sponge), [sea squirts](/source/Ascidian), [turbellarians](/source/Turbellarian) and larger [crustaceans](/source/Crustacean) such as [crabs](/source/Crab), [lobsters](/source/Lobster) and [cumaceans](/source/Cumacean).[21]

		- [Seagrass](/source/Seagrass)

		- [Echinoderms](/source/Echinoderm)

		- [Sea squirts](/source/Sea_squirt)

#### Meiobenthos

Main article: [Meiobenthos](/source/Meiobenthos)

[Meiobenthos](/source/Meiobenthos), prefix from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) *meîon* 'less', comprises tiny benthic organisms that are less than about 1 mm but greater than about 0.1 mm in size. Some examples are [nematodes](/source/Nematode), [foraminiferans](/source/Foraminiferan), [tardigrades](/source/Tardigrade), [gastrotriches](/source/Gastrotrich) and smaller [crustaceans](/source/Crustacean) such as [copepods](/source/Copepod) and [ostracodes](/source/Ostracode).

		- [Foraminiferan](/source/Foraminiferan)

		- [Gastrotrich](/source/Gastrotrich)

		- [Copepod](/source/Copepod)

		- [Tardigrade](/source/Tardigrade) (water bear)

#### Microbenthos

See also: [Seabed § Sediments](/source/Seabed#Sediments), [Marine sediment § Microbenthos](/source/Marine_sediment#Microbenthos), [bioturbation](/source/Bioturbation), and [bioirrigation](/source/Bioirrigation)

Microbenthos, prefix from the Greek *mikrós* 'small', comprises microscopic benthic organisms that are less than about 0.1 mm in size. Some examples are [bacteria](/source/Bacteria), [diatoms](/source/Diatoms), [ciliates](/source/Ciliate), [amoeba](/source/Amoeba), [flagellates](/source/Flagellate).

		- [Diatoms](/source/Diatoms)

		- [Ciliate](/source/Ciliate)

		- [Dinoflagellates](/source/Dinoflagellate)

Marine microbenthos are microorganisms that live in the benthic zone of the ocean – that is, near or on the seafloor, or within or on surface seafloor sediments. Microbenthos are found everywhere on or about the seafloor of continental shelves, as well as in deeper waters, with greater diversity in or on seafloor sediments. In [photic zones](/source/Photic_zone) benthic diatoms dominate as photosynthetic organisms. In [intertidal zones](/source/Intertidal_zone) changing [tides](/source/Tide) strongly control opportunities for microbenthos.

		- *[Elphidium](/source/Elphidium)* a widespread abundant genus of benthic forams

		- *[Heterohelix](/source/Heterohelix)*, an extinct genus of benthic forams

	- Marine microanimals

		- [Darkfield photo](/source/Dark_field_microscopy) of a [gastrotrich](/source/Gastrotrich), 0.06-3.0 mm long, a worm-like animal living between sediment particles

		- Armoured *[Pliciloricus enigmaticus](/source/Pliciloricus_enigmaticus)*, about 0.2 mm long, live in spaces between marine gravel

Both foraminifera and diatoms have [planktonic](/source/Planktonic) and [benthic](/source/Benthic) forms, that is, they can drift in the [water column](/source/Water_column) or live on [sediment](/source/Marine_sediment) at the bottom of the ocean. Regardless of form, their shells sink to the seafloor after they die. These shells are widely used as [climate proxies](/source/Climate_proxy). The chemical composition of the shells are a consequence of the chemical composition of the ocean at the time the shells were formed. Past water temperatures can be also be inferred from the ratios of stable [oxygen isotopes](/source/Oxygen_isotope) in the shells, since lighter isotopes evaporate more readily in warmer water leaving the heavier isotopes in the shells. Information about past climates can be inferred further from the abundance of forams and diatoms, since they tend to be more abundant in warm water.[22]

Benthic diatom

The sudden [extinction event](/source/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event) which killed the dinosaurs 66 million years ago also rendered extinct three-quarters of all other animal and plant species. However, deep-sea benthic forams flourished in the aftermath. In 2020 it was reported that researchers have examined the chemical composition of thousands of samples of these benthic forams and used their findings to build the most detailed climate record of Earth ever.[23][24]

Some [endoliths](/source/Endolith) have extremely long lives. In 2013 researchers reported evidence of endoliths in the ocean floor, perhaps millions of years old, with a generation time of 10,000 years.[25] These are slowly metabolizing and not in a dormant state. Some [Actinomycetota](/source/Actinomycetota) found in [Siberia](/source/Siberia) are estimated to be half a million years old.[26][27][28]

### By trophic level

**Example zoobenthos**
*A variety of marine worms*
Plate from *Das Meer*
by M. J. Schleiden (1804–1881)

#### Zoobenthos

Zoobenthos, prefix from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) *zôion* 'animal', animals belonging to the benthos. Examples include [polychaete worms](/source/Polychaete), starfish and anemones.

#### Phytobenthos

[Phytobenthos](/source/Phytobenthos), prefix from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) *phutón* 'plant', plants belonging to the benthos, mainly benthic [diatoms](/source/Diatom) and [macroalgae](/source/Macroalgae) ([seaweed](/source/Seaweed)).

### By location

#### Endobenthos

Endobenthos (or endobenthic), prefix from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) *éndon* 'inner, internal', lives buried, or burrowing in the sediment, often in the [oxygenated](/source/Oxygenation_(environmental)) top layer, e.g., a [sea pen](/source/Sea_pen) or a [sand dollar](/source/Sand_dollar).

#### Epibenthos

Epibenthos (or epibenthic), prefix from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) *epí* 'on top of', lives on top of the sediments, e.g., [sea cucumber](/source/Sea_cucumber) or a sea snail.

#### Hyperbenthos

Hyperbenthos (or hyperbenthic), prefix from [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek_language) *hupér* 'over', lives just above the sediment, e.g., a [rock cod](/source/Rock_cod).

### By habitat

Marine habitats Coastal habitats Littoral zone Intertidal zone Estuaries Mangrove forests Seagrass meadows Kelp forests Coral reefs Continental shelf Neritic zone Ocean surface Surface microlayer Epipelagic zone Open ocean Pelagic zone Oceanic zone Sea floor Seamounts Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Brine pools Demersal zone Benthic zone Marine sediment v t e

Modern [seafloor mapping](/source/Seafloor_mapping) technologies have revealed linkages between seafloor geomorphology and benthic habitats, in which suites of benthic communities are associated with specific geomorphic settings.[29] Examples include [cold-water coral](/source/Cold-water_coral) communities associated with seamounts and submarine canyons, [kelp forests](/source/Kelp_forest) associated with inner shelf rocky reefs and [rockfish](/source/Rockfish) associated with rocky escarpments on continental slopes.[30] In [oceanic](/source/Ocean) environments, [habitats](/source/Habitats) can also be zoned by depth. From the shallowest to the deepest are: the [epipelagic](/source/Epipelagic) (less than 200 meters), the [mesopelagic](/source/Mesopelagic) (200–1,000 meters), the [bathyal](/source/Bathyal) (1,000–4,000 meters), the [abyssal](/source/Abyssal) (4,000–6,000 meters) and the deepest, the [hadal](/source/Hadal) (below 6,000 meters).[31]

Low tide zone in a tide pool

Human impacts have occurred at all ocean depths, but are most significant on shallow continental shelf and slope habitats.[32] Many benthic organisms have retained their historic evolutionary characteristics. Some organisms are [significantly larger](/source/Deep-sea_gigantism) than their relatives living in shallower zones, largely because of higher oxygen concentration in deep water.[33]

It is not easy to map or observe these organisms and their habitats, and most modern observations are made using [remotely operated underwater vehicles](/source/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle) (ROVs), and rarely crewed [submersibles](/source/Submersible).[34][35]

[Tide pools](/source/Tide_pool) provide somewhat demanding benthic homes for organisms such as [sea stars](/source/Sea_stars), [mussels](/source/Mussel) and [clams](/source/Clam). Inhabitants deal with a frequently changing [environment](/source/Biophysical_environment): fluctuations in water [temperature](/source/Temperature), salinity, and [oxygen](/source/Oxygen) content. Hazards include [waves](/source/Wind_wave), strong [currents](/source/Ocean_current), exposure to midday sun and predators. [Waves](/source/Wave) can dislodge mussels and draw them out to sea. [Gulls](/source/Gull) pick up and drop [sea urchins](/source/Sea_urchin) to break them open. Sea stars prey on mussels and are eaten by gulls themselves. [Black bears](/source/American_Black_Bear) are known to sometimes feast on intertidal creatures at low tide.[36] Although tide pool organisms must avoid getting washed away into the [ocean](/source/Ocean), drying up in the sun, or being eaten, they depend on the tide pool's constant changes for food.[37] Tide pools contain complex [food webs](/source/Food_web) that can vary based on the climate.[38]

## Ecological roles

Effect of [eutrophication](/source/Eutrophication)
on marine benthic life

### Nutrient flux

Sources of food for benthic communities can derive from the water column above these habitats in the form of aggregations of [detritus](/source/Detritus), inorganic matter, and living organisms.[39] These aggregations are commonly referred to as [marine snow](/source/Marine_snow), and are important for the deposition of organic matter, and bacterial communities.[40] The amount of material sinking to the ocean floor can average 307,000 aggregates[*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*] per m2 per day.[41] This amount will vary on the depth of the benthos, and the degree of benthic-pelagic coupling. The benthos in a shallow region will have more available food than the benthos in the deep sea. Because of their reliance on it, microbes may become spatially dependent on detritus in the benthic zone. The [microbes](/source/Microbes) found in the benthic zone, specifically [dinoflagellates](/source/Dinoflagellates) and [foraminifera](/source/Foraminifera), colonize quite rapidly on detritus matter while forming a symbiotic relationship with each other.[42][43] In the deep sea, which covers 90–95% of the ocean floor, 90% of the total biomass is made up of prokaryotes. To release all the nutrients locked inside these microbes to the environment, viruses are important in making it available to other organisms.[44][45]

The main food sources for the benthos are [phytoplankton](/source/Phytoplankton) and organic detrital matter.[46][47] In coastal locations, organic run off from land provides an additional food source.[48] Meiofauna and bacteria consume and recycle organic matter in the sediments, playing an important role in returning [nitrate](/source/Nitrate) and [phosphate](/source/Phosphate) to the pelagic.[49]

The depth of water, temperature and salinity, and type of local substrate all affect what benthos is present. In coastal waters and other places where light reaches the bottom, benthic [photosynthesizing](/source/Photosynthesis) [diatoms](/source/Diatoms) can proliferate. [Filter feeders](/source/Filter_feeder), such as [sponges](/source/Sponge) and [bivalves](/source/Bivalve), dominate hard, sandy bottoms. Deposit feeders, such as [polychaetes](/source/Polychaete), populate softer bottoms. Fish, such as [dragonets](/source/Dragonets), as well as [sea stars](/source/Sea_star), [snails](/source/Snail), [cephalopods](/source/Cephalopod), and [crustaceans](/source/Crustacean) are important predators and scavengers.

Benthic organisms, such as [sea stars](/source/Sea_star), [oysters](/source/Oyster), [clams](/source/Clam), [sea cucumbers](/source/Holothuroidea), [brittle stars](/source/Brittle_star) and [sea anemones](/source/Sea_anemone), play an important role as a food source for [fish](/source/Fish), such as the [California sheephead](/source/California_sheephead), and [humans](/source/Human).

### Carbon processing

	- Carbon processing in marine sediments

Organic matter produced in the sunlit layer of the ocean and delivered to the sediments is either consumed by organisms or buried. The organic matter consumed by organisms is used to synthesize [biomass](/source/Biomass_(ecology)) (i.e. growth) converted to carbon dioxide through [respiration](/source/Respiration_(physiology)), or returned to the sediment as faeces. This cycle can occur many times before either all organic matter is used up or eventually buried. This process is known as the [biological pump](/source/Biological_pump).[50][51]

In the long-term or at steady-state, i.e., the biomass of benthic organisms does not change, the benthic community can be considered a black box diverting organic matter into either metabolites or the geosphere (burial).[51] The macrobenthos also indirectly impacts carbon cycling on the seafloor through [bioturbation](/source/Bioturbation).[52]

### As bioindicators

Benthic macro-invertebrates play a critical role in [aquatic ecosystems](/source/Aquatic_ecosystem). These organisms can be used to indicate the presence, [concentration](/source/Concentration), and effect of water pollutants in the aquatic environment. Some water contaminants—such as nutrients, chemicals from [surface runoff](/source/Surface_runoff), and metals[53]—settle in the [sediment](/source/Sediment) of river beds, where many benthos reside. Benthos are highly sensitive to contamination, so their close proximity to high pollutant concentrations make these organisms ideal for studying water contamination.[54]

Benthos can be used as [bioindicators](/source/Bioindicator) of [water pollution](/source/Water_pollution) through ecological population assessments or through analyzing [biomarkers](/source/Biomarker). In ecological population assessments, a relative value of water pollution can be detected. Observing the number and diversity of macro-invertebrates in a waterbody can indicate the pollution level. In highly contaminated waters, a reduced number of organisms and only pollution-tolerant species will be found.[55] In biomarker assessments, [quantitative](/source/Quantitative_research) data can be collected on the amount of and direct effect of specific pollutants in a waterbody. The [biochemical](/source/Biochemistry) response of macro-invertebrates' internal tissues can be studied extensively in the laboratory. The concentration of a chemical can cause many changes, including changing feeding behaviors,[56] [inflammation](/source/Inflammation), and genetic damage,[57] effects that can be detected outside of the stream environment. Biomarker analysis is important for mitigating the negative impacts of water pollution because it can detect water pollution before it has a noticeable ecological effect on benthos populations.[58]

### Other research

Aquatic layers Pelagic Photic Epipelagic Aphotic Mesopelagic Bathypelagic Abyssopelagic Hadopelagic Demersal Benthic Stratification Pycnocline Isopycnal Chemocline Nutricline Halocline Thermocline Thermohaline See also Marine habitats Lake stratification Ocean stratification Aquatic ecosystems Wild fisheries v t e

Benthic [macroinvertebrates](/source/Macroinvertebrate) have many important ecological functions, such as regulating the flow of materials and energy in [river ecosystems](/source/River_ecosystem) through their [food web](/source/Food_web) linkages. Because of this correlation between flow of energy and nutrients, benthic [macroinvertebrates](/source/Macroinvertebrates) have the ability to influence food resources on fish and other organisms in [aquatic ecosystems](/source/Aquatic_ecosystems). For example, the addition of a moderate amount of [nutrients](/source/Nutrients) to a river over the course of several years resulted in increases in invertebrate richness, abundance, and [biomass](/source/Biomass_(ecology)). These in turn resulted in increased food resources for native species of fish with insignificant alteration of the macroinvertebrate community structure and [trophic](/source/Trophic_network) pathways.[59] The presence of macroinvertebrates such as [Amphipoda](/source/Amphipoda#Ecology) also affect the dominance of certain types of algae in Benthic ecosystems as well.[60] In addition, because benthic zones are influenced by the flow of dead [organic material](/source/Organic_matter), there have been studies conducted on the relationship between stream and river water flows and the resulting effects on the benthic zone. Low flow events show a restriction in nutrient transport from benthic [substrates](/source/Substrate_(marine_biology)) to food webs, and caused a decrease in benthic macroinvertebrate biomass, which lead to the disappearance of food sources into the substrate.[61]

Because the benthic system regulates energy in aquatic ecosystems, studies have been made of the mechanisms of the benthic zone in order to better understand the ecosystem. Benthic [diatoms](/source/Diatom) have been used by the European Union's [Water Framework Directive](/source/Water_Framework_Directive) (WFD) to establish ecological quality ratios that determined the ecological status of lakes in the UK.[62] Beginning research is being made on benthic assemblages to see if they can be used as indicators of healthy aquatic ecosystems. Benthic assemblages in urbanized coastal regions are not functionally equivalent to benthic assemblages in untouched regions.[63]

Ecologists are attempting to understand the relationship between [heterogeneity](/source/Heterogeneity) and maintaining [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity) in aquatic ecosystems. Benthic [algae](/source/Algae) has been used as an inherently good subject for studying short term changes and community responses to heterogeneous conditions in streams. Understanding the potential mechanisms involving benthic [periphyton](/source/Periphyton) and the effects on heterogeneity within a stream may provide a better understanding of the structure and function of stream ecosystems.[64] Periphyton populations suffer from high natural [spatial variability](/source/Spatial_variability) while difficult accessibility simultaneously limits the practicable number of samples that can be taken. Targeting periphyton locations which are known to provide reliable samples – especially hard surfaces – is recommended in the [European Union](/source/European_Union) benthic monitoring program (by Kelly 1998 for the United Kingdom then in the EU and for the EU as a whole by CEN 2003 and CEN 2004) and in some United States programs (by Moulton et al. 2002).[65]: 60 Benthic [gross primary production](/source/Gross_primary_production) (GPP) may be important in maintaining biodiversity hotspots in [littoral zones](/source/Littoral_zone) in large [lake ecosystems](/source/Lake_ecosystem). However, the relative contributions of benthic habitats within specific ecosystems are poorly explored and more research is planned.[66]

## Threats and mitigation

See also: [Bottom trawling](/source/Bottom_trawling)

Benthos are negatively impacted by [fishing](/source/Fishing), [pollution](/source/Pollution) and litter, [deep-sea mining](/source/Deep_sea_mining), oil and gas activities, [tourism](/source/Tourism), [shipping](/source/Shipping), [invasive species](/source/Invasive_species), [climate change](/source/Climate_change) (and its impacts such as [ocean acidification](/source/Ocean_acidification), [ocean warming](/source/Ocean_warming) and changes to [ocean circulation](/source/Ocean_current)) and construction such as [coastal development](/source/Coastal_development_hazards), [undersea cables](/source/Submarine_cable), and [wind farm](/source/Wind_farm) construction.[67]

Abiotic and biotic responses to a territory-wide trawl ban in Hong Kong waters. Abiotic responses: (1) lower bottom water suspended-solid loads, (2) higher sedimentary organic contents; and biotic responses include: (3) higher site-based abundance, species richness, functional diversity, niche occupancy and among-site similarity of macrobenthos.[68]

[Bottom trawling](/source/Bottom_trawling) accounts for roughly 25% of global capture fisheries.[69] It has increasingly been recognized as a [non-sustainable fishing](/source/Sustainable_fishing) practice.[70][71][72][73] It impacts benthic ecosystems in two ways. First, [fishing gear](/source/Fishing_gear) disrupts epibenthic sediments, resulting in the loss of habitat complexity and resuspension of sediments into the [water column](/source/Water_column),[74][75][76] reducing the sedimentary organic-matter content,[77] and increasing [turbidity](/source/Turbidity) and biochemical oxygen demand in the water column.[78][79] Second, trawling disrupts benthic community structure, selectively removing large-bodied target and non-target species, which are usually [K-selected](/source/K-selected), resulting in a community dominated by relatively small [r-selected](/source/R-selected) species.[80][81] Given the significance of these impacts, a number of countries have implemented total or partial bans on bottom trawling within their [territorial waters](/source/Territorial_waters) [82][83] or in the [international waters](/source/International_waters) they manage.[84][68]

## See also

- [Armor (hydrology)](/source/Armor_(hydrology))

- [Benthic fish](/source/Benthic_fish)

- [Benthopelagic fish](/source/Benthopelagic_fish)

- [Bioirrigation](/source/Bioirrigation)

- [Bottom trawling](/source/Bottom_trawling)

- [Deep sea](/source/Deep_sea)

- [Deep sea communities](/source/Deep_sea_communities)

- [Deep sea mining](/source/Deep_sea_mining)

- [Demersal fish](/source/Demersal_fish)

- [Epibenthic sled](/source/Epibenthic_sled)

- [Intertidal ecology](/source/Intertidal_ecology)

- [Littoral](/source/Littoral)

- [Plankton](/source/Plankton)

- [Pelagic zone](/source/Pelagic_zone)

- [Photic zone](/source/Photic_zone)

- [Sediment Profile Imagery](/source/Sediment_Profile_Imagery) (SPI)

- [Stream bed](/source/Stream_bed)

## References

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## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Benthic zones](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Benthic_zones).

- [Data Archive for Seabed Species and Habitats](https://web.archive.org/web/20190909185843/https://www.dassh.ac.uk/) from the UK Marine Data Archive Centre

- ["Benthos"](http://paleopolis.rediris.es/benthos/)

- ["Benthos".](https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078658) (2008) Encyclopædia Britannica. (Retrieved May 15, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.)

- Ryan, Paddy (2007) ["Benthic communities"](https://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/SeaLife/DeepSeaCreatures/4/en) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20081216001405/http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/SeaLife/DeepSeaCreatures/4/en) 2008-12-16 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Te Ara - the Encyclopædia of New Zealand, updated 21 September 2007.

- Yip, Maricela and Madl, Pierre (1999) ["Benthos"](http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/rovigno/rovigno2.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190720224223/http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/rovigno/rovigno2.htm) 2019-07-20 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) [University of Salzburg](/source/University_of_Salzburg).

v t e Physical oceanography Waves Airy wave theory Ballantine scale Benjamin–Feir instability Boussinesq approximation Breaking wave Clapotis Cnoidal wave Cross sea Dispersion Edge wave Equatorial waves Gravity wave Green's law Infragravity wave Internal wave Iribarren number Kelvin wave Kinematic wave Longshore drift Luke's variational principle Miche criterion Mild-slope equation Radiation stress Rogue wave Draupner wave Rossby wave Rossby-gravity waves Sea state Seiche Significant wave height Soliton Stokes drift Stokes problem Stokes wave Swell Trochoidal wave Tsunami megatsunami Undertow Ursell number Wave action Wave base Wave height Wave nonlinearity Wave power Wave radar Wave setup Wave shoaling Wave turbulence Wave–current interaction Waves and shallow water one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations shallow water equations Wind fetch Wind setup Wind wave model Circulation Atmospheric circulation Baroclinity Boundary current Coriolis force Coriolis–Stokes force Craik–Leibovich vortex force Downwelling Eddy Ekman layer Ekman spiral Ekman transport El Niño–Southern Oscillation General circulation model Geochemical Ocean Sections Study Geostrophic current Global Ocean Data Analysis Project Gulf Stream Humboldt Current Hydrothermal circulation Langmuir circulation Longshore drift Loop Current Modular Ocean Model Ocean current Ocean dynamical thermostat Ocean dynamics Ocean gyre Overflow Princeton Ocean Model Rip current Subsurface ocean current Sverdrup balance Thermohaline circulation shutdown Upwelling Whirlpool Wind generated current World Ocean Circulation Experiment Tides Amphidromic point Earth tide Head of tide Internal tide Lunitidal interval Perigean spring tide Rip tide Rule of twelfths Slack tide Theory of tides Tidal bore Tidal force Tidal power Tidal race Tidal range Tidal resonance Tide gauge Tideline Landforms Abyssal fan Abyssal plain Atoll Bathymetric chart Carbonate platform Coastal geography Cold seep Continental margin Continental rise Continental shelf Contourite Guyot Hydrography Knoll Ocean bank Oceanic basin Oceanic plateau Oceanic trench Passive margin Seabed Seamount Submarine canyon Submarine volcano Plate tectonics Convergent boundary Divergent boundary Fracture zone Hydrothermal vent Marine geology Mid-ocean ridge Mohorovičić discontinuity Oceanic crust Outer trench swell Ridge push Seafloor spreading Slab pull Slab suction Slab window Subduction Transform fault Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis Volcanic arc Ocean zones Benthic Deep ocean water Deep sea Littoral Mesopelagic Oceanic Pelagic Photic Surf Swash Sea level Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis Global Sea Level Observing System North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System Sea-level curve Sea level drop Sea level rise World Geodetic System Acoustics Deep scattering layer Ocean acoustic tomography Sofar bomb SOFAR channel Underwater acoustics Satellites Jason-1 OSTM/Jason-2 Jason-3 Related Acidification Argo Benthic lander Color of water DSV Alvin Marginal sea Marine energy Marine pollution Mooring National Oceanographic Data Center Ocean Explorations Observations Reanalysis Ocean surface topography Ocean temperature Ocean thermal energy conversion Oceanography Outline of oceanography Pelagic sediment Sea surface microlayer Sea surface temperature Seawater Science On a Sphere Stratification Thermocline Underwater glider Water column World Ocean Atlas Category Commons Oceans portal

v t e Aquatic ecosystems General components and freshwater ecosystems General Acoustic ecology Algal bloom Anoxic waters Aquatic adaptation Aquatic animal Insect Mammal Water bird Aquatic biomonitoring Aquatic plant Aquatic population dynamics Aquatic predation Aquatic respiration Aquatic science Aquatic toxicology Benthos Bioluminescence Biomass Cascade effect Colored dissolved organic matter Dead zone Ecohydrology Eutrophication Fisheries science Food chain Food web GIS and aquatic science Hydrobiology Hypoxia Macrobenthos Meiobenthos Microbial ecology Microbial food web Microbial loop Mycoloop Nekton Neuston Particle Pelagic zone Photic zone Phytoplankton Plankton Pleuston Productivity Ramsar Convention Sediment trap Semiaquatic Shoaling and schooling Siltation Spawn Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems Stream metabolism Substrate Thermal pollution Trophic level Underwater camouflage Water column Zooplankton Freshwater Freshwater biology Freshwater biome Freshwater environmental quality parameters Freshwater fish Hyporheic zone Limnology Lake ecosystem Lake stratification Macrophyte Pond Fish pond Rheotaxis River Ecosystem Stream bed Stream pool Trophic state index Upland and lowland Water garden Wetland Bog Brackish marsh Fen Freshwater marsh Freshwater swamp forest Ecoregions List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF) Africa and Madagascar Latin America and the Caribbean List of marine ecoregions Specific examples Everglades Maharashtra North Pacific Subtropical Gyre San Francisco Estuary Marine ecosystems (components) General Deep scattering layer Diel vertical migration f-ratio Iron fertilization Large marine ecosystem Marine biology Marine chemistry Marine food web Marine primary production Marine snow Ocean fertilization Oceanic physical-biological process Ocean turbidity Photophore Thorson's rule Upwelling Viral shunt Whale fall Marine life Census of Marine Life Deep-sea community Deep-water coral Marine fungi Marine invertebrates Marine larval ecology Seagrass Seashore wildlife Wild fisheries Microorganisms Marine bacteriophage Marine prokaryotes Marine protists Marine viruses Paradox of the plankton Vertebrates Marine mammal Marine reptile list Saltwater fish Coastal fish Coral reef fish Deep-sea fish Demersal fish Pelagic fish Seabird Marine habitats Bay mud Marine coastal ecosystem Coastal biogeomorphology Cold seep Coral reef Davidson Seamount § Ecology Estuary Intertidal ecology Intertidal wetland Kelp forest Hydrothermal vent Lagoon Mangrove Marine biomes Mudflat Oyster reef Rocky shore Salt marsh Salt pannes and pools Seagrass meadow Sponge ground Sponge reef Tide pool Conservation Coral bleaching Ecological values of mangroves Fisheries and climate change HERMIONE Human impact on marine life Marine conservation activism Marine pollution Marine protected area Lakes portal Oceans portal Category

v t e Groups of organisms in aquatic ecosystems Benthos Macrobenthos Meiobenthos Herpon Nekton Neuston Pechton / Pecton / Pekton Plankton Pleuston Plocon Seston Tripton

v t e Biogeographic regions Biomes Terrestrial biomes Polar/montane Tundra Taiga Montane grasslands and shrublands Temperate Coniferous forests Broadleaf and mixed forests Deciduous forests Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Tropical and subtropical Coniferous forests Moist broadleaf forests Dry broadleaf forests Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Dry Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Deserts and xeric shrublands Steppe Wet Flooded grasslands and savannas Riparian Wetland Mangroves Aquatic biomes Pond Littoral Intertidal Kelp forests Coral reefs Neritic zone Pelagic zone Benthic zone Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Demersal zone Other biomes Endolithic zone Biogeographic realms Terrestrial Afrotropical Antarctic Australasian Holarctic Nearctic Palearctic Indomalayan Neotropical Oceanian Marine Antarctic/Southern Ocean Arctic Central Indo-Pacific Eastern Indo-Pacific Temperate Australasia Temperate Northern Atlantic Temperate Northern Pacific Temperate South America Temperate Southern Africa Tropical Atlantic Tropical Eastern Pacific Western Indo-Pacific Subdivisions Biogeographic provinces Bioregions Ecoregions Lists of ecoregions Global 200 ecoregions See also Altitudinal zonation Ecological classification Floristic kingdoms Vegetation classifications Wallace Line Zoogeography

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Benthic zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_zone) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_zone?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.