# Be languages

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Kra–Dai languages spoken in China

This article is about a pair of languages in China. For the language with ISO code be, see [Belarusian language](/source/Belarusian_language).

Be Lingao Native to China Region Hainan Native speakers (600,000 cited 2000)[1] Language family Kra–Dai Kam–Tai? Be–Tai?[2] Be–Jizhao?[3][4] Be Language codes ISO 639-3 onb Glottolog ling1270

**Be** (native pronunciation: [\[ʔɑŋ˧ɓe˧\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA)), also known as **Ong Be**, **Bê**, or *Vo Limgao* ([Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_characters): 臨高話; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Lín'gāohuà*), is a pair of languages spoken by 600,000 people, 100,000 of them monolingual, on the north-central coast of [Hainan Island](/source/Hainan), including the suburbs of the provincial capital [Haikou](/source/Haikou). The speakers are counted as part of the [Han Chinese](/source/Han_Chinese) nationality in census. According to *[Ethnologue](/source/Ethnologue)*, it is taught in primary schools.[5]

## Names

Be speakers refer to themselves as *ʔaŋ³³vo³³*, with *ʔaŋ³³* being the prefix for persons and *vo³³* meaning 'village'.[6] Liang (1997) notes that it is similar to the autonym *ŋaːu¹¹fɔːn¹¹* (from *ŋaːu¹¹* 'person' and *fɔːn¹¹* 'village'), by which Gelong 仡隆 ([Cun language](/source/Cun_language)) speakers refer to themselves.

## Classification

The Be languages are a pair of [Kra–Dai languages](/source/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages), but its precise relationship to other branches within the Kra-Dai family has yet not been conclusively determined. Hansell (1988)[2] considers Be to be a [sister](/source/Sister_group) of the [Tai](/source/Tai_languages) branch based on shared vocabulary, and proposes a *Be–Tai* grouping.

Based on toponymic evidence from place names with the prefix *dya*- (调 diao), [Jinfang Li](/source/Jinfang_Li) considers Be to have originated from the [Leizhou](/source/Leizhou) peninsula of [Guangdong](/source/Guangdong) province.[7] Liang (1997:16) considers Be to have migrated to Hainan from the [Leizhou Peninsula](/source/Leizhou_Peninsula) of [Guangdong](/source/Guangdong) about 2,500 years ago during the [Warring States Period](/source/Warring_States_Period), but not over 3,000 years ago. Liang & Zhang (1996:21–25)[8] also believe that Be had migrated from the Leizhou Peninsula to northern Hainan about 2,500 years ago during the [Warring States period](/source/Warring_States_period).

Weera Ostapirat (1998),[9] analyzing data from Zhang (1992),[10] notes that Be and [Jizhao](/source/Jizhao_language) share many lexical similarities and sound correspondences, and that Jizhao may be a remnant Be-related language in China.

According to Ostapirat (2026), Be originated from the present-day borderlands of [Guangxi](/source/Guangxi), China and northern Vietnam. The ancestors of Be speakers migrated to northern Hainan via the [Leizhou Peninsula](/source/Leizhou_Peninsula).[11]

## Dialects

Be consists of the Lincheng (临城, Western) and Qiongshan (琼山, Eastern) dialects.[12] Liang (1997:32) documents the following varieties of Be.

- [Lingao County](/source/Lingao_County), including Lincheng (临城镇) and Xinying (新盈镇) towns

- Bailian (白莲), [Chengmai County](/source/Chengmai_County)

- Longtang Township (龙塘镇), [Qiongshan District](/source/Qiongshan_District)

Be of Chengmai is intermediate between the Lincheng and Qiongshan dialects, and has features of both.[12]

Chen (2018) contains extensive comparative lexical data for the Be dialects of Changliu (長流), Yongxing (永興), Longtang (龍塘), Qiaotou (橋頭), Huangtong (皇桐), and Xinying (新盈). The Qiaotou, Huangtong, and Xinying dialects are unintelligible with the Changliu, Yongxing, Longtang, and Shishan (石山) dialects. Chen (2018) also reconstructs Proto-Ong-Be on the basis of this comparative lexical data.

### Classification

Chen (2018: 82) classifies the Ong-Be dialects into two groups, which are mutually unintelligible with each other.

- **Ong-Be** - Western Ong-Be - Qiaotou 桥头 - Huangtong 皇桐 - Maniao 马尿 - Lincheng 凌城 - Jialai 加來 - Meiliang 美良 - Xinying 新盈 - Eastern Ong-Be - Longtang 龙塘 - Longqiao 龙橋 - Longquan 龙泉 (formerly Shizilu 十字路) - Yongxing 永兴 - Shishan 石山 - Changliu 长流 - Laocheng 老城

Schmitz (2024) suggests three dialects:

- **Ong-Be (Lingao)** - Lingao County Lingao - Bohou 博厚 - Jialai 加来 - Lincheng 临城 - Chengmai County Lingao - Haikou City Lingao

## Phonology

### Consonants

#### Initials

Be consonant initials Labial Alveolar (Alveolo-) palatal Velar Glottal Plosive voiceless (p) t k ʔ glottalized ʔb ʔd Affricate ts Fricative voiceless f s (ɕ) x h voiced v Nasal m n ȵ ŋ Approximant l j

- [p] is mainly heard in finals, rarely in initials.

- /s/ can also be heard as [ɕ] in free variation.

- /f/ can be heard as [pʰ] in the dialect of Xindengyi.

#### Finals

Be consonant finals Labial Alveolar Velar Glottal Plosive p t k ʔ Nasal m n ŋ

### Vowels

Be vowels Front Central Back High i u Mid e ə o (ɛ) (ɐ) ɔ Low a

- Vowels in word-initial position are phonetically heard beginning with a glottal [ʔ].

- An open-mid vowel [ɛ] occurs in the Chengmai and Qiongshan dialects.

- A near-open central vowel sound [ɐ] also occurs in the Qiongshan dialect.[13]

### Tones

Be is a [tonal language](/source/Tonal_language). It has 5 tones:

- Rising (¹)

- High (²)

- Mid (³)

- Low (⁴)

- Mid checked (⁷)

The Bolian dialect has also a high checked tone (⁸).

## See also

- [List of Proto-Ong-Be reconstructions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:List_of_Proto-Ong-Be_reconstructions) (Wiktionary)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-e18_1-0)** [Be](https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/onb/) at *[Ethnologue](/source/Ethnologue)* (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hansell1988_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hansell1988_2-1) Hansell, Mark (1988). "The Relation of Be to Tai: Evidence from Tones and Initials". In Edmondson, Jerold A.; Solnit, David B. (eds.). *Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai*. Publications in Linguistics No. 86. Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 239–288.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ostapirat1998_3-0)** Ostapirat, W. (1998). [A Mainland Bê Language? / 大陆的Bê语言？](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756759). *Journal of Chinese Linguistics*, 26(2), 338-344

1. **[^](#cite_ref-glottoBeic_4-0)** [Hammarström, Harald](/source/Harald_Hammarstr%C3%B6m); Forkel, Robert; [Haspelmath, Martin](/source/Martin_Haspelmath); Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10). ["Glottolog 4.8 - Beic"](https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/beic1239). *[Glottolog](/source/Glottolog)*. [Leipzig](/source/Leipzig): [Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology](/source/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5281/zenodo.7398962](https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.7398962). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231020040823/glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/beic1239) from the original on 2023-10-20. Retrieved 2023-10-19.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Lingao"](https://www.ethnologue.com/language/onb). *Ethnologue*. Retrieved 2018-12-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang19971_6-0)** [Liang 1997](#CITEREFLiang1997), p. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Tan, Xiaoshu 谭晓舒 (2015-04-22). ["Lǐ Jǐnfāng jiàoshòu: "Bīnwēi yǔyán jízhào huà yánjiū"" 李锦芳教授：“濒危语言吉兆话研究”](https://web.archive.org/web/20210613054836/http://wxy.gxun.edu.cn/info/1224/2008.htm). *Wén xuéyuàn* 文学院. Archived from [the original](https://wxy.gxun.edu.cn/info/1224/2008.htm) on 2021-06-13. Retrieved 2021-09-01.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Liang_1996_8-0)** Liang, Min 梁敏; Zhang, Junru 张均 (1996). *Dòng-Tái yǔzú gàilùn* 侗台语族概论 [*An Introduction to the Kam–Tai Languages*] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [7-5004-1681-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-5004-1681-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ostapirat_1998_9-0)** Ostapirat, Weera (1998). "A Mainland Bê Language? / Dàlù de bê yǔyán?". *Journal of Chinese Linguistics*. **26** (2): 338–344. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [23756759](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756759).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Zhang_1992_10-0)** Zhang, Zhenxing 张振兴 (1992). "Guǎngdōngshěng wúchuān fāngyán jì lüè" 广东省吴川方言记略. *Fāngyán* 方言 (in Chinese). **1992** (3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ostapirat2026_11-0)** Ostapirat, Weera (2026). "Kra-Dai Migration and Austro-Tai Numerals". In Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Okamoto, Susumu; Suzuki, Hiroyuki (eds.). [*Establishing Spatiotemporal Linguistics: Toward an Interdisciplinary Approach to the History of Language and of Human Movement*](https://brill.com/display/book/9789004762077/BP000011.xml). Brill. p. 41–54. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004762077-004](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004762077-004). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-76207-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-76207-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang1997_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang1997_12-1) [Liang 1997](#CITEREFLiang1997).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Zhang, Yuansheng; Ma, Jialin; Wen, Mingying; Wei, Xinglang (1985). *Hǎinán Língāo huà* 海南临高话 (in Chinese). Nanning: Guangxi minzu chubanshe.

## Works cited

- Liang, Min 梁敏 (1997). *Língāo yǔ yánjiū* 临高语研究 [*A Study of Lingao*] (in Chinese). Shanghai: Shanghai yuandong chubanshe 上海远东出版社.

- Chen, Yen-ling (2018). [*Proto-Ong-Be*](https://web.archive.org/web/20230605121229/http://ling.hawaii.edu/wp-content/uploads/ChenYenlingFinal.pdf) (PDF) (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Hawaii at Manoa. Archived from [the original](http://ling.hawaii.edu/wp-content/uploads/ChenYenlingFinal.pdf) (PDF) on 2023-06-05. Retrieved 2019-01-17.

- Schmitz, Timo. 2024. *Family Tree: Tai-Kadai Languages*. {url=[https://www.academia.edu/114687690/Family_Tree_Tai_Kadai_Languages}](https://www.academia.edu/114687690/Family_Tree_Tai_Kadai_Languages})

## Further reading

- Zhang, Yuansheng 张元生. 1985. *Hainan Lingaohua* 海南临高话. Nanning: Guangxi People's Publishing House 广西民族出版社.

## External links

- [ABVD: Ong Be word list](https://web.archive.org/web/20110520125355/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=724)

- [Ong Be–language Swadesh vocabulary list of basic words](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Tai–Kadai_languages) (from Wiktionary's [Swadesh-list appendix](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists))

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v t e Kra–Dai languages Kra Laha Lachi Paha Buyang En Qabiao Gelao Vandu A'ou Mulao Hagei Telue Qau Kam–Sui Mulam Kam (Dong) Cao Miao Nuoxi (Naxi Yao) Then Maonan Chadong Sui Mak Ai-Cham Biao Biao Lakkia Lakkia Hlai Bouhin Ha Em Lauhut Tongzha Zandui Baoting Cun Nadou Changjiang Moyfaw Baisha Yuanmen Jiamao Jiamao Be–Jizhao Be Jizhao Tai (Zhuang, etc.) Northern Standard Zhuang Bouyei Hezhang Buyi Yei Zhuang Longsang Zhuang E Saek Tai Yo (Nyaw) Yoy Tai Pao Central Nong Zhuang Dai Zhuang Min Zhuang Yang Zhuang Pyang Zhuang Myang Zhuang Nùng Tày Tsʻün-Lao Southwestern (Thai) Northwestern Shan Tai Ya Tai Nuea Tai Long Tai Hongjin Khamti Tai Laing Phake Aiton Khamyang Ahom Turung Lao–Phutai Lao Phu Thai Isan Tai Yo (Nyaw) Lao Nyo Kaloeng Chiang Saen Thai (Siamese) Northern Thai Tai Daeng Tai Meuay Tai Dón Tai Hang Tong Tai Lue Yong Tai Dam Khün Phuan Thai Song Tày Tac Southern Southern Thai (other) Sapa Pa Di Tai Muong Vat Tai Thanh Tai Khang Kuan (mixed) Cao Lan (mixed origins) Hezhang Buyi E Cao Lan Jiamao proposed groupings Kam–Tai Proto-languages Proto-Kra–Dai Proto-Kra Proto-Tai Proto-Kam–Sui Proto-Hlai Italics indicate extinct languages

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Be languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be_languages) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be_languages?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.