# Baybars

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{{Short description|Sultan of Egypt and Syria from 1260 to 1277}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| title = Sultan Misr wa al-Sham <br/>Al-Malik al-Zahir <br/>Rukn al-Din
| image = Baybars, Medallion IV, Baptistère de Saint-Louis.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = A probable near-contemporary depiction of Sultan Baybars:<ref name="AF"/> enthroned ruler and attendants in the [Baptistère de Saint Louis](/source/Baptist%C3%A8re_de_Saint_Louis) (1320–1340).<ref name="AF">{{cite journal |last1=Fuess |first1=Albrecht |title=Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008) |date=2018 |pages=76, 84, Fig. 5 |doi=10.6082/M100007Z |url=https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/1148/files/MSR_XII-2_2008-Fuess-pp71-94.pdf |journal=Mamlūk Studies Review |volume=12 |issue=2}}</ref>
| succession = [Sultan of Egypt and Syria](/source/List_of_Mamluk_sultans)
| predecessor = [Saif ad-Din Qutuz](/source/Saif_ad-Din_Qutuz)
| successor = [Al-Said Barakah](/source/Al-Said_Barakah)
| reign = 24 October 1260 – 30 June 1277
| coronation = 1260 at [Salihiyah](/source/Salihiyya_Madrasa)
<!-- | othertitles = [Sultan of Egypt](/source/Sultan_of_Egypt) -->| full name = al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari Abu al-Futuh
| burial_place = [Zahiriyya Library](/source/Zahiriyya_Library), Damascus
| spouse = Iltutmish Khatun (likely a daughter born from a Khwarazmian Emir and a Daughter of [Berke](/source/Berke)), [Al-Karakiya](/source/Al-Karakiya)
| spouse-type = Consort<!-- Please observe that the consorts of sultans could be either wives or slave concubines. Only legal wives can be referred to with the term "spouse": do not remove the term "Consort" unless there was a confirmed marriage -->
| issue = {{unbulletedlist|[Al-Said Barakah](/source/Al-Said_Barakah)|[Solamish](/source/Solamish)|Khizir|Tidhkarbay Khatun|}}
| house = Zahiri
| dynasty = [Bahri](/source/Bahri_dynasty)
| birth_date = 19 July 1223 or 1228
| birth_place = [Dasht-i Kipchak](/source/Dasht-i_Kipchak)<ref name="auto">Adventuring in the Englishes: Language and Literature in a Postcolonial Globalized World, Ikram Ahmed Elsherif, Piers Michael Smith. 2014. Part I; Chapter 2, p 18.</ref><ref name="britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Baybars-I |title=Baybars I |website=Britannica |date=15 February 2024 }}</ref>
| death_date = 30 June 1277 (aged 50/55)
| death_place = [Damascus](/source/Damascus), [Mamluk Sultanate](/source/Bahri_dynasty)
| religion = [Islam](/source/Islam)
| module = {{Infobox military person |embed=yes
| battles={{tree list}}
* '''[Seventh Crusade](/source/Seventh_Crusade)'''
** [Battle of Mansurah (1250)](/source/Battle_of_Mansurah_(1250))
** [Battle of Fariskur (1250)](/source/Battle_of_Fariskur_(1250))
* '''[Mongol invasions of the Levant](/source/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant)'''
** [Battle of Ain Jalut](/source/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut)
** [Battle of Elbistan](/source/Battle_of_Elbistan)
** [Siege of al-bira (1272)](/source/Siege_of_al-bira_(1272))
** '''[Lord Edward's Crusade](/source/Lord_Edward's_Crusade)'''
** [Siege of Tripoli (1271)](/source/Siege_of_Tripoli_(1271))
* '''Other Battles/Campaigns:'''
* '''[Battle of Mari](/source/Battle_of_Mari)'''
* '''[Siege of Antioch (1268)](/source/Siege_of_Antioch_(1268))'''
* '''[Fall of Haifa (1265)](/source/Fall_of_Haifa_(1265))'''
* '''[Fall of Arsuf](/source/Fall_of_Arsuf)'''
* '''[Fall of Montfort Castle](/source/Fall_of_Montfort_Castle)'''
* '''[Siege of Safed (1266)](/source/Siege_of_Safed_(1266))'''
* '''[Fall of Krak des Chevaliers](/source/Fall_of_Krak_des_Chevaliers)'''
* '''[Battle of Dongola (1276)](/source/Battle_of_Dongola_(1276))'''
* '''[Fall of Jaffa (1268)](/source/Fall_of_Jaffa_(1268))'''
* '''[Fall of Beaufort Castle (1268)](/source/Fall_of_Beaufort_Castle_(1268))'''
* '''[Siege of Caesarea Maritima (1265)](/source/Siege_of_Caesarea_Maritima_(1265))'''
*'''[Revolt of Sinjar (1261)](/source/Revolt_of_Sinjar_(1261))'''
*'''[Siege of Ashkalon (1270)](/source/Siege_of_Ashkalon_(1270))'''
*'''[Siege of Chastel Blanc (1271)](/source/Siege_of_Chastel_Blanc_(1271))'''

{{tree list/end}}}}
}}

'''Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari''' ({{langx|ar|الْمَلِك الظَّاهِر رُكْن الدِّين بَيْبَرْس الْبُنْدُقْدَارِيّ}};{{efn|"King Baybars the Victorious, Pillar of the Faith, the Crossbowman"

}} 1223/1228 – 30 June 1277), commonly known as '''Baibars''' or '''Baybars''' ({{lang|ar|بَيْبَرْس}}) and nicknamed '''Abu al-Futuh''' ({{lang|ar|أَبُو الْفُتُوح}}, {{lit|Father of Conquests}}), was the fourth [Mamluk](/source/Mamluk_Sultanate) [sultan of Egypt and Syria](/source/List_of_rulers_of_Islamic_Egypt), ruling from 1260 to 1277. He is noted for leading the vanguard of the Mamluk army that inflicted the first substantial defeat of the [Mongols](/source/Mongol_Empire) at the [Battle of Ain Jalut](/source/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut), as well as his successful campaigns against the [Crusaders](/source/Crusader_states). Through a combination of diplomacy and military action, he ushered in an age of Mamluk dominance in the [Eastern Mediterranean](/source/Eastern_Mediterranean).

Of [Turkic](/source/Turkic_peoples) [Kipchak](/source/Kipchaks) origin, Baybars was sold into slavery during the [Mongol invasions](/source/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia) and ultimately entered the service of [Ayyubid](/source/Ayyubid_dynasty) sultan [As-Salih Ayyub](/source/As-Salih_Ayyub). He subsequently rose to become a prominent military leader in Egypt. In 1250, he was a commander of the Muslim forces that defeated and captured King [Louis IX of France](/source/Louis_IX_of_France) during the [Seventh Crusade](/source/Seventh_Crusade). He played a significant role in the victory over the invading Mongol army at Ain Jalut and soon thereafter orchestrated the assassination of sultan [Qutuz](/source/Qutuz), seizing the throne for himself.

As sultan, Baybars set about asserting Mamluk authority in Syria. After securing the loyalty of Ayyubid emirs, he launched extensive campaigns against the Crusader states, culminating in the [capture of Antioch](/source/Siege_of_Antioch_(1268)) in 1268. He continued to fend off threats from the Mongols by engaging with the [Ilkhanate](/source/Ilkhanate), while forging an alliance with the [Golden Horde](/source/Golden_Horde). In 1276, he launched an expedition into [Nubia](/source/Nubia) that concluded with the subjugation of [Makuria](/source/Makuria).

==Name and appearance ==
In his native [Turkic language](/source/Turkic_languages), Baybars' name means "great panther"<ref name="Watenpaugh2004">{{cite book |author= Heghnar Zeitlian Watenpaugh |title= The image of an Ottoman city: imperial architecture and urban experience in Aleppo in the 16th and 17th centuries |page=198 |publisher= Brill |year=2004 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=utQo4ek-7BIC&pg=PA198 |isbn=90-04-12454-3}}</ref> or "lord panther"<ref name="Williams">{{cite book |author= Caroline Williams |title= Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide; New Revised Edition |page=185 |publisher= The American University in Cairo Press |year=2008 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Cmc4HSC5XWgC&pg=PA185 |isbn= 9789774162053}}</ref> (see also Wiktionary: ''bay'' "rich person, noble" + ''pars'' "leopard, panther").

[[File:BaibarsBridge22.JPG|thumb|Bridge built by Baybars near modern [Lod](/source/Lod), with an inscription from 1273 glorifying the sultan and depicting his emblem, the lion/panther<ref>{{Cite book |last=Petry |first=Carl F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RIdoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=The Mamluk Sultanate |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-108-47104-6 |pages=13 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Possibly based on the Turkic meaning of his name, Baybars used the panther as his heraldic [blazon](/source/blazon), and placed it on both coins and buildings.<ref name="Watenpaugh2004"/> The lion/panther used on the [bridge built by Baybars](/source/Jisr_Jindas) near al-Ludd (today's [Lod](/source/Lod)) plays with a rat, which may be interpreted to represent Baybars' Crusader enemies.<ref name="Christie">{{cite book |author= Niall Christie |title= Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity's Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources |page=121, Plate 8 |publisher= Routledge |edition=first |year=2014 |series= Seminar Studies |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd_pAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 |isbn=9781138022744}}</ref>

Baybars was described as a tall man with [olive skin](/source/olive_skin) and [blue eyes](/source/blue_eyes). He had broad shoulders, slim legs, and a powerful voice.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartlett |first1=W. B. |title=The Fall of Christendom: The Road to Acre 1291 |year=2021 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-4456-8418-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtZEAAAQBAJ&dq=baybars+swarthy&pg=PT48 |language=en}} "He was described as being a tall man with a powerful voice, swarthy skin, and blue eyes.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three – Brill |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/alpha/b?s.rows=20&s.start=220&lang=de |website=referenceworks.brillonline.com |language=en}} "Baybars is described as a tall man with broad chest and shoulders, slim legs, a powerful voice, swarthy skin, and blue eyes."</ref> It was observed that he had [cataract](/source/cataract) in one eye.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thorau |first1=Peter |title=Sultan Baybars der Erste von Ägypten |date=1992 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-06823-0 |page=28 |language=en}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Baybars was a [Kipchak](/source/Kipchaks) thought to be born in the [steppe](/source/steppe) region north of the [Black Sea](/source/Black_Sea), or [Dasht-i Kipchak](/source/Desht-i_Kipchak) at the time<!-- The cited sources don't specify "Dasht-i Kipchak", they simply say from the Kipchaks north of the Black Sea, but linking to this article is probably reasonable; if not, this detail can be removed. -->.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |first=P. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TqasAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 |title=The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517 |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-87152-1 |page=90 |language=en |quote=By origin he was a Kipchak Turk from the territory lying to the north of the Black Sea. When the Mongols conquered this region in about 1241, Baybars' people fled across the Black Sea and sought refuge with a Turcoman chieftain in Anatolia, who proved treacherous, and turned on the fugitives with fire and sword. Baybars was among the captives. He was then about fourteen years of age, and his journey southwards can be traced through the slave-markets of Sivas, Aleppo, Damascus and Hamah. |orig-date=1986}}</ref><ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=Thorau |first=Peter |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/baybars-i-al-malik-al-zahir-rukn-al-din-COM_23709 |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2010 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Baybars I, al-Malik al-Ẓāhir Rukn al-Dīn |quote=Baybars is described as a tall man with broad chest and shoulders, slim legs, a powerful voice, swarthy skin, and blue eyes. He was probably born about 625/1227–8 in the southern Russian steppes as a member of a Qipçāq-Turkish group. At the age of fourteen he became a slave. The amīr Aydakīn al-Bunduqdār bought him in Ḥamāt (Hama) a short while later. |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fry |first=C. George |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CurSh3Sh_KMC&pg=PA124 |title=Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-1-57958-041-4 |editor-last=Magill |editor-first=Frank Northen |pages=124 |language=en |chapter=Baybars I |quote=Baybars I, al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn ak-Din Baybars al-Salihi, was born around the year 1223 in what is now southern Russia. A member of the tribe of Kipchak Turks living on the north shores of the Black Sea, Barbars was a victim of the Mongol invasion of his native region in the late 1230's. By the time he was fourteen, Baybars had become a prisoner of war; he was sold in the slave market in Sivas, Anatolia. |editor-last2=Aves |editor-first2=Alison}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Amitai |first=Reuven |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA101 |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=Josef W. |page=101 |language=en |chapter=Baybars I, Mamluk Sultan |quote=Baybars was born around 1220 CE among the Qipchaq Turks, who lived in the steppe region north of the Black Sea. Fleeing from the Mongol invasions in the area in 1241–1242, Baybars and his family moved to Anatolia. There, Baybars was captured and ended up in the slave market of Damascus.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rabie |first=Hassanein Muhammad |title=Baybars I {{!}} Mamlūk Sultan of Egypt & Syria |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Baybars-I |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> There is a discrepancy in [Ibn Taghrībirdī](/source/Ibn_Taghr%C4%ABbird%C4%AB)'s dating of his birth, since he says it took place in 625 AH (12 December 1227 – 29 November 1228) and also that Baybars was about 24 years old in 1247, which would put his birth closer to 1223. He belonged to the Barli tribe. According to a fellow Cuman and eyewitness, Badr al-Din Baysari, the Barli fled the armies of the [Mongols](/source/Mongol_Empire), intending to settle in the [Second Bulgarian Empire](/source/Second_Bulgarian_Empire) (named in the sources [Wallachia](/source/White_Wallachia)). They crossed the [Black Sea](/source/Black_Sea) from either [Crimea](/source/Crimea) or [Alania](/source/Alania), where they had arrived in Bulgaria in about 1242. In the meantime, the [Mongols invaded Bulgaria](/source/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia), including the regions where the Cuman refugees had recently settled.<ref name="Fiennes">{{cite book |author=Ranulph Fiennes |title=The Elite: The Story of Special Forces – From Ancient Sparta to the War on Terror |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2019 |page=64 |isbn=978-1-4711-5664-9 }}</ref> Both Baybars, who witnessed his parents being massacred,<ref name="Fiennes"/> and Baysari were among the captives during the invasion and were sold into slavery in the [Sultanate of Rum](/source/Sultanate_of_Rum) at the slave market in [Sivas](/source/Sivas). Afterwards, he was sold in [Hama](/source/Hama) to {{ill|'Alā' al-Dīn Īdīkīn al-Bunduqārī|de|Ala' ad-Din Aydekin}}, an Egyptian of high rank, who brought him to [Cairo](/source/Cairo). In 1247, al-Bunduqārī was arrested and the sultan of Egypt, [As-Salih Ayyub](/source/As-Salih_Ayyub), confiscated his slaves, including Baybars.<ref name=Korobeinikov>{{citation |author=Dimitri Korobeinikov |chapter=A Broken Mirror: The Kıpçak World in the Thirteenth Century |pages=379–412 |title=The Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Cumans |editor1=Florin Curta |editor2=Roman Kovalev |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2008}}.</ref>

[Al-Sha'rani](/source/Al-Sha'rani) (d. 973/1565) counted him among [Ibn 'Arabi](/source/Ibn_'Arabi)'s students.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nader Jamil Jum'a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpzODwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85 |title=محيي الدين بن عربي وآراؤه الفقهية في الفتوحات المكية |date=2020 |publisher=[Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya](/source/w%3Ade%3AD%C4%81r_al-Kutub_al-%CA%BFilm%C4%ABya) |isbn=9782745192783 |edition=1st |location=[Lebanon](/source/Lebanon) |page=86 |language=Arabic |trans-title=Muhyi al-Din ibn 'Arabi and his jurisprudential opinions in al-Futuhāt al-Makkiyya |quote=الظاهر بيبرس: ركن الدين أبو الفتوح بيبرس التركي البندقداري ثم الصالحي صاحب مصر والشام ولد في حدود العشرين وستمائة كان رجلاً شجاعاً فارساً مقداماً مجاهداً عظيم الهيبة يضرب بشجاعته المثل، وله في الإسلام أيام بيض وفتوحات مشهورة. أجازه الشيخ محيي الدين ابن عربي برواية جميع مؤلفاته توفي 676 هـ، ذكره الشعراني ضمن تلاميذ ابن عربي. |via=[Google Books](/source/Google_Books)}}</ref>

=== Rise to power ===
[[File:EdwardICrusadeMap.jpg|thumb|The Mamluks under Baybars (yellow) fought off the Franks and the Mongols during the [Ninth Crusade](/source/Ninth_Crusade).]]
In 1250, he supported the defeat of the [Seventh Crusade](/source/Seventh_Crusade) of [Louis IX of France](/source/Louis_IX_of_France) in two major battles. The first was the [Battle of Al Mansurah](/source/Battle_of_Mansurah_(1250)), where he employed an ingenious strategy in ordering the opening of a gate to let the crusader knights enter the town; the crusaders rushed into the town that they thought was deserted to find themselves trapped inside. They were besieged from all directions by the Egyptian forces and the town population, and suffered heavy losses. [Robert of Artois](/source/Robert_I%2C_Count_of_Artois), who took refuge in a house,<ref>Lord of Joinville, 110, part II.</ref><ref>Asly, p. 49.<br>Skip Knox, ''Egyptian Counter-attack, The Seventh Crusade''.</ref> and [William Longespée the Younger](/source/William_Longesp%C3%A9e_the_Younger) were both killed, along with most of the [Knights Templar](/source/Knights_Templar). Only five Templar Knights escaped alive.<ref>According to Matthew Paris, only 2 Templars, 1 Hospitaller and one 'contemptible person' escaped. Matthew Paris, ''Louis IX's Crusade'', p. 14/ Vol. 5.</ref> The second was the [Battle of Fariskur](/source/Battle_of_Fariskur_(1250)) which essentially ended the Seventh Crusade and led to the capture of Louis IX. Egyptian forces in that battle were led by Sultan [Turanshah](/source/Al-Muazzam_Turanshah), the young son of recently deceased [as-Salih Ayyub](/source/as-Salih_Ayyub). Shortly after the victory over the Crusaders, Baybars and a group of Mamluk soldiers assassinated Turanshah, leading to as-Salih Ayyub's widow [Shajar al-Durr](/source/Shajar_al-Durr) being named ''[sultana](/source/Sultana_(title))''.<ref>Runciman, Steven, ''A History of the Crusades, Volume Three:&nbsp; The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades'', Cambridge University Press, London, 1951, pp. 272–273</ref>

In 1254, a power shift occurred in Egypt, as [Aybak](/source/Aybak) killed [Faris ad-Din Aktai](/source/Faris_ad-Din_Aktai), the leader of the Bahri Mamluks. Some of his Mamluks, among them Baybars and [Qalawun al-Alfi](/source/Qalawun), fled to [an-Nasir Yusuf](/source/an-Nasir_Yusuf) in [Syria](/source/Syria),{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=326}} persuading him to break the accord{{Clarify|reason=Which accord?|date=September 2023}} and invade Egypt. Aybak wrote to an-Nassir Yusuf warning him of the danger of these Mamluks who took refuge in Syria, and agreed to grant him their territorial domains on the coast, but an-Nasir Yusuf refused to expel them and instead returned to them the domains which Aybak had granted. In 1255, an-Nasir Yusuf sent new forces to the Egyptian border, this time with many of Aktai's Mamluks, among them Baybars, and Qalawun al-Alfi, but he was defeated again. In 1257, Baybars and other Bahri Mamluks left Damascus to [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem), where they deposed its governor Kütük and plundered its markets, then they did the same in [Gaza](/source/Gaza_City). Later on, they fought against the forces of an-Nasir Yusuf at [Nablus](/source/Nablus), then fled to join the forces of {{ill|al-Mughith Umar|de|al-Mughīth ʿUmar}} in [Kerak](/source/Kerak).{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=331}} The combined forces tried in vain to invade Egypt during the reign of Aybak.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=332}}

Baybars then sent 'Ala al-Din Taybars al-Waziri to discuss with [Qutuz](/source/Qutuz) his return to Egypt, which was eagerly accepted.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=348}} He was still a commander under sultan Qutuz at the [Battle of Ain Jalut](/source/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut) in 1260, when he decisively defeated the Mongols. After the battle, Sultan Qutuz (aka Koetoez) was assassinated while on a hunting expedition. It was said that Baybars was involved in the assassination because he expected to be rewarded with the governorship of [Aleppo](/source/Aleppo) for his military success, but Qutuz, fearing his ambition, refused to give him the post.<ref>The story of the involvement of Baybars in the assassination was told by different historians in different ways. In one account the assassins killed Qutuz while he was giving a hand to Baybars (Al-Maqrizi and Ibn-Taghri). In another, from an Ayyubid source, Qutuz was giving a hand to someone when Baybars struck his back with a sword (Abu-Al-Fida). A third account mentioned that Baybars tried to help Qutuz against the assassins (O. Hassan). According to Al-Maqrizi, the Emirs who struck Qutuz were Badr ad-Din Baktut, Emir Ons, and Emir Bahadir al-Mu'izzi. (Al-Maqrizi, p.519/vol.1)</ref> Baybars succeeded Qutuz as Sultan of Egypt.<ref>MacHenry, Robert. ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 1993. [https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia07ency <!-- quote=baybars qutuz aleppo. --> ''Baybars'']</ref>

=== Becoming Sultan ===
Soon after Baybars had ascended to the Sultanate, his authority was confirmed without any serious resistance, except from [Alam al-Din Sinjar al-Halabi](/source/Sinjar_al-Halabi), another Mamluk [amir](/source/amir) who was popular and powerful enough to claim [Damascus](/source/Damascus). Also, the threat from the Mongols was still serious enough to be considered as a threat to Baybars' authority. However, Baybars first chose to deal with Sinjar,<ref name="History of the Arab world and the Crusades">{{cite book |last1=al-Madidi |first1=Khasd |last2=Abdul Muhammad |first2=Sawadi |last3=Abdul Qadir an-Nuri |first3=Duraid |title=History of the Arab world and the Crusades |publisher=Mosul University Press 1981 |url=https://app.aqsalibrary.org/records/index/1/35668 |access-date=27 September 2021 |archive-date=27 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027005447/https://app.aqsalibrary.org/records/index/1/35668 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Maqrīzī (al-)|first= Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn 'Alī| title= Kitāb al-Sulūk li-Ma'rifat Duwal al-Mulūk|editor-last= Ziada (al-Ziyādah)|editor-first= Muḥammad Muṣṭafā|volume=2|place= Cairo|publisher= Lajnat al-Ta'līf|year=1956|language=ar}}</ref><ref name="كتاب المختصر في أخبار البشر (تاريخ أبي الفدا) ج1">{{cite book |last1=. ʿAlī b. Maḥmūd b. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar b. Shāhanshāh b. Ayyūb b. Shādī b. Marwān |first1=Ismāʿīl Abulfeda |title=Concise History of Humanity(المختصر في أخبار Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar) |url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikisource/ar/4/4b/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B11.pdf |access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref> and marched on Damascus. At the same time the princes of [Hama](/source/Hama) and [Homs](/source/Homs) proved able to defeat the Mongols in the [First Battle of Homs](/source/First_Battle_of_Homs), which lifted the Mongol threat for a while. On 17 January 1261, Baybars's forces were able to rout the troops of Sinjar outside Damascus, and pursued the attack to the city, where the citizens were loyal to Sinjar and resisted Baybars, although their resistance was soon crushed.

There was also a brief rebellion in Cairo led by a leading figure of the Shiite named [al-Kurani](/source/al-Kurani). Al-Kurani is said originated from Nishapur.<ref name="History of the Arab world and the Crusades" /> Al-Kurani and his follower are recorded to have attacked the weapon stores and stables of Cairo during a night raid. Baybars, however, manage to suppress the rebellion quickly as he surrounded and arrested them all. Al- Kurani and another rebel leaders were executed (crucified) in [Bab Zuweila](/source/Bab_Zuweila)<ref name="History of the Arab world and the Crusades" />

After suppressing the revolt of [Sinjar](/source/Sinjar), Baybars then managed to deal with the [Ayyubid](/source/Ayyubid)s, while quietly eliminating the prince of Kerak. Ayyubids such as [Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs](/source/Al-Ashraf_Musa%2C_Emir_of_Homs) and the Ayyubid Emir Dynasty of Hama [Al-Mansur Muhammad II](/source/Al-Mansur_Muhammad_II), who had earlier staved off the Mongol threat, were permitted to continue their rule in exchange for their recognizing Baybars' authority as Sultan.<ref name="mrw8AAAAIAAJ">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrw8AAAAIAAJ&q=baibars+homs&pg=PA315 | last = Runciman | first = Steven | year=1987 |title = '''A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades''' quoting Magrisi Sultans, I, i, p. 116; Abu al Fida pp. 145–50; Bar Hebraeus p. 439 |page = 316 | publisher = CUP Archive | isbn = 9780521347723 }}</ref>

After the [Abbasid caliphate](/source/Abbasid_caliphate) in Iraq was overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 when they conquered and [sacked Baghdad](/source/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)), the Muslim world lacked a [caliph](/source/caliph), a theoretically supreme leader who had sometimes used his office to endow distant Muslim rulers with legitimacy by sending them writs of investiture. Thus, when the Abbasid refugee Abu al-Qasim Ahmad, the uncle of the last Abbasid caliph [al-Musta'sim](/source/al-Musta'sim), arrived in Cairo in 1261, Baybars had him proclaimed caliph as [al-Mustansir II](/source/al-Mustansir_II) and duly received investiture as sultan from him. Unfortunately, al-Mustansir II was killed by the Mongols during an ill-advised expedition to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols later in the same year. In 1262, another Abbasid, allegedly the great-great-great-grandson of the Caliph [al-Mustarshid](/source/al-Mustarshid), Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad, who had survived from the defeated expedition, was proclaimed caliph as [al-Hakim I](/source/al-Hakim_I), inaugurating the line of Abbasid caliphs of Cairo that continued as long as the [Mamluk sultanate](/source/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)), until 1517. Like his unfortunate predecessor, al-Hakim I also received the formal oath of allegiance of Baybars and provided him with legitimation. While most of the Muslim world did not take these caliphs seriously, as they were mere instruments of the sultans, they still lent a certain legitimation as well as a decorative element to their rule.<ref name= "mrw8AAAAIAAJ"/>

According to ʿIzz al-Dīn ibn Shaddād the Mongols tried to conquer [Al-Bireh](/source/Al-Bireh)  in 1264, after a brutal fight with the Mamluks and Sultan Baybars the mongols retreated beyond the euphrates.

==== Campaign against the Crusaders ====
{{Further| Siege of Antioch (1268)}}
thumb|Gold coin minted under Baybars, with an Arabic inscription and an image of a panther or lion below it
As sultan, Baybars engaged in a lifelong struggle against the Crusader kingdoms in [Syria](/source/Syria), in part because the Christians had aided the Mongols. He started with the [Principality of Antioch](/source/Principality_of_Antioch), which had become a vassal state of the Mongols and had participated in attacks against Islamic targets in Damascus and Syria. In 1263, Baybars laid siege to [Acre](/source/Acre%2C_Israel), the capital of the remnant of the [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/source/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem), although the siege was abandoned when he sacked [Nazareth](/source/Nazareth) instead.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=taJZ433OqJIC&pg=PA7|title=In Xanadu|first=William|last=Dalrymple|author-link=William Dalrymple (historian)|date= 1989|publisher=Penguin Books India|access-date=3 April 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9780143031079}}</ref> He used siege engines to defeat the Crusaders in battles such as the [Fall of Arsuf](/source/Fall_of_Arsuf) from 21 March to 30 April. After breaking into the town he offered free passage to the defending Knights Hospitallers if they surrendered their formidable citadel. The Knights accepted Baybars' offer but were enslaved anyway.<ref>Rodney Stark, 'God's Battalions', 2009, p. 230</ref> Baybars razed the castle to the ground.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sH0YqXERz1wC&dq=baibars+arsuf&pg=PT96|title=The Routledge Companion to the Crusades|first=Peter|last=Lock|date= 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135131449 |via=Google Books}}</ref> He next attacked [Atlit](/source/Ch%C3%A2teau_P%C3%A8lerin) and [Haifa](/source/Haifa), where he captured both towns after destroying the crusaders' resistance, and razed the citadels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATo9AAAAIAAJ&dq=baibars+athlith&pg=PA338|title=The Crusaders in the East|date=1907|publisher=CUP Archive|via=Google Books}}</ref>

In the same year, Baybars laid siege to the fortress of [Safed](/source/Safed), held by the [Templar](/source/Templar) knights, which had [been conquered](/source/Siege_of_Safed_(1188)) by [Saladin](/source/Saladin) in 1188 but returned to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1240. Baybars promised the knights safe passage to the Christian town of Acre if they surrendered their fortress. Badly outnumbered, the knights agreed. On capturing Safed, Baybars did not raze the fortress to the ground but fortified and repaired it instead, as it was strategically situated and well constructed. He installed a new governor in Safed, with the rank of ''Wali''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBBMJJTEoKMC&q=baibars+safed&pg=PA165|title=The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society|first1=Michael|last1=Winter|first2=Amalia|last2=Levanoni|date=2018|publisher=Brill|access-date=3 April 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=978-9004132863}}</ref>

Later, in 1266, Baybars invaded the Christian country of [Cilician Armenia](/source/Cilician_Armenia) which, under King [Hethum I](/source/Hethum_I), had submitted to the Mongol Empire. After defeating the forces of Hethum I in the [Battle of Mari](/source/Battle_of_Mari), Baybars managed to ravage the three great cities of [Mamistra](/source/Mamistra), [Adana](/source/Adana) and [Tarsus](/source/Tarsus%2C_Mersin), so that when Hetoum arrived with Mongol troops, the country was already devastated. Hetoum had to negotiate the return of his son [Leo](/source/Leo_II%2C_King_of_Armenia) by giving control of Armenia's border fortresses to the Mamluks. In 1269, Hetoum abdicated in favour of his son and became a monk, but he died a year later.<ref>[Claude Mutafian](/source/Claude_Mutafian), p. 60</ref> Leo was left in the awkward situation of keeping Cilicia as a subject of the Mongol Empire, while at the same time paying tribute to the Mamluks.<ref>Bournotian, ''A Concise History of the Armenian People'', p. 101</ref>

This isolated Antioch and Tripoli, led by Hethum's son-in-law, Prince [Bohemond VI](/source/Bohemond_VI). After successfully conquering Cilicila, Baybars in 1267 settled his unfinished business with Acre, and continued the extermination of remaining crusader garrisons in the following years. In 1268, he [besieged Antioch](/source/Siege_of_Antioch_(1268)), capturing the city on 18 May. Baybars had promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but he broke his promise and had the city razed, killing or enslaving much of the population after the surrender.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americanoutlook.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=article_detail&id=1474|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129230411/http://www.americanoutlook.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=article_detail&id=1474|url-status=dead|title=Hudson Institute > American Outlook > American Outlook Article Detail<!-- Bot generated title -->|archivedate=29 January 2006}}</ref> prompting the fall of the [Principality of Antioch](/source/Principality_of_Antioch). The massacre of men, women, and children at Antioch "was the single greatest massacre of the entire crusading era."<ref>Thomas F. Madden, ''The Concise History of the Crusades'' (3rd ed. 2014), p. 168</ref> Priests had their throats slit inside their churches, and women were sold into slavery.<ref>Madden, ''supra'' at 168.</ref>

Then he continued to [Jaffa](/source/Jaffa%2C_Israel), which belonged to [Guy](/source/Guy_of_Ibelin_(died_1304)), the son of [John of Ibelin](/source/John_of_Ibelin_(jurist)). Jaffa fell to Baybars on 7 March after twelve hours of fighting; most of Jaffa's citizens were slain, but Baybars allowed the garrison to go unharmed.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dsycrclykIC&q=Jaffa+baibars&pg=PA577 |title = The Later Crusades, 1189–1311|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|year=1969|isbn= 9780299048440|page = 557 }}</ref> After this he conquered [Ashkalon](/source/Ashkalon) and [Caesarea](/source/Caesarea_Maritima).

===Further Ilkhanate attempt to attack the Mamluks===
In 1272 the Mongol Ilkhanates attempted to besiege Al-Bira but failed when Sultan Baybars attacked the Mongols with a relief force of an unknown number, the Mongols tried to repel the attack, but they failed. After Mongol commander Samagar heard that the mongols have been defeated he retreated back into Mongol land.<ref>James waterson book: the Knights of Islam:the Wars of the Mamluks</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=March 2026}}

==== Alliance with Golden Horde ====
Baybars actively pursued a close relationship with [Berke](/source/Berke), the Khan of Golden Horde.<ref name="The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith">{{cite book |author1=Thomas Walker Arnold |author-link= Thomas Walker Arnold |title=The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith |date=1896 |publisher=A. Constable and Company; Harvard University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qxsVAAAAYAAJ |access-date=26 November 2023 |language=En |chapter=8 |page=192 |quote=A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith Sir Thomas Walker Arnold. men , observing the growing enmity between ... Baybars , who persuaded them to embrace Islam.1 Baybars himself was at war with Hūlāgū , whom he had recently ...}}</ref> He particularly was recorded to receive the first two hundred soldiers from Golden Horde to visit warmly, where Baybars persuade them to convert to Islam while also observing the growing enmity between the Golden Horde Khan with Hulagu.<ref name="The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith" /> Baybars, who at that time has just defeated Hulagu, immediately sent envoy to Berke to inform the latter about this. Then, As soon as Berke converted to Islam, he sent envoy to Egypt to give news about this matter, and later, Baybars brought more peoples from Golden Horde to be sent into Egypt, where they also converted to Islam.<ref name="The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith" />

In some time around October to November 1267, or about 666 Safar of [Hijra year](/source/Hijra_year), Baybars wrote condolences and congratulations to the new Khan of the [Golden Horde](/source/Golden_Horde), [Mengu-Timur](/source/Mengu-Timur), to urge him to fight [Abaqa](/source/Abaqa_Khan). Baybars continued to conduct warm correspondence with the Golden Horde, particularly with Mengu Timur's general [Noqai](/source/Nogai_Khan), who unlike Mengu Timur was very cooperative with Baybars. It is theorized that this intimacy was not only due to the religious connection (as Noqai was a Muslim, unlike his Khan), but also because Noqai was not really fond of Mengu-Timur. However, Baybars was pragmatic in his approach and did not want to become involved in complicated intrigue inside the Golden Horde, so instead he stayed close to both Mengu Timur and Noqai.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxOcXC85tnQC&q=baybars+golden+horde&pg=PA59 | last = F. Broadbridge | first = Anne | year= 2008 |title = Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization |page = 59 | publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521852654}}</ref>

====Continued campaign against Crusaders====
{{Further| Fall of Krak des Chevaliers}}
On 30 March 1271, after Baybars captured the smaller castles in the area, including [Chastel Blanc](/source/Chastel_Blanc), he besieged the Krak des Chevaliers, held by the [Hospitaller](/source/Knights_Hospitaller)s. Peasants who lived in the area had fled to the castle for safety and were kept in the outer ward. As soon as Baybars arrived, he began erecting [mangonel](/source/mangonel)s, powerful siege weapons which he would turn on the castle. According to [Ibn Shaddad](/source/Izz_al-Din_ibn_Shaddad), two days later the first line of defences was captured by the besiegers; he was probably referring to a walled suburb outside the castle's entrance.<ref name=King88-92>{{harvnb|King|1949|pp=88–92}}</ref> After a lull of ten days, the besiegers conveyed a letter to the garrison, supposedly from the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli, [Hugues de Revel](/source/Hugues_de_Revel), which granted permission for them to surrender. The garrison capitulated and the Sultan spared their lives.<ref name=King88-92/> The new owners of the castle undertook repairs, focused mainly on the outer ward.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1949|p=91}}</ref> The Hospitaller chapel was converted to a [mosque](/source/mosque) and two [mihrab](/source/mihrab)s were added to the interior.<ref name=FFC179>{{harvnb|Folda|French|Coupel|1982|p=179}}</ref>

Baibars led a campaign against the Assassins. In 1271, Baibars' forces seized al-'Ullaiqah and ar-Rusafa, after taking Masyaf the year before. Later in the year, Shams ad-Din surrendered and was deported to Egypt. Qala'at al-Khawabi fell that year and within two years Gerdkuh and all of the Assassin fortresses were held by the sultan. With the Assassins under his control, Baibars was able to use them to counter the forces arriving in the Ninth Crusade.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

Baybars then turned his attention to Tripoli, but he interrupted his siege there to call a truce in May 1271. The fall of Antioch had led to the brief [Ninth Crusade](/source/Ninth_Crusade), led by [Prince Edward of England](/source/Edward_I_of_England), who arrived in Acre in May 1271 and attempted to ally himself with the Mongols against Baybars. So Baybars declared a truce with Tripoli, as well as with Edward, who was never able to capture any territory from Baybars anyway. According to some reports, Baybars tried to have Edward assassinated with poison, but Edward survived the attempt and returned home in 1272 following the failure of the crusade.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

====Campaign against Makuria====
{{Further|Makuria#Decline (12th century–1365)}}

[[File:King David of Makuria (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|Possible depiction of king [David of Makuria](/source/David_of_Makuria) on a wallpainting from [Old Dongola](/source/Old_Dongola)]]

In 1265 a Mamluk army allegedly raided Makuria as far south as Dongola{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=117, note 16}} while also expanding southwards along the African Red Sea coast, thus threatening the Nubians.{{sfn|Gazda|2005|p=93}} In 1272 king [David](/source/David_of_Makuria) marched east and attacked the port town of [Aidhab](/source/Aidhab),{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=118}} located on an important [pilgrimage](/source/Hajj) route to [Mecca](/source/Mecca). The Nubian army destroyed the town, causing “a blow to the very heart of Islam”.{{sfn|Gazda|2005|p=95}} This initiated several decades of intervention by the Mamluks in [Nubia](/source/Nubia)n affairs.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V7qpKqM2Ji8C&q=baybars&pg=PA37 | last = Howard| first = Jonathan | year= 2011|title =The Crusades: A History of One of the Most Epic Military Campaigns of All Time | publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 9780521209816}}</ref> A punitive Mamluk expedition was sent in response, but did not pass beyond the second cataract.{{sfn|Seignobos|2016|p=554}} Three years later the Makurians attacked and destroyed Aswan,{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=118}} but this time, Baybars responded with a well-equipped army setting off from Cairo in early 1276,{{sfn|Gazda|2005|p=95}} accompanied by a cousin of king David named Mashkouda{{sfn|Seignobos|2016|p=554, note 2}} or Shekanda.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=244}} The Mamluks defeated the Nubians in three battles at Gebel Adda, Meinarti and finally at the [Battle of Dongola](/source/Battle_of_Dongola_(1276)). David fled upstream the Nile, eventually entering [al-Abwab](/source/Kingdom_of_al-Abwab) in the south,{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=120–122}} which, previously being Alodia's northernmost province, had by this period become a kingdom of its own.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=254}} The king of al-Abwab, however, handed David over to Baybars, who had him executed.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=122–123}}

Baybars then completed his conquest of Nubia, including the [Medieval lower Nubia](/source/Al-Maris_(region)) which was ruled by [Banu Kanz](/source/Banu_Kanz). Under the terms of the settlement, the Nubians were now subjected to paying [jizya](/source/jizya) tribute, and in return they were allowed to keep their religion, being protected under Islamic law as '[People of the Book](/source/People_of_the_Book)'; they were also allowed to continue being governed by a king from the native royal family, although this king was chosen personally by Baybars, namely a Makurian noble named Shakanda.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&q=baibars+makuria&pg=PA300 | editor1-last = El Hareir|editor2-last=M'Baye | editor1-first = Idris |editor2-first=Ravane | year=2011 |series=Different Aspects Of Islamic Culture|title = The Spread of Islam Throughout the World |page = 300 | publisher = UNESCO | isbn = 9789231041532 }}</ref> In practice this was reducing Makuria to a vassal kingdom,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a4q3AwAAQBAJ&q=Baybars+makuria&pg=PA205|title=Kenana Handbook of Sudan|last=Hopkins.Peter|date= 2014|publisher=Routledge|access-date=3 April 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9781136775260}}</ref> effectively ending Makuria's status as an independent kingdom.

====Further campaign against Ilkhanate ====
In 1277, Baybars invaded the [Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm](/source/Seljuq_Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm), then controlled by the [Ilkhanate](/source/Ilkhanate) Mongols. He defeated a Ilkhanate army at the [Battle of Elbistan](/source/Battle_of_Elbistan){{sfn|Kastritsis|2013|p=26}}  Baybars himself went with a few troops to deal with the Mongol right flank that was pounding his left wing.<ref name=autogenerated1>Ibn Taghri, Al-Zahir Baibars</ref> Baybars ordered a force from the army from Hama to reinforce his left. The large Mamluk numbers were able to overwhelm the Mongol force, who instead of retreating dismounted from their horses. Some Mongols were able to escape and took up positions on the hills. Once they became surrounded they once again dismounted, and fought to the death.<ref name=autogenerated1 /><ref>Al-Maqrizi, p. 99/vol.2</ref> During the celebration of victory, Baybars said that "How can I be happy? Before I had thought that I and my servants would defeat the Mongols, but my left wing was beaten by them. Only Allah helped us".<ref>Reuven Amitai Press, ''Mamluk Ilkhanid war 1260–1281''</ref>

The possibility of a new Mongol army convinced Baybars to return to Syria, since he was far away from his bases and supply line. As the Mamluk army returned to Syria the commander of the Mamluk vanguard, Izz al-Din Aybeg al-Shaykhi, deserted to the Mongols. [Pervâne](/source/Perv%C3%A2ne) sent a letter to Baybars asking him to delay his departure. Baybars chastised him for not aiding him during the Battle of Elbistan. Baybars told him he was leaving for Sivas to mislead Pervâne and the Mongols as to his true destination. Baybars also sent Taybars al-Waziri with a force to raid the Armenian town of al-Rummana, whose inhabitants had hidden the Mongols earlier.{{sfn|Amitai-Preiss|2004|p=175}}

=== Death ===
[[File:Ancient City of Damascus-107601 (retouched).jpg|thumb|200px|Mausoleum chamber of sultan Baybars (1260-1277) in [Al-Zahiriyah Library](/source/Al-Zahiriyah_Library) in [Damascus](/source/Damascus)]]
Baybars died in [Damascus](/source/Damascus) on 30 June 1277, when he was 53 years old.{{sfn|Korobeĭnikov|2014|p=252}} His demise has been the subject of some academic speculation. Many sources agree that he died from drinking poisoned [kumis](/source/kumis) that was intended for someone else. Other accounts suggest that he may have died from a wound while campaigning, or from illness. He was buried in the [Az-Zahiriyah Library](/source/Az-Zahiriyah_Library) in Damascus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2777|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108224216/http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2777|url-status=dead|title=Zahiriyya Madrasa and Mausoleum of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars|archivedate=8 January 2009}}</ref>

==Family==
Sultan Baybars married a noble lady from Tripoli (modern-day Lebanon) named Aisha al Bushnatiya, a prominent Arab family. Aisha was a warrior who fought the Crusaders along with her brother lieutenant Hassan. She met Sultan Baybars after he camped in Tripoli during his siege.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}} They had a short relationship and after that they got married. There are conflicting stories of whether Aisha returned with Baybars to Egypt or was martyred in Tripoli.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

One of Baibar's wives was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Nogay at-Tatari.<ref name="yigit">{{cite journal | last=Akkuş Yiğit | first=Fatma | title=Memlûk Sarayında Tek Eşlilik ve Çok Eşlilik Üzerine Bir İnceleme | journal=Journal of International Social Research | publisher=The Journal of International Social Research | volume=9 | issue=43 | date=20 April 2016 | url = https://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/articles/a-study-on-monogamy-and-polygamy-in-mamluk-palace.pdf | issn=1307-9581 | doi=10.17719/jisr.20164317631 | page=557}}</ref> Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Giray at-Tatari.<ref name="yigit"/> Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Tammaji.<ref name="yigit"/> Another wife was Iltutmish Khatun.<ref name="karam">{{cite web | last=Karam | first=Amina | title=Women, Architecture and Representation in Mamluk Cairo | website=AUC DAR Home | date=22 May 2019 | url=http://dar.aucegypt.edu/handle/10526/5732 | access-date=22 December 2021 | pages=20, 21 | archive-date=18 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218152406/http://dar.aucegypt.edu/handle/10526/5732 | url-status=dead }}</ref> She was the daughter of Barka Khan a former Khwarazmian amir. She was the mother of his son [Al-Said Barakah](/source/Al-Said_Barakah).<ref name="Winter Levanoni">{{cite book | last1=Winter | first1=M. | last2=Levanoni | first2=A. | title=The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society | publisher=Brill | series=The medieval Mediterranean peoples, economies and cultures, 400–1500 | year=2004 | isbn=978-90-04-13286-3 | page=391}}</ref> She died in 1284–85.<ref name="karam"/> Another wife was the daughter Karmun Agha, a Mongol Amir.<ref name="Clifford Conermann">{{cite book | last1=Clifford | first1=W.W. | last2=Conermann | first2=S. | title=State formation and the structure of politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E. | publisher=V&R Unipress | series=Mamluk Studies | year=2013 | isbn=978-3-8470-0091-4 | page=105}}</ref> He had three sons [al-Said Barakah](/source/al-Said_Barakah), [Solamish](/source/Solamish) and Khizir.<ref name="yigit"/> He had seven daughters;<ref name="yigit"/> one of them was named Tidhkarbay Khatun.<ref name="Papas">{{cite book | last=Papas | first=A. | title=Sufi Institutions | publisher=Brill | series=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 The Near and Middle East | year=2020 | isbn=978-90-04-39260-1 | page=33}}</ref>

==Legacy==
{{Further|Seventh Crusade|Ninth Crusade|Battle of Ain Jalut}}
[[File:تمثال للسلطان الظاهر بيبرس.JPG|thumb|Bronze bust of Sultan Baibars in Cairo, at the [Egyptian National Military Museum](/source/Egyptian_National_Military_Museum)]]

As the first Sultan of the [Bahri](/source/Bahri_dynasty) Mamluk [dynasty](/source/dynasty), Baybars made the meritocratic ascent up the ranks of Mamluk society, where he commanded Mamluk forces in the decisive [Battle of Ain Jalut](/source/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut) in 1260, repelling Mongol forces from Syria.<ref>''100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present''. Paul K. Davis, p. 141</ref> Although in the Muslim world he has been considered a national hero for centuries, and in the [Near East](/source/Near_East) and [Kazakhstan](/source/Kazakhstan) is still regarded as such, Baybars was reviled in the Christian world of the time for his successful campaigns against the [Crusader States](/source/Crusader_States).

Baybars also played an important role in bringing the Mongols to [Islam](/source/Islam).<ref name="The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith" /> He developed strong ties with the Mongols of the [Golden Horde](/source/Golden_Horde) and took steps for the Golden Horde Mongols to travel to [Egypt](/source/Egypt). The arrival of the Mongol's Golden Horde to Egypt resulted in a significant number of Mongols accepting Islam.<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, By Thomas Walker Arnold, p. 192</ref>

===Military legacy===
Baybars was a popular ruler in the Muslim world who had defeated the crusaders in three campaigns, and the [Mongols](/source/Mongols) in the [Battle of Ain Jalut](/source/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut) which many scholars deem of great [macro-historical](/source/macro-historical) importance. In order to support his military campaigns, Baybars commissioned arsenals, warships and cargo vessels. He was also arguably the first to employ explosive [hand cannon](/source/hand_cannon)s in war, at the Battle of Ain Jalut.<ref>[Ahmad Y Hassan](/source/Ahmad_Y_Hassan), [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226105129/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm |date=26 February 2008 }}</ref><ref name=History-Channel>{{citation|title=Ancient Discoveries, Episode 12: Machines of the East|publisher=[History Channel](/source/History_(U.S._TV_channel))|year=2007}} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwGfw1YW9Js Part 4] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0R3ZbzhRp_k Part 5])</ref> However this claim of hand cannons usage is disputed by other historians who claim hand cannons did not appear in the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) until the 14th century.<ref name="Hammer">Hammer, Paul E. J. "Warfare in Early Modern Europe 1450–1660" Routledge, 2017, p. 505.</ref><ref name="Khan">Iqtidar, Alam "Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India Journal of Asian History" Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 3.</ref> His military campaign also extended into [Libya](/source/Libya) and [Nubia](/source/Nubia).

===Culture and science===

He was also an efficient administrator who took interest in building various infrastructure projects, such as a mounted message relay system capable of delivery from [Cairo](/source/Cairo) to [Damascus](/source/Damascus) in four days. He built bridges, irrigation and shipping canals, improved the harbours, and built mosques. He was a patron of [Islamic science](/source/Science_in_medieval_Islam), such as his support for the medical research of his [Arab physician](/source/Medicine_in_medieval_Islam), [Ibn al-Nafis](/source/Ibn_al-Nafis).<ref name="Iskandar-Selin">Albert Z. Iskandar, "Ibn al-Nafis", in [Helaine Selin](/source/Helaine_Selin) (1997), ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', [Kluwer Academic Publishers](/source/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers), {{ISBN|0-7923-4066-3}}.</ref> As a testament of a special relationship between [Islam and cats](/source/Islam_and_cats), Baybars left a cat garden in Cairo as a [waqf](/source/waqf), providing the cats of Cairo with food and shelter.<ref name="Campo">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|last=Campo|first=Juan Eduardo|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-1438126968}}</ref>

His memoirs were recorded in ''[Sirat al-Zahir Baibars](/source/Sirat_al-Zahir_Baibars)'' ("Life of al-Zahir Baibars"), a popular [Arabic romance](/source/Arabic_Romance_Literature) recording his battles and achievements. He has a heroic status in [Kazakhstan](/source/Kazakhstan), as well as in [Egypt](/source/Egypt), [Palestine](/source/Palestine), [Lebanon](/source/Lebanon) and [Syria](/source/Syria).

''Al-Madrassa al-Zahiriyya'' is the school built adjacent to his Mausoleum in [Damascus](/source/Damascus).{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} The [Az-Zahiriyah Library](/source/Az-Zahiriyah_Library) has a wealth of manuscripts in various branches of knowledge to this day.

==See also==
*[Ablaq](/source/Ablaq)
*[Bahri dynasty](/source/Bahri_dynasty)
*[Cumania](/source/Cumania)
*[Cuman people](/source/Cuman_people)
*[Kipchak people](/source/Kipchak_people)
*[Mosque of al-Zahir Baybars](/source/Mosque_of_al-Zahir_Baybars)
*[Sirat al-Zahir Baibars](/source/Sirat_al-Zahir_Baibars)
*[Sayyidah Zainab District](/source/Sayyidah_Zainab_District)

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
*{{citation |last=Amitai-Preiss |first=Reuven |title=Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780521522908 }}
*{{citation |last1=Folda |first1=Jaroslav |author-link1=Jaroslav Folda |last2=French |first2=Pamela |last3=Coupel |first3=Pierre |title=Crusader Frescoes at Crac des Chevaliers and Marqab Castle |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University |volume=36 |year=1982 |pages=177–210 |jstor=1291467|doi=10.2307/1291467 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Gazda |first=M |year=2005 |title=Mameluke invasions on Nubia in the 13th Century. Some Thoughts on Political Interrelations in the Middle East |journal=Gdansk African Reports |volume=3 |publisher=Gdansk Archaeological MuseumGdansk Archaeological Museum |issn=1731-6146}}
*{{citation |last=Howarth |first=Stephen |title=Knights Templar |publisher=Marboro Books |location=New York |year=1982 }}
*{{citation |last=Humphreys |first=R. Stephen |title=From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXl5kvabhoC |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1977 |place=Albany, New York |isbn=0-87395-263-4 }}
*{{cite book |title=Writing History at the Ottoman Court: Editing the Past, Fashioning the Future |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2013 |chapter=The Historical Epic "Ahval-i Sultan Mehemmed" (The Tales of Sultan Mehmed) in the Context of Early Ottoman Historiography |first=Dimitris |last=Kastritsis }}
*{{citation|last=King |first=D. J. Cathcart |title=The Taking of Le Krak des Chevaliers in 1271 |volume=23 |number=90 |year=1949 |pages=83–92 |journal=[Antiquity](/source/Antiquity_(journal)) |url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/023/Ant0230083.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121223032437/http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/023/Ant0230083.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 December 2012 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X0002007X |s2cid=164061795 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book |last=Korobeĭnikov |first=Dimitri |title=Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=9780198708261 }}252
*{{cite journal |last=Seignobos |first=Robin |title=La frontière entre le bilād al-islām et le bilād al-Nūba : enjeux et ambiguïtés d'une frontière immobile (VIIe–XIIe siècle) |language=fr |year=2010 |journal=Afriques |volume=02 |doi=10.4000/afriques.800 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book |last=Seignobos |first=Robin |language=fr |chapter=La liste des conquêtes nubiennes de Baybars selon Ibn Šadd ād (1217–1285) |year=2016 |title=Aegyptus et Nubia Christiana. The Włodzimierz Godlewski Jubilee Volume on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday |pages=553–577 |editor=A. Łajtar |editor2=A. Obłuski |editor3=I. Zych |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology |chapter-url=https://f-origin.hypotheses.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/4313/files/2018/03/Aegyptus-et-Nubia-christiana-Seignobos-Offprint.pdf |isbn=9788394228835 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite book |last=Werner |first=Roland |year=2013 |title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche |publisher=Lit}}
*{{cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |year=2002 |title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile.|publisher=The British Museum. |isbn=0714119474}}

==External links==
*[http://i-cias.com/e.o/baybars1.htm Baibars article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203192841/http://i-cias.com/e.o/baybars1.htm |date=3 December 2017 }} from ''Encyclopedia of the Orient''
*[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=382088 Baibars] in ''Concise Britannica online''
*[http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=2777 Al-Madrassa al-Zahiriyya and Baybars Mausoleum]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040422185420/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ba/Baybars1.html Brief article] in ''Columbia Encyclopedia''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040225192811/http://www.islam-online.net/Arabic/history/1422/01/article31.SHTML Extensive Arabic Article on Baybars]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040406230315/http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eg31.htm Brief biography]
*{{Citation |title=The History of Islam in Africa|editor1-link=Nehemia Levtzion|editor-first=Nehemia |editor-last=Levtzion |editor-first2=Randall |editor-last2=Pouwels |publisher=[Ohio University Press](/source/Ohio_University_Press) |year=2000|isbn=0821444611|ref=none}}
*{{cite journal | author = Creswell, K.A.C.| author-link=K. A. C. Creswell| title =The works of Sultan Bibars al-Bunduqdârî in Egypt [avec 31 planches]| journal = [BIFAO](/source/Bulletin_de_l'Institut_Fran%C3%A7ais_d'Arch%C3%A9ologie_Orientale) | volume = 26| pages =129–193| url = http://www.ifao.egnet.net/bifao/026/07/ | year = 1926| doi=10.3406/bifao.1926.1832| s2cid=267765212}}

{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[Bahri dynasty](/source/Bahri_dynasty)||19 July 1223||1 July 1277|[Mamluk Sultanate](/source/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo))}}
{{s-reg}}
{{succession box|title=[Sultan of Egypt and Syria](/source/List_of_Mamluk_sultans)|before=[Saif ad-Din Qutuz](/source/Saif_ad-Din_Qutuz)|after=[Al-Said Barakah](/source/Al-Said_Barakah)|years=24 October 1260 – 1 July 1277}}
{{s-end}}

{{Mamluk Sultans of Egypt}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baybars}}
Category:Muslims of the Seventh Crusade
Category:Muslims of Lord Edward's crusade
Category:Medieval history of Palestine
Category:1220s births
Category:1277 deaths
Category:Generals of the medieval Islamic world
Category:Bahri sultans
Category:Cumans
Category:13th-century Mamluk sultans
Category:One Thousand and One Nights characters
Category:13th-century Kipchaks
Category:Supporters of Ibn Arabi
Category:13th-century slaves

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Baybars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baybars) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baybars?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.