# Battlement

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Parapet in which gaps or indentations occur at intervals

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"Castellated" redirects here. For the hardware item, see [castellated nut](/source/Castellated_nut).

"Embattled" redirects here. For heraldic term, see [embattled (heraldry)](/source/Embattled_(heraldry)).

Battlements on the [Great Wall of China](/source/Great_Wall_of_China)

Decorative battlements in [Persepolis](/source/Persepolis)

Drawing of battlements on a tower

Annotated sketch of an Italian battlement

Battlement in the coat of arms of [Seinäjoki](/source/Sein%C3%A4joki) in [Finland](/source/Finland)

A **battlement**, in defensive architecture, such as that of [city walls](/source/City_wall) or [castles](/source/Castle), comprises a [parapet](/source/Parapet) (a defensive low wall between chest-height and head-height), in which gaps or indentations, which are often rectangular, occur at intervals to allow for the launch of arrows or other projectiles from within the defences.[1] These gaps are termed **[embrasures](/source/Embrasures)**, also called **crenels** or **crenelles**, and a wall or building with them is described as *crenellated*; alternative older terms are *castellated* and *embattled*. The act of adding crenels to a previously unbroken parapet is termed crenellation.

The function of battlements in war is to protect the defenders by giving them part of the parapet to hide behind, from which they can quickly expose themselves to launch projectiles, then retreat behind the parapet. A defensive building might be designed and built with battlements, or a [manor house](/source/Manor_house) might be fortified by adding battlements, where no parapet previously existed, or cutting crenellations into its existing parapet wall. A distinctive feature of late medieval English church architecture is to crenellate the tops of church towers, and often the tops of lower walls. These are essentially decorative rather than functional, as are many examples on secular buildings.

The solid widths between the crenels are called [merlons](/source/Merlon). Battlements on walls have protected walkways, termed [chemin de ronde](/source/Chemin_de_ronde), behind them. On tower or building tops, the often flat roof is used as a protected [fighting platform](/source/Fighting_platform).

## Etymology

The term originated in about the 14th century from the [Old French](/source/Old_French) word **batailler**, "to fortify with *batailles*" (fixed or movable [turrets](/source/Turret_(architecture)) of defence). The word *crenel* derives from the ancient French **cren** (modern French **cran**), Latin **crena**, meaning a notch, [mortice](/source/Mortise_and_tenon) or other gap cut out often to receive another element or fixing; see also [crenation](/source/Crenation). The modern French word for crenel is **créneau**, also used to describe a gap of any kind, for example a parking space at the side of the road between two cars, interval between groups of marching troops or a timeslot in a broadcast.[2]

## Licence to crenellate

Main article: [Licence to crenellate](/source/Licence_to_crenellate)

In medieval England and Wales a licence to crenellate granted the holder permission to fortify their property. Such licences were granted by the king, and by the rulers of the [counties palatine](/source/County_palatine) within their jurisdictions, e.g. by the [Bishops of Durham](/source/Bishop_of_Durham) and the [Earls of Chester](/source/Earl_of_Chester) and after 1351 by the [Dukes of Lancaster](/source/Duke_of_Lancaster). The castles in England vastly outnumbered the licences to crenellate.[3] Royal pardons were obtainable on the payment of an arbitrarily-determined fine by a person who had fortified without licence. The surviving records of such licences, generally issued by [letters patent](/source/Letters_patent), provide valuable evidence for the dating of ancient buildings. A list of licences issued by the English Crown between the 12th and the 16th centuries was compiled by Turner & Parker and expanded and corrected by Philip Davis and published in *The Castle Studies Group Journal*.[4]

There has been academic debate over the purpose of licensing. The view of military-focused historians is that licensing restricted the number of fortifications that could be used against a royal army. The modern view, proposed notably by Charles Coulson, is that battlements became an architectural status-symbol much sought after by the socially ambitious, in Coulson's words: "Licences to crenellate were mainly symbolic representations of lordly status: castellation was the architectural expression of noble rank".[5][4] They indicated to the observer that the grantee had obtained "royal recognition, acknowledgment and compliment".[6][4] They could, however, provide a basic deterrent against wandering bands of thieves, and it is suggested that the function of battlements was comparable to the modern practice of householders fitting highly visible [CC TV](/source/Closed-circuit_television) and burglar alarms, often merely dummies. The crown usually did not charge for the granting of such licences, but occasionally charged a fee of about half a [mark](/source/Mark_(money)).[4]

## Machicolations

Main article: [Machicolation](/source/Machicolation)

Battlements may be stepped out to overhang the wall below, and may have openings at their bases between the supporting [corbels](/source/Corbel), through which stones or burning objects could be dropped onto attackers or besiegers; these are known as [machicolations](/source/Machicolation).

## History

9th-century BC relief of an [Assyrian](/source/Assyria) attack on a walled town with [zig-zag](/source/Zig-zag) shaped battlements

Battlements have been used for thousands of years; the earliest known example is in the fortress at [Buhen](/source/Buhen) in [Egypt](/source/Egypt). Battlements were used in the walls surrounding [Assyrian](/source/Assyria) towns, as shown on *[bas reliefs](/source/Bas_relief)* from [Nimrud](/source/Nimrud) and elsewhere. Traces of them remain at [Mycenae](/source/Mycenae) in [Greece](/source/Greece), and some [ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greece) vases suggest the existence of battlements. The [Great Wall of China](/source/Great_Wall_of_China) has battlements.

## Development

Battlements of the [Tower of David](/source/Tower_of_David) in [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem), dating from the [Mamluk](/source/Mamluk_Egypt) and [Ottoman](/source/Ottoman_Empire) eras in [Palestine](/source/Palestine_(region))

In the European battlements of the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages) the crenel comprised one-third of the width of the merlon: the latter, in addition, could be provided with arrow-loops of various shapes (from simply round to cruciform), depending on the weapon being utilized. Late merlons permitted fire from the first [firearms](/source/Firearm). From the 13th century, the merlons could be connected with wooden shutters ([mantlets](/source/Mantlet)) that provided added protection when closed. The shutters were designed to be opened to allow shooters to fire against the attackers, and closed during reloading.

## Ancient Rome

The [Romans](/source/Ancient_Rome) used low wooden pinnacles for their first *aggeres* ([terrepleins](/source/Terreplein)). In the battlements of [Pompeii](/source/Pompeii), additional protection derived from small internal buttresses or spur walls, against which the defender might stand so as to gain complete protection on one side.

## Italy

[Gradara Castle](/source/Gradara_Castle), Italy, outer walls 13th–14th century, showing on the tower curved v-shaped notches in the merlons

Loop-holes were frequent in Italian battlements, where the merlon has much greater height and a distinctive cap. Italian military architects used the so-called [Ghibelline](/source/Guelphs_and_Ghibelline) or *swallowtail* battlement, with V-shaped notches in the tops of the merlon, giving a horn-like effect. This would allow the defender to be protected whilst shooting standing fully upright. The normal rectangular merlons were later nicknamed Guelph.

## Indian subcontinent

Indian style battlements at [Kumbhalgarh Fort](/source/Kumbhalgarh)

Many South Asian battlements are made up of parapets with peculiarly shaped [merlons](/source/Merlons) and complicated systems of loopholes, which differ substantially from rest of the world.[7] Typical Indian merlons were semicircular and pointed at the top, although they could sometimes be fake: the parapet may be solid and the merlons shown in relief on the outside, as is the case in [Chittorgarh](/source/Chittorgarh_fort). Loopholes could be made both in the merlons themselves, and under the crenels. They could either look forward (to command distant approaches) or downward (to command the foot of the wall). Sometimes a merlon was pierced with two or three loopholes, but typically, only one loophole was divided into two or three slits by horizontal or vertical partitions. The shape of loopholes, as well as the shape of merlons, need not have been the same everywhere in the castle, as shown by [Kumbhalgarh](/source/Kumbhalgarh).[7]

## Middle East and Africa

In [Muslim](/source/Muslim) and [African](/source/Africa) fortifications, the merlons often were rounded. The battlements of the [Arabs](/source/Arabs) had a more decorative and varied character, and were continued from the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to the walls. They serve a function similar to the [cresting](/source/Cresting_(architecture)) found in the [Spanish Renaissance architecture](/source/Spanish_Renaissance_architecture).

## Ireland

"Irish" crenellations are a distinctive form that appeared in [Ireland](/source/Ireland) between the 14th and 17th centuries. These were battlements of a "stepped" form, with each merlon shaped like an inverted 'T'.[8][9][10][11][12]

## Decorative element

[Medieval Times](/source/Medieval_Times) building exterior, Lyndhurst, New Jersey, USA

European architects persistently used battlements as a purely decorative feature throughout the [Decorated](/source/Decorated_style) and [Perpendicular](/source/Perpendicular_style) periods of Gothic architecture. They not only occur on parapets but on the [transoms](/source/Transom_(architectural)) of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and on screens, and even on [Tudor](/source/Tudor_architecture) chimney-pots. A further decorative treatment appears in the elaborate paneling of the merlons and that portion of the parapet walls rising above the [cornice](/source/Cornice_(architecture)), by the introduction of [quatrefoils](/source/Quatrefoil) and other conventional forms filled with foliage and shield.

## Gallery

		- [Rohtas Fort, Pakistan](/source/Rohtas_Fort)

		- [Idrakpur Fort, Bangladesh](/source/Idrakpur_Fort)

		- [Taghmon Church](/source/Taghmon_Church) in [County Westmeath](/source/County_Westmeath), Ireland, with Irish crenellations

		- [Blagaj fortress](/source/Blagaj_Fortress) in Bosnia

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Reich, Ronny; Katzenstein, Hannah (1992). "Glossary of Archaeological Terms". In Kempinski, Aharon; Reich, Ronny (eds.). *The Architecture of Ancient Israel*. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. p. 312. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-965-221-013-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-221-013-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Larousse Dictionnaire Lexis de la Langue Française, Paris, 1979; Collins French Dictionary Robert

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodall20119_3-0)** [Goodall 2011](#CITEREFGoodall2011), p. 9.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavis2007226–245_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavis2007226–245_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavis2007226–245_4-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavis2007226–245_4-3) [Davis 2007](#CITEREFDavis2007), pp. 226–245.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulson198272_5-0)** [Coulson 1982](#CITEREFCoulson1982), p. 72.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulson198283_6-0)** [Coulson 1982](#CITEREFCoulson1982), p. 83.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nossov_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nossov_7-1) Nossov, Konstantin S (2012). [*Indian Castles 1206–1526: The Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eFm1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27). Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 27. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84908-050-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84908-050-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["Irish tower houses - Roaringwater Journal"](https://roaringwaterjournal.com/tag/irish-tower-houses/). *roaringwaterjournal.com*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Hodkinson, Brian J. (2011). ["' Indeed a town of castles'; the castles of Limerick city"](http://www.limerickcity.ie/media/NMAJ%20vol%2051%2004%20Indeed%20a%20Town%20of%20Castles_%20the%20Castles%20of%20Limerick%20City,%20by%20Brian%20Hodkinson.pdf) (PDF). *North Munster Antiquarian Journal*. **51**: 53–60.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Horning, Audrey J. (12 November 2018). [*Ireland in the Virginian Sea: Colonialism in the British Atlantic*](https://books.google.com/books?id=F4wqAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA205). UNC Press Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781469610726](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469610726) – via Google Books.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** ["Irish castles - Roaringwater Journal"](https://roaringwaterjournal.com/tag/irish-castles/). *roaringwaterjournal.com*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Clara Castle, Kilkenny"](http://www.megalithicireland.com/Clara%20Castle,%20Kilkenny.html). *Megalithic Ireland*. Retrieved 2019-08-21.

## Sources

- Balestracci, D. (1989). "I materiali da costruzione nel castello medievale". *Archeologia Medievale* (XVI): 227–242. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1400/244020](https://doi.org/10.1400%2F244020).

- [Coulson, C.](/source/Charles_Coulson) (1982). "Hierarchism in Conventual Crenellation". *Medieval Archaeology*. **26**: 69–100. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00766097.1982.11735438](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00766097.1982.11735438).

- Davis, Philip (2007). ["English Licences to Crenellate: 1199–1567"](https://castlestudiesgroup.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/Licences-to-Crenellate-Philip-Davis.pdf) (PDF). *The Castle Studies Group Journal*. **20**: 226–245.

- [Goodall, John](/source/John_Goodall) (2011). [*The English Castle*](https://archive.org/details/englishcastle1060000good). London: Yale Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-300-11058-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11058-6).

- Luisi, R. (1996). *Scudi di pietra, I castelli e l'arte della guerra tra Medioevo e Rinascimento*. Bari: Laterza.

## Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Battlement](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Battlements).

- Coulson, Charles, 1979, "Structural Symbolism in Medieval Castle Architecture" Journal of the British Archaeological Association Vol. 132, pp 73–90

- Coulson, Charles, 1994, "Freedom to Crenellate by Licence - An Historiographical Revision" Nottingham Medieval Studies Vol. 38, pp. 86–137

- Coulson, Charles, 1995, "Battlements and the Bourgeoisie: Municipal Status and the Apparatus of Urban Defence" in Church, Stephen (ed), Medieval Knighthood Vol. 5(Boydell), pp. 119–95

- Coulson, Charles, 2003, *Castles in Medieval Society*, Oxford University Press.

- Coulson, Charles, *Castles in the Medieval Polity - Crenellation, Privilege, and Defence in England, Ireland and Wales*.

- King, D. J. Cathcart, 1983, *Castellarium Anglicanum* (Kraus)

v t e Fortifications Ancient Abatis Acropolis Agger Broch Burgus Caltrop Castellum Castra Castros Chengqiang Circular rampart City gate Crannog Ditch Defensive wall Dun Elevated entrance Faussebraye Gatehouse Gord Hillfort Landwehr Limes Nuraghe Oppidum Palisade Pincer gate Promontory fort Rampart Ringfort (Rath) Refuge castle Schwedenschanze Stockade Sudis Trou de loup Vallum Wagon fort (Laager) Vitrified fort Post-classical Advanced work Albarrana tower Alcazaba Alcázar Amba Arrowslit Barmkin Barbican Bartizan Bastion Battery tower Battlement Bawn Bent entrance Bergfried Berm Boom Bretèche Bridge castle Bridge tower Burh Butter-churn tower Caer Castle Chamber gate Chartaque Chashi Chemin de ronde Chemise Cheval de frise Citadel Coercion castle Concentric castle Corner tower Counter-castle Curtain Drawbridge Enceinte Embrasure Flanking tower Fortified buildings (church, house, Dzong) Fujian tulou Ganerbenburg Gate tower Gabion Glacis Guard tower Gulyay-gorod Gusuku Half tower Hoarding Inner bailey Kasbah Keep Kremlin (Detinets) Ksar Landesburg Loophole L-plan castle Machicolation Merlon Moat Motte-and-bailey Murder hole Neck ditch Outer bailey Outwork Parapet Peel tower Portcullis Postern Powder tower Qal'a Reduit Ribat Ricetto Ringwork Roundel Quadrangular castle Shell keep Shield wall Shiro Toll castle Tower castle Tower house Turret Viking ring fortress Wall tower Bailey (or ward) Watchtower Witch tower Yagura Yett Zwinger Modern Early modern Abwurfdach Arsenal Barricade Bastion Blockhouse Breastwork Canal Caponier Casemate Cavalier Counterguard Couvreface Coupure Covertway Crownwork Device Forts Entrenchment Flèche Gorge Gunpowder magazine Hornwork Kotta mara Lunette Magazine Orillon Ostrog Palanka Place-of-arms Polygonal fort Presidio (Spanish America) Punji sticks Ravelin Redan Redoubt Retrenchment Sally port Sandbag Scarp and Counterscarp Sconce Schanze Sea fort Station Star fort Tenaille 19th century Barbed wire Barbette Border outpost Bunker Coastal artillery Disappearing gun Fire control tower Gun turret Land mine Martello tower Outpost Polygonal fort Sangar Wire obstacles 20th century Admiralty scaffolding Air raid shelter Anti-tank obstacles Trench Czech hedgehog Dragon's teeth Barbed tape Belgian gate Blast shelter Blast wall Border security Bomb shelter Buoy Bremer wall Concertina wire Defensive fighting position British "hedgehog" road block Entry control point (ECP) Electric fence Fallout shelter Fire support base Flak tower Hardened aircraft shelter Hesco bastion Jersey barrier Kabal Loophole Main line of resistance Missile launch facility Pillbox Revetment Sentry gun Spider hole Spike strip Submarine pen Underground hangar Weapon storage area Weapons Storage and Security System By topography Cave castle Hill castle Hillfort Hillside castle Hilltop castle Island castle Lowland castle Marsh castle Moated castle Promontory fort Ridge castle Rocca Rock castle Spur castle Water castle Floating water castle By role Border barrier Coastal defence Coercion castle Counter-castle Fence Ganerbenburg Hunting lodge Imperial castle Kaiserpfalz Landesburg Lustschloss Military base Obstacle Ordensburg Refuge castle Toll castle Urban castle By design Bastion fort Bridge castle Circular rampart Concentric castle L-plan castle Motte-and-bailey castle Quadrangular castle Ringfort Ringwork Tower castle Z-plan castle Lists Bastion forts Castles Cities with defensive walls Defense line Fortified estate Fortifications Forts Military installations Walls Related word Castle town Château Dungeon Festung Fortified gateway Gatekeeper Loophole National redoubt Palas Picket Schloss Trench Vedette Other topics Civil defense Continuity of government Military urbanism Subterranean warfare Siege Siege engine list Tunnel warfare Trench warfare Urban warfare Guerrilla See also: Category

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