# Bashar al-Assad

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President of Syria from 2000 to 2024

In this [Arabic name](/source/Arabic_name), the [surname](/source/Surname) is *[Assad](/source/Assad_family)*.

Bashar al-Assad بشار الأسد Assad in 2018 President of Syria In office 17 July 2000 – 8 December 2024 Prime Minister See list Muhammad Mustafa Mero Muhammad Naji al-Otari Adel Safar Riyad Farid Hijab Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji Wael Nader al-Halqi Imad Khamis Hussein Arnous Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali Vice President See list Abdul Halim Khaddam (2000–2005) Zuhair Masharqa (2000–2006) Farouk al-Sharaa (2006–2014) Najah al-Attar (2006–2024) Faisal Mekdad (Sep–Dec 2024) Preceded by Hafez al-Assad Abdul Halim Khaddam (acting) Succeeded by Ahmed al-Sharaa[a] General Secretary of the Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party In office 24 June 2000 – 8 December 2024 Deputy Abdullah al-Ahmar Hilal Hilal Ibrahim al-Hadid Preceded by Hafez al-Assad Succeeded by Ibrahim al-Hadid (acting) Personal details Born (1965-09-11) 11 September 1965 (age 60) Damascus, Syria Party Arab Socialist Ba'ath (until 2024) Other political affiliations National Progressive Front (until 2025) Spouse Asma Akhras ​ (m. 2000)​ Children 3, including Hafez Parents Hafez al-Assad (father) Anisa Makhlouf (mother) Relatives Assad family Education Damascus University (MD) Signature Military service Allegiance Ba'athist Syria Branch/service Syrian Arab Army Years of service 1988–2024 Rank Field marshal Unit Republican Guard (until 2000) Commands Syrian Arab Armed Forces Battles/wars Syrian civil war

This article is part of a series about Bashar al-Assad Personal Early life Family Assadism President of Syria Foreign policy Presidential trips Tenth Five-Year Plan Occupation of Lebanon Cedar Revolution Damascus Spring Statement of 99 Statement of 1000 Damascus Declaration Operation Outside the Box Corruption Syrian civil war Arab Spring Syrian revolution Arab–Israeli conflict War against ISIS COVID-19 pandemic Regime fall Fall of Damascus (2024) Proposed handover to Syria Governments Mero I Mero II Al-Otari Safar Hijab Al-Halqi I Al-Halqi II Khamis Arnous I Arnous II Jalali Elections 2000 2007 2014 2021 v t e

Part of a series on Ba'athism Organizations Arab Ba'ath Arab Ba'ath Movement Ba'ath Party Ba'ath Party (pro-Iraqi) Ba'ath Party (pro-Syrian) Variants Neo-Ba'athism Assadism Saddamism People Aflaq al-Arsuzi Assad (Bashar) Assad (Hafez) al-Bakr Bitar al-Douri Ghanim Hussein Jadid al-Rikabi Rimawi Literature On the Way of Resurrection (1943) The Battle for One Destiny (1958) The Genius of Arabic in Its Tongue (1943) History Ba'athist Iraq Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim Ramadan Revolution November 1963 coup d'état 17 July Revolution 1979 Ba'ath Party Purge Iran–Iraq War Gulf War Sanctions Iraq War De-Ba'athification Ba'athist Syria Syrian Committee to Help Iraq 1963 coup d'état 1966 coup d'état Syrian invasion of Jordan Corrective Revolution Intervention in Lebanon Syrian occupation of Lebanon Syrian civil war Fall of the Assad regime Regional organizations Algeria pro-Iraq pro-Syria Bahrain pro-Iraq pro-Syria Egypt pro-Iraq pro-Syria Iraq pro-Iraq pro-Syria Jordan pro-Iraq pro-Syria Kuwait pro-Iraq Lebanon pro-Iraq pro-Syria Libya pro-Iraq Mauritania pro-Iraq pro-Syria Palestine pro-Iraq pro-Syria Sudan pro-Iraq pro-Syria Syria pro-Iraq pro-Syria Tunisia pro-Iraq pro-Syria Yemen pro-Iraq pro-Syria Splinter groups Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party Socialist Lebanon Arab Revolutionary Workers Party Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party Sudanese Ba'ath Party Armed groups Arab Liberation Front Al-Awda Al-Abud Network Jeish Muhammad Rejectionists Snake Party Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation Naqshbandi Army General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries Free Iraqi Army Related topics Arab nationalism Arab socialism Assadist–Saddamist conflict Nasserism Pan-Arabism Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya Politics portal Socialism portal v t e

**Bashar Hafez al-Assad**[b] (born 11 September 1965) is a Syrian former politician, doctor, and military officer who served as the [president of Syria](/source/President_of_Syria) from 2000 until [his overthrow](/source/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime) in 2024 after the [Syrian civil war](/source/Syrian_civil_war). As president, Assad was [commander-in-chief](/source/Commander-in-chief) of the [Syrian Arab Armed Forces](/source/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces_(Ba'athist_Syria)) and secretary-general of the [Central Command](/source/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region) of the [Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party](/source/Ba'ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)). He is the son of [Hafez al-Assad](/source/Hafez_al-Assad), who ruled Syria from 1970 to 2000.

In the 1980s, Assad became a doctor, and in the early 1990s he was training in [London](/source/London) as an [ophthalmologist](/source/Ophthalmologist). In 1994, after his elder brother [Bassel al-Assad](/source/Bassel_al-Assad) died in a car crash, Assad was recalled to Syria to take over Bassel's role as [heir apparent](/source/Heir_apparent). Assad entered the military academy and in 1998 took charge of the [Syrian occupation of Lebanon](/source/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon) begun by his father. On 17 July 2000, Assad became president, succeeding his father, who had died on 10 June 2000.[3] Hopes that the UK-educated Assad would bring reform to Syria and relax the occupation of Lebanon[4] were dashed following a series of crackdowns in 2001–2002 that ended the [Damascus Spring](/source/Damascus_Spring), a period defined by calls for transparency and democracy. Assad's rule would arguably become more [repressive](/source/Political_repression) than his father's.[5]

Assad's first decade in power was marked by [extensive censorship](/source/Censorship_in_Syria), summary executions, [forced disappearances](/source/Enforced_disappearance), discrimination against ethnic minorities, and extensive surveillance by the [Ba'athist secret police](/source/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)). While the Assad government described itself as [secular](/source/Secular_state), various political scientists and observers noted that his regime exploited [sectarian tensions](/source/Sectarianism) in the country. Although Assad inherited Hafez's power structures and [personality cult](/source/Personality_cult), he lacked the loyalty received by his father and faced rising discontent against his rule. As a result, many people from his father's regime resigned or were purged, and the political inner circle was replaced by staunch loyalists from [Alawite](/source/Alawites) clans. Assad's early [economic liberalisation](/source/Economic_liberalization) programs worsened inequalities and centralised the socio-political power of the loyalist Damascene elite of the [Assad family](/source/Assad_family), alienating the Syrian rural population, urban working classes, businessmen, industrialists, and people from traditional Ba'ath strongholds. Assad was forced to end the Syrian occupation of Lebanon during the [Cedar Revolution](/source/Cedar_Revolution) in 2005, which was triggered by [the assassination of Lebanese prime minister Rafic Hariri](/source/Assassination_of_Rafic_Hariri). The [Mehlis report](/source/Mehlis_report) implicated Assad's regime in the assassination, with a particular focus on [Maher al-Assad](/source/Maher_al-Assad), [Assef Shawkat](/source/Assef_Shawkat), [Hassan Khalil](/source/Hassan_Khalil), [Bahjat Suleiman](/source/Bahjat_Suleiman), and [Jamil Al Sayyed](/source/Jamil_Al_Sayyed).[6]

After the [Syrian revolution](/source/Syrian_revolution) began in 2011, Assad led a deadly crackdown against [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring) protests which led to outbreak of the [Syrian civil war](/source/Syrian_civil_war). The [Syrian opposition](/source/Syrian_opposition), [United States](/source/United_States), [European Union](/source/European_Union), and the majority of the [Arab League](/source/Arab_League) called on him to resign, but he refused and the war escalated. Between 2011 and 2024, over 600,000 people were killed, with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of civilian casualties.[7] Throughout the war, the [Ba'athist Syrian armed forces](/source/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces) carried out several [chemical attacks](/source/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war).[8] In 2013, the [United Nations](/source/United_Nations) (UN) [High Commissioner for Human Rights](/source/High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights) stated that findings from [a UN inquiry](/source/Independent_International_Commission_of_Inquiry_on_the_Syrian_Arab_Republic) directly implicated Assad in [crimes against humanity](/source/Crimes_against_humanity). The regime's [perpetration of war crimes](/source/War_crimes_in_the_Syrian_civil_war#Ba'athist_Syrian_Armed_Forces_and_allied_forces) led to international condemnation and isolation,[9] although Assad maintained power with assistance from Syria's longtime allies [Iran](/source/Iran) and [Russia](/source/Russia). Iran [launched a military intervention](/source/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war) in support of his government in 2013 and Russia [followed in 2015](/source/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war); by 2021, Assad's regime had regained control over most of the country. In November 2024, a coalition of Syrian rebels mounted [several offensives](/source/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives) with the intention of ousting Assad.[10][11] On the morning of 8 December, as rebel troops first entered Damascus, Assad fled to [Moscow](/source/Moscow) and was granted [political asylum](/source/Political_asylum) by the [Russian government](/source/Government_of_Russia).[12][13] Later that day, [Damascus fell](/source/Fall_of_Damascus_(2024)) to rebel forces, and [Assad's regime collapsed](/source/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime).[14][15][16]

Assad's regime was a highly [personalist dictatorship](/source/Dictatorship#Personalist)[17][18] that governed Syria as a [totalitarian](/source/Totalitarian) [police state](/source/Police_state).[19] It committed systemic [human rights violations](/source/Human_rights_in_Ba'athist_Syria) and [war crimes](/source/War_crime), making it [one of the most repressive regimes in modern times](/source/List_of_totalitarian_regimes). The regime was consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" within [Freedom House](/source/Freedom_House) indexes.[20] In 2025, France issued three arrest warrants against Assad in connection with the bombing of a civilian-populated area in Daraa in 2017 that killed Franco-Syrian dual national Salah Abou Nabout,[21][22] the 2012 killings of journalists [Marie Colvin](/source/Marie_Colvin) and [Remi Ochlik](/source/Remi_Ochlik) in Homs,[23][24] and the [Ghouta chemical attacks](/source/Ghouta_chemical_attack) in 2013.[25][26] In September 2025, a Syrian court issued an arrest warrant for Assad over the killing of civilians during the [Siege of Daraa](/source/Siege_of_Daraa) in 2011, paving the way for its circulation through [Interpol](/source/Interpol). The arrest warrant cited charges such as "premeditated murder", "[torture](/source/Torture) leading to death", and "deprivation of liberty".[27][28][29]

## Early life, family and education

Further information: [Al-Assad family](/source/Al-Assad_family)

Bashar Hafez al-Assad was born in Damascus on 11 September 1965, as the second son and third child of [Anisa Makhlouf](/source/Anisa_Makhlouf) and [Hafez al-Assad](/source/Hafez_al-Assad).[30][31] *al-Assad* in [Arabic](/source/Arabic) means "*the lion*". Assad's paternal grandfather, [Ali al-Assad](/source/Ali_al-Assad), had managed to change his status from peasant to minor notable and, to reflect this, in 1927 he had changed the family name from *al-Wahsh* (lit. 'the Savage') to *al-Assad*.[32]

Assad's father, Hafez al-Assad, was born to an impoverished rural family of [Alawite](/source/Alawites) background and rose through the [Ba'ath Party](/source/Ba'ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)) ranks to take control of the [Syrian branch](/source/Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region) of the Party in the [Corrective Revolution](/source/Corrective_Revolution_(Syria)), culminating in his rise to the [Syrian presidency](/source/President_of_Syria).[33] Hafez promoted his supporters within the Ba'ath Party, many of whom were also of Alawite background.[30][34] After the revolution, Alawite strongmen were installed while [Sunnis](/source/Sunni), [Druze](/source/Druze), and [Ismailis](/source/Ismaili) were removed from the army and Ba'ath party.[35] Hafez al-Assad's 30-year military rule witnessed the transformation of Syria into a dynastic dictatorship. The new political system was led by the Ba'ath party elites dominated by the Alawites, who were fervently loyal to the Assad family and controlled the military, security forces and secret police.[36][37]

The younger Assad had five siblings, three of whom are deceased. A sister named Bushra died in infancy.[38] Assad's younger brother, Majd, was not a public figure and little is known about him other than he was [intellectually disabled](/source/Intellectual_disability),[39] and died in 2009 after a "long illness".[40]

Unlike his brothers Bassel and [Maher](/source/Maher_al-Assad), and second sister, also named [Bushra](/source/Bushra_al-Assad), Bashar was quiet, reserved and lacked interest in politics or the military.[41][39][42] The Assad children reportedly rarely saw their father,[43] and Bashar later stated that he only entered his father's office once while he was president.[44] He was described as "soft-spoken",[45] and according to a university friend, he was timid, avoided eye contact and spoke in a low voice.[46]

Assad received his primary and secondary education in the Arab-French al-Hurriya School in Damascus.[41] In 1982, he graduated from high school and then studied medicine at [Damascus University](/source/Damascus_University).[47]

## Medical career and rise to power

Photograph of [Bassel al-Assad](/source/Bassel_al-Assad) (1962–1994), Bashar's older brother, who was initially destined to succeed his father in the [presidency of Syria](/source/President_of_Syria), but died in an automobile accident in 1994

In 1988, Assad graduated from medical school and began working as an army doctor at Tishrin Military Hospital on the outskirts of Damascus.[48][49] Four years later, he settled in London to start postgraduate training in [ophthalmology](/source/Ophthalmology) at [Western Eye Hospital](/source/Western_Eye_Hospital).[50] He was described as a "geeky I.T. guy" during his time in London.[51] Bashar had few political aspirations,[52] and his father had been grooming Bashar's older brother Bassel as future president.[53] Shortly after Bassel died in a car accident in 1994, Bashar was recalled to the Syrian Army. State propaganda soon began elevating Bashar's public image as "the hope of the masses" to prepare the public for a continuation of the rule of the [Assad dynasty](/source/Assad_dynasty).[54][55]

Soon after the death of Bassel, Hafez al-Assad decided to make Bashar the new [heir apparent](/source/Heir_apparent).[56] Over the next six and a half years, until his death in 2000, Hafez prepared Bashar for succession. General [Bahjat Suleiman](/source/Bahjat_Suleiman), an officer in the [Defense Companies](/source/Defense_Companies_(Syria)), was entrusted with overseeing preparations for a smooth transition,[57][43] which were made on three levels. First, support was built up for Bashar in the military and security apparatus. Second, Bashar's image was established with the public. And lastly, Bashar was familiarised with the mechanisms of running the country.[58]

To establish his credentials in the military, Bashar entered the [military academy at Homs](/source/Homs_Military_Academy) in 1994 and was propelled through the ranks to become a colonel of the elite [Syrian Republican Guard](/source/Syrian_Republican_Guard) in January 1999.[48][59][60] To establish a power base for Bashar in the military, old divisional commanders were pushed into retirement, and new, young, Alawite officers with loyalties to him took their place.[61]

Young Bashar al-Assad serving in the military

In 1998, Bashar took charge of Syria's [Lebanon file](/source/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon), which had since the 1970s been handled by Vice President [Abdul Halim Khaddam](/source/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam), who had until then been a potential contender for president.[61] By taking charge of Syrian affairs in Lebanon, Bashar was able to push Khaddam aside and establish his own power base in Lebanon.[62] In the same year, after minor consultation with Lebanese politicians, Bashar installed [Emile Lahoud](/source/Emile_Lahoud), a loyal ally of his, as the [President of Lebanon](/source/President_of_Lebanon) and pushed former [Lebanese Prime Minister](/source/Lebanese_Prime_Minister) [Rafic Hariri](/source/Rafic_Hariri) aside, by not placing his political weight behind his nomination as prime minister.[63] To further weaken the old Syrian order in Lebanon, Bashar replaced the long-serving de facto Syrian [High Commissioner](/source/High_Commissioner) of Lebanon, [Ghazi Kanaan](/source/Ghazi_Kanaan), with [Rustum Ghazaleh](/source/Rustum_Ghazaleh).[64]

Parallel to his military career, Bashar was engaged in public affairs. He was granted wide powers and became head of the bureau to receive complaints and appeals of citizens, and led a campaign against corruption. As a result of this campaign, many of Bashar's potential rivals for president were put on trial for corruption.[48] Bashar also became the President of the [Syrian Computer Society](/source/Syrian_Computer_Society) and helped to introduce the internet in Syria, which aided his image as a moderniser and reformer. [Ba'athist](/source/Ba'athism) loyalists in the party, military and the [Alawite](/source/Alawites) sect were supportive of Bashar al-Assad, enabling him to become his father's successor.[65]

## Presidency

Main article: [Presidency of Bashar al-Assad](/source/Presidency_of_Bashar_al-Assad)

See also: [Ba'athist Syria](/source/Ba'athist_Syria)

### Early presidency (2000–2011)

After the death of Hafez al-Assad on 10 June 2000, the [Constitution of Syria](/source/Constitution_of_Syria) was amended. The minimum age requirement for the presidency was lowered from 40 to 34, which was Bashar's age at the time.[66] The sole candidate of the presidential referendum, Assad was subsequently [confirmed president on 10 July 2000](/source/2000_Syrian_presidential_election), with 97.29% support for his leadership.[67][68][69] In line with his role as President of Syria, he was also appointed the [commander-in-chief](/source/Commander-in-chief) of the [Syrian Armed Forces](/source/Syrian_Armed_Forces) and Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party.[65] A series of [state elections](/source/Elections_in_Syria) were held every seven years which Assad won with overwhelming majority of votes. The elections are unanimously regarded by independent observers as a [sham process](/source/Election#Shams) and boycotted by the [opposition](/source/Syrian_opposition_to_Bashar_al-Assad).[c][d] The last two elections – held in 2014 and 2021 – were conducted only in areas controlled by the Syrian government during the country's ongoing civil war and condemned by the [United Nations](/source/UN).[79][80][81] In the five years before 2011 the government of Bashar consolidated state power over the economy and political system. This consolidation went hand in hand with measures which were filled with nepotism and corruption.[82]

#### Damascus Spring

See also: [Damascus Spring](/source/Damascus_Spring)

Immediately after he took office, a reform movement known as [Damascus Spring](/source/Damascus_Spring) led by writers, intellectuals, dissidents, cultural activists, etc. made cautious advances, which led to the closing of [Mezzeh prison](/source/Mezzeh_prison) and the declaration of a wide-ranging amnesty releasing hundreds of [Muslim Brotherhood](/source/Muslim_Brotherhood) affiliated political prisoners.[83] However, security crackdowns commenced again within the year, turning it into the Damascus Winter.[84][85] Hundreds of intellectuals were arrested, targeted, exiled or sent to prison and the state of emergency was continued. The early concessions were rolled back to tighten authoritarian control, censorship was increased and the Damascus Spring movement was banned under the pretext of "national unity and stability". The regime's policy of a "social market economy" became a symbol of corruption, as Assad loyalists became its sole beneficiaries.[65][86][87][88] Several discussion forums were shut down and many intellectuals were abducted by the Mukhabarat, tortured and killed. Many analysts believe that initial promises of opening up were part of a government strategy to find Syrians who were not supportive of the new leadership.[85]

Assad with Brazilian President [Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva](/source/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva) in Damascus, 3 December 2003

During a state visit by [British Prime Minister](/source/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom) [Tony Blair](/source/Tony_Blair) to Syria in October 2001, Bashar publicly condemned the [United States invasion of Afghanistan](/source/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan) in a joint press conference, stating that "[w]e cannot accept what we see every day on our television screens – the killing of innocent civilians. There are hundreds dying every day." Assad also praised [Palestinian militant groups](/source/Palestinian_political_violence) as "[freedom fighters](/source/Freedom_fighter)" and [criticised Israel](/source/Criticism_of_Israel) and [the Western world](/source/Anti-Western_sentiment) during the conference. British officials subsequently described Assad's political views as being more conciliatory in private, claiming that he criticised the [September 11 attacks](/source/September_11_attacks) and accepted the [legitimacy of the State of Israel](/source/Legitimacy_of_the_State_of_Israel).[89]

Following the [September 11 attacks](/source/September_11_attacks) and during the early stages of the US-led [war on terror](/source/War_on_terror), "Syria had emerged as one of the [CIA](/source/CIA)'s most effective intelligence allies in the fight against [al-Qaeda](/source/Al-Qaeda),"[90] with "the quality and quantity of information from Syria [having] exceeded the Agency's expectations."[90] Syria closely cooperated with the CIA's [detention and interrogation](/source/CIA_black_sites) program of people deemed "[illegal enemy combatants](/source/Illegal_enemy_combatants)"; Syrian prisons were a major site of [extraordinary rendition](/source/Extraordinary_rendition) by the CIA of alleged al-Qaeda members where they were tortured by Syrian interrogators on behalf of the CIA.[91][92][93] According to a 2013 report by the [Open Society Foundations](/source/Open_Society_Foundations), Syria was one of the "most common destinations for rendered suspects" under the CIA's program.[94]

#### Assassination of Rafic Hariri and Cedar Revolution

See also: [Assassination of Rafic Hariri](/source/Assassination_of_Rafic_Hariri), [Cedar Revolution](/source/Cedar_Revolution), and [Syrian occupation of Lebanon](/source/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon)

"It will be [Lahoud](/source/Emile_Lahoud).. opposing him is tantamount to opposing [Assad](/source/Assad_dynasty) himself.. I will break [Lebanon](/source/Lebanon) over your head and over [Walid Jumblatt](/source/Walid_Jumblatt)'s head. So you had better return to [Beirut](/source/Beirut) and arrange the matter on that basis."

— Assad's threats to [Rafic Hariri](/source/Rafic_Hariri) in August 2004, over the issue of tenure extension of Syrian ally Emile Lahoud[95]

The crime-scene in [Beirut](/source/Beirut) where Hariri and 21 others were killed in a terrorist attack in February 2005. The area was cordoned off to conduct an international investigation.

On 14 February 2005, [Rafic Hariri](/source/Rafic_Hariri), the former prime minister of Lebanon, was [assassinated](/source/Assassination_of_Rafic_Hariri) in a massive truck-bomb explosion in [Beirut](/source/Beirut), killing 22 people. *[The Christian Science Monitor](/source/The_Christian_Science_Monitor)* reported that "Syria was widely blamed for Hariri's murder. In the months leading to the assassination, relations between Hariri and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad plummeted amid an atmosphere of threats and intimidation."[96] Bashar promoted his brother-in-law [Assef Shawkat](/source/Assef_Shawkat), a key figure suspected of orchestrating the terrorist attack, as the chief of [Syrian Military Intelligence Directorate](/source/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)) immediately after Hariri's death.[97]

Protesters take to the streets during Lebanon's "Independence Intifada", also known as the [Cedar Revolution](/source/Cedar_Revolution).

The killings caused massive uproar, triggering an *[intifada](/source/Intifada)* in [Lebanon](/source/Lebanon) and hundreds of thousands of protestors poured on the streets to demand total withdrawal of Syrian military forces. After mounting international pressure that called Syria to implement the [UNSC Resolution 1559](/source/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1559), Bashar al-Assad declared on 5 March that he would order the departure of Syrian soldiers. On 14 March 2005, more than a million [Lebanese](/source/Lebanese_people) protestors – Muslims, Christians, and Druze – demonstrated in Beirut, marking the monthly anniversary of Hariri's murder. UN Resolution 1595, adopted on 7 April, sent an [international commission](/source/Assassination_of_Rafic_Hariri#Investigation) to investigate the assassination of Hariri. By 5 May 2005, United Nations had officially confirmed the total departure of all Syrian soldiers, ending the 29-year old [military occupation](/source/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon). The uprisings that occurred in these months came to be known as Lebanon's "independence intifada" or the "[Cedar Revolution](/source/Cedar_Revolution)".[98]

UN investigation commission's report published on 20 October 2005 revealed that high-ranking members of [Syrian intelligence](/source/Syrian_intelligence) and Assad family had directly supervised the killing.[99][100][101] The [BBC](/source/BBC) reported in December 2005 that "Damascus has strongly denied involvement in the car bomb which killed Hariri in February".[102]

Assad with Indian Prime Minister [Manmohan Singh](/source/Manmohan_Singh) in New Delhi, India, 18 June 2008

On 27 May 2007, Assad was [approved for another seven-year term](/source/2007_Syrian_presidential_election) in a referendum on his presidency, with 97.6% of the votes supporting his continued leadership.[103][104][105] Opposition parties were not allowed in the country and Assad was the only candidate in the referendum.[69] Syria's opposition parties under the umbrella of [Damascus Declaration](/source/Damascus_Declaration) denounced the elections as illegitimate and part of the regime's strategy to sustain the "[totalitarian](/source/Totalitarianism) system".[106][107] Elections in Ba'athist Syria were officially designated by the state as the event of "renewing the pledge of allegiance" to the Assads and voting was enforced by the Ba'athist military apparatus as a compulsory duty for every citizen. Announcement of the results were typically followed by pro-Assad rallies conducted by the Ba'ath party across the country extolling the regime, wherein participants were forced to declare their "devotion" to the President and celebrate "the virtues" of the Assad dynasty.[108][109][110]

Syria began developing a covert [nuclear weapons programme](/source/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Nuclear_program) with assistance of [North Korea](/source/North_Korea) during the 2000s, but its suspected [nuclear reactor](/source/Nuclear_reactor) was destroyed by the [Israeli Air Force](/source/Israeli_Air_Force) during [Operation Outside the Box](/source/Operation_Orchard) in September 2007.[111][112][113] Immediately after U.S. diplomatic efforts by Middle East envoy [George J. Mitchell](/source/George_J._Mitchell) in September 2010 to forge a regional peace, the Iranian president [Mahmoud Ahmadinejad](/source/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad) awarded Assad with his country's highest honor, the Islamic Republic Medal, with an aim to counter the effort.[114]

### Syrian civil war (2011–2024)

See also: [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring), [2011 Syrian Revolution](/source/2011_Syrian_Revolution), [Syrian civil war](/source/Syrian_civil_war), and [Sanctions against Syria](/source/Sanctions_against_Syria)

Anti-Assad demonstrations in [Douma](/source/Douma%2C_Syria), 8 April 2011

[Protests in Syria](/source/Civil_uprising_phase_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War) began on 26 January 2011 following the [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring) protests that called for political reforms and the reinstatement of civil rights, as well as an end to the [state of emergency](/source/State_of_emergency) which had been in place since 1963.[115] One attempt at a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, though it ended uneventfully.[116] Protests on 18–19 March were the largest to take place in Syria for decades, and the Syrian authority responded with violence against its protesting citizens.[117] In his first public response to the protests delivered on 30 March 2011, Assad blamed the unrest on "conspiracies" and accused the Syrian opposition and protestors of seditious "*[fitna](/source/Fitna_(word))*", toeing the party-line of framing the Ba'athist state as the victim of an international plot. He also derided the [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring) movement, and described those participating in the protests as "germs" and [fifth-columnists](/source/Fifth_column).[118][119][120]

"Throughout the speech, al-Assad remained faithful to the basic ideological line of [Syrian Baathism](/source/Neo-Ba'athism): the binary opposition of a devilishly determined, conspiring 'outside' bent on hurting a heroically defending and essentially good 'inside'... consistent with [Baathist](/source/Baathist) dualism, [the speech] makes the sparing, if not grudging, mention of supposedly minor dissent in this 'inside'. This dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the **fitna**... Following this hard-line speech, the protesters' demands moved from reforming to overthrowing the regime."

— Professor Akeel Abbas on Assad's first public speech after the outbreak of [Syrian Revolution protests](/source/2011_Syrian_Revolution)[121]

The U.S. imposed limited sanctions against the Assad government in April 2011, followed by [Barack Obama](/source/Barack_Obama)'s executive order as of 18 May 2011 targeting Bashar Assad specifically and six other senior officials.[122][123][124] On 23 May 2011, the EU foreign ministers agreed at a meeting in Brussels to add Assad and nine other officials to a list affected by travel bans and asset freezes.[125] On 24 May 2011, Canada imposed sanctions on Syrian leaders, including Assad.[126]

On 20 June, in response to the demands of protesters and international pressure, Assad promised a national dialogue involving movement toward reform, [new parliamentary elections](/source/2012_Syrian_parliamentary_election), and greater [freedoms](/source/Civil_and_political_rights). He also urged [refugees](/source/Refugee) to return home from Turkey, while assuring them [amnesty](/source/Amnesty) and blaming all unrest on a small number of saboteurs.[127]

Hundreds of thousands of anti-Assad protesters parade the Syrian flag and shout the [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring) slogan [Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam](/source/Ash-shab_yurid_isqat_an-nizam) (*the people want to bring down the regime!*) in the Assi square, during the [Siege of Hama](/source/Siege_of_Hama_(2011)), 22 July 2011.

In July 2011, U.S. Secretary of State [Hillary Clinton](/source/Hillary_Clinton) said Assad had "lost legitimacy" as president.[123] On 18 August 2011, Barack Obama issued a written statement that urged Assad to "step aside".[128][129][130] In August, the cartoonist [Ali Farzat](/source/Ali_Farzat), a critic of Assad's government, was attacked. Relatives of the humourist told media outlets that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning for him to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat was hospitalised with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head.[131][132]

Since October 2011, Russia, as a [permanent member](/source/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council) of the [UN Security Council](/source/United_Nations_Security_Council), repeatedly [vetoed](/source/United_Nations_Security_Council_veto_power) Western-sponsored draft resolutions in the UN Security Council that would have left open the possibility of UN sanctions, or even military intervention, against the Assad government.[133][134][135]

On 10 January 2012, Assad gave a speech in which he maintained the uprising was engineered by foreign countries and proclaimed that "victory [was] near". He also said that the [Arab League](/source/Arab_League), by suspending Syria, revealed that it was no longer Arab. However, Assad also said the country would not "close doors" to an Arab-brokered solution if "national sovereignty" was respected. He also said a referendum on a new constitution could be held in March.[136]

By the end of January 2012, it was reported by [Reuters](/source/Reuters) that over 5,000 civilians and protesters (including armed militants) had been killed by the Syrian army, security agents and militia ([Shabiha](/source/Shabiha)), while 1,100 people had been killed by "terrorist armed forces".[137]

Destroyed vehicle on a devastated [Aleppo](/source/Aleppo) street, 6 October 2012

On 27 February 2012, Syria claimed that a proposal that a new constitution be drafted received 90% support during the [relevant referendum](/source/2012_Syrian_constitutional_referendum). The referendum introduced a fourteen-year cumulative term limit for the president of Syria. The referendum was pronounced meaningless by foreign nations including the U.S. and Turkey; the EU announced fresh sanctions against key regime figures.[138] In July 2012, Russian Foreign Minister [Sergey Lavrov](/source/Sergey_Lavrov) denounced Western powers for what he said amounted to blackmail thus provoking a civil war in Syria.[139] On 15 July 2012, the [International Committee of the Red Cross](/source/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross) declared Syria to be in a state of civil war,[140] as the nationwide death toll for all sides was reported to have neared 20,000.[141]

On 6 January 2013, Assad, in his first major speech since June, said that the conflict in his country was due to "enemies" outside of Syria who would "go to Hell" and that they would "be taught a lesson". However, he said that he was still open to a political solution saying that failed attempts at a solution "does not mean we are not interested in a political solution."[142][143] In July 2014, Assad renewed his third term of presidency after voting process conducted in pro-regime territories which were boycotted by the opposition and condemned by the [United Nations](/source/UN).[79][80][81] According to [Joshua Landis](/source/Joshua_Landis): "He's (Assad) going to say: 'I am the state, I am Syria, and if the West wants access to Syrians, they have to come through me.'"[80]

In 2013, reports emerged about an assassination attempt on Bashar that may have motivated a chemical weapons strike by the Assad regime. NBC News reported that the United States conducted investigations to determine whether a failed attempt on his life had influenced the decision to deploy such weapons.[144] During the early stages of the Syrian Civil War in 2012, multiple reports of assassination attempts were made. These allegations coincided with intensifying conflict and growing opposition to Assad's rule.[145]

After the fall of four military bases in September 2014,[146] which were the last government footholds in the [Raqqa Governorate](/source/Raqqa_Governorate), Assad received significant criticism from his Alawite base of support.[147] This included remarks made by Douraid al-Assad, cousin of Bashar al-Assad, demanding the resignation of the Syrian Defence Minister, [Fahd Jassem al-Freij](/source/Fahd_Jassem_al-Freij), following the massacre by the [Islamic State](/source/Islamic_State) of hundreds of government troops captured after the IS victory at [Tabqa Airbase](/source/Battle_for_Tabqa_Air_base).[148] This was shortly followed by Alawite protests in [Homs](/source/Homs) demanding the resignation of the governor,[149] and the dismissal of Assad's cousin [Hafez Makhlouf](/source/Hafez_Makhlouf) from his security position leading to his subsequent exile to Belarus.[150] Growing resentment towards Assad among Alawites was fuelled by the disproportionate number of soldiers killed in fighting hailing from Alawite areas,[151] a sense that the Assad regime has abandoned them,[152] as well as the failing economic situation.[153] Figures close to Assad began voicing concerns regarding the likelihood of its survival, with one saying in late 2014; "I don't see the current situation as sustainable ... I think Damascus will collapse at some point."[146]

Military situation in September 2015

In 2015, several members of the Assad family died in [Latakia](/source/Latakia) under unclear circumstances.[154] On 14 March, an influential cousin of Assad and founder of the [shabiha](/source/Shabiha), Mohammed Toufic al-Assad, was assassinated with five bullets to the head in a dispute over influence in [Qardaha](/source/Qardaha) – the [ancestral home](/source/Ancestral_home) of the Assad family.[155] In April 2015, Assad ordered the arrest of his cousin Munther al-Assad in Alzirah, Latakia.[156] It remains unclear whether the arrest was due to actual crimes.[157]

After a string of government defeats in northern and southern Syria, analysts noted growing government instability coupled with continued waning support for the Assad government among its core Alawite base of support.[158] Reports indicated that Assad's relatives, Alawites, and businessmen were increasingly fleeing Damascus for Latakia and foreign countries.[159][160] Intelligence chief [Ali Mamlouk](/source/Ali_Mamlouk) was placed under house arrest sometime in April and stood accused of plotting with Assad's exiled uncle [Rifaat al-Assad](/source/Rifaat_al-Assad) to replace Bashar as president.[161] Further high-profile deaths included the commanders of the Fourth Armoured Division, the Belli military airbase, the army's special forces and of the First Armoured Division, with an errant air strike during the [Palmyra offensive](/source/Palmyra_offensive_(May_2015)) killing two officers who were reportedly related to Assad.[162]

#### Presidency after Russian intervention (2015–2024)

See also: [Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war](/source/Russian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war) and [Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war](/source/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war)

On 4 September 2015, when prospects of Assad's survival looked bleak, Russian President [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin) said that Russia was providing the Assad government with sufficiently "serious" help: with both logistical and military support.[163][164][165] Shortly after the start of [direct military intervention by Russia](/source/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War) on 30 September 2015 at the formal request of the Syrian government, Putin stated the military operation had been thoroughly prepared in advance and defined Russia's goal in Syria as "stabilising the legitimate power in Syria and creating the conditions for political compromise".[166] Putin's intervention saved the Assad regime at a time when it was on the verge of a looming collapse. It also enabled Moscow to achieve its key geo-strategic objectives such as total control of Syrian airspace, naval bases that granted permanent martial reach across the [Eastern Mediterranean](/source/Eastern_Mediterranean) and easier access to intervene in Libya.[165]

In November 2015, Assad reiterated that a diplomatic process to bring the country's civil war to an end could not begin while it was occupied by "terrorists", although it was considered by [BBC News](/source/BBC_News) to be unclear whether he meant only [ISIL](/source/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant) or Western-supported rebels as well.[167] On 22 November, Assad said that within two months of its air campaign Russia had achieved more in its fight against ISIL than the [U.S.-led coalition](/source/American-led_intervention_in_Syria) had achieved in a year.[168] In an interview with [Czech Television](/source/Czech_Television) on 1 December, he said that the leaders who demanded his resignation were of no interest to him, as nobody takes them seriously because they are "shallow" and controlled by the United States.[169][170] At the end of December 2015, senior U.S. officials privately admitted that Russia had achieved its central goal of stabilising Syria and, with the expenses relatively low, could sustain the operation at this level for years to come.[171]

In December 2015, Putin stated that Russia was supporting Assad's forces and was ready to back anti-Assad rebels in a joint fight against IS.[172] On 22 January 2016, the *[Financial Times](/source/Financial_Times)*, citing anonymous "senior western intelligence officials", claimed that Russian general [Igor Sergun](/source/Igor_Sergun), the director of [GRU](/source/GRU_(Russian_Federation)), the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the [Armed Forces of the Russian Federation](/source/Armed_Forces_of_the_Russian_Federation), had shortly before his sudden death on 3 January 2016 been sent to Damascus with a message from Vladimir Putin asking that President Assad step aside.[173] The *Financial Times'* report was denied by Putin's spokesman.[174]

It was reported in December 2016 that Assad's forces had retaken half of rebel-held [Aleppo](/source/Aleppo), ending a 6-year stalemate in the city.[175][176] On 15 December, as it was reported government forces were on the brink of retaking all of Aleppo – a "turning point" in the civil war, Assad celebrated the "liberation" of the city, and stated, "History is being written by every Syrian citizen."[177]

After the election of [Donald Trump](/source/Donald_Trump), the priority of the U.S. concerning Assad was unlike the priority of the [Obama administration](/source/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama#Syrian_civil_war), and in March 2017, [U.S. Ambassador to the UN](/source/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Nations) [Nikki Haley](/source/Nikki_Haley) stated the U.S. was no longer focused on "getting Assad out",[178] but this position changed in the wake of the [2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack](/source/2017_Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack).[179] Following the [missile strikes on a Syrian airbase](/source/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike) on the orders of President Trump, Assad's spokesperson described the U.S.' behaviour as "unjust and arrogant aggression" and stated that the missile strikes "do not change the deep policies" of the Syrian government.[180] President Assad also told the [Agence France-Presse](/source/Agence_France-Presse) that Syria's military had given up all its chemical weapons in 2013, and would not have used them if they still retained any, and stated that the chemical attack was a "100 percent fabrication" used to justify a U.S. airstrike.[181] In June 2017, Russian President Putin said "Assad didn't use the [chemical weapons]" and that the chemical attack was "done by people who wanted to blame him for that".[182] UN and international chemical weapons inspectors from the [Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons](/source/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons) (OPCW) found the attack was the work of the Assad regime.[183]

On 7 November 2017, the Syrian government announced that it had signed the [Paris Climate Agreement](/source/Paris_Climate_Agreement).[184] In May 2018, it recognised the independence of Russian-occupied separatist republics of [Abkhazia](/source/Abkhazia) and [South Ossetia](/source/South_Ossetia) in Georgia, leading to backlash from the [European Union](/source/European_Union), [United States](/source/United_States), [Canada](/source/Canada) and other countries.[185][186][187] On 30 August 2020, the [First Hussein Arnous government](/source/First_Hussein_Arnous_government) was formed, which included a new [Council of Ministers](/source/Council_of_Ministers_(Syria)).[188] Lebanese general [Abbas Ibrahim](/source/Abbas_Ibrahim_(general)) alleges that around 2020, Assad refused an offer by the United States to lift [sanctions](/source/Caesar_Syria_Civilian_Protection_Act) and remove [troops](/source/United_States_intervention_in_Syria) in Syria in exchange for [Austin Tice](/source/Austin_Tice)'s whereabouts.[189]

#### Re-election and support for Russian invasion of Ukraine

In the [2021 presidential elections](/source/2021_Syrian_presidential_election) held on 26 May, Assad secured his fourth 7-year tenure; by winning 95.2% of the eligible votes. The elections were boycotted by the [opposition](/source/Syrian_opposition_to_Bashar_al-Assad) and [SDF](/source/Syrian_Democratic_Forces); while the refugees and internally displaced citizens were disqualified to vote; enabling only 38% of Syrians to participate in the process. Independent international observers as well as representatives of Western countries described the elections as a farce. [United Nations](/source/United_Nations) condemned the elections for directly violating Resolution 2254; and announced that it has "no mandate".[190][191][192][193][194]

Assad with Iranian President [Ebrahim Raisi](/source/Ebrahim_Raisi) in Damascus, 3 May 2023

On 10 August 2021, the [Second Hussein Arnous government](/source/Second_Hussein_Arnous_government) was formed.[195] Under Assad, Syria became a strong supporter of the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](/source/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) and was one of the five countries that opposed the [UN General Assembly](/source/United_Nations_General_Assembly) resolution denouncing the invasion, which called upon Russia to pull back its troops. Three days prior to the invasion, Foreign Minister [Faisal Mekdad](/source/Faisal_Mekdad) was dispatched to Moscow to affirm Syria's recognition of [Donetsk](/source/Donetsk_People's_Republic) and [Luhansk](/source/Luhansk_People's_Republic) separatist republics. A day after the invasion, Assad praised the invasion as "a correction of history and a restoration of balance in the [global order](/source/International_order) after the [fall of the Soviet Union](/source/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union)" in a phone call with [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin).[196][197][198] Syria became the first country after Russia to officially recognise the "independence and sovereignty" of the two breakaway regions in June 2022.[199][200][201] Syria formally broke its diplomatic ties to Ukraine on 20 July 2022, citing the [principle of reciprocity](/source/Reciprocity_(international_relations)).[202]

On the 12th anniversary of beginning of the protests of [Syrian Revolution](/source/2011_Syrian_Revolution), Assad held a meeting with [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin) during an official visit to Russia. In a televised broadcast with Putin, Assad defended Russia's "special military operation" as a war against "[neo-Nazis](/source/Neo-Nazism) and [old Nazis](/source/Banderite)" of Ukraine.[203][204] He recognised the [Russian annexation of four Ukrainian oblasts](/source/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk%2C_Kherson%2C_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts) and ratified the new Russian borders, claiming that the territories were "historically Russian". Assad also urged Russia to expand its [military presence in Syria](/source/Russian_military_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war) by establishing new bases and deploying more troops on the ground, strengthening its military role in Syria.[e]

Military situation before the [opposition offensives](/source/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives) in late 2024.
Territories held by the [SDF](/source/Syrian_Democratic_Forces) (yellow), [IS](/source/Islamic_State) (grey), the [Syrian Army](/source/Syrian_Army) (red), the [SNA](/source/Syrian_National_Army) and [Turkey](/source/Turkey) (light green), [Tahrir al-Sham](/source/Tahrir_al-Sham) (white), the [SFA](/source/Revolutionary_Commando_Army) and the [United States](/source/United_States) (teal).

#### Regional normalization initiatives

See also: [Arab normalization with Syria](/source/Arab_normalization_with_Syria)

In March 2023, Assad visited the [United Arab Emirates](/source/United_Arab_Emirates) and met with UAE's President [Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan](/source/Mohamed_bin_Zayed_Al_Nahyan).[210] In May 2023, he attended the [Arab League summit in Jeddah](/source/2023_Arab_League_summit), [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia), where he was welcomed by Saudi Crown Prince [Mohammed bin Salman](/source/Mohammed_bin_Salman).[211] He met with Egyptian President [Abdel Fattah el-Sisi](/source/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi) and other Arab leaders.[212] Following a year of [normalization attempts](/source/Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_normalization), Turkish President Erdoğan expressed in July 2023 readiness to meet Assad, but rejected withdrawal from northern Syria as a condition.[213] Assad insisted that any meeting could not occur on Turkey's terms and maintained his demand for full Turkish withdrawal.[214]

In September 2023, Assad attended the [Asian Games](/source/Asian_Games) opening ceremony in [Hangzhou](/source/Hangzhou) and met with Chinese President [Xi Jinping](/source/Xi_Jinping).[215] They announced the establishment of a China–Syria strategic partnership.[216] In November 2023, Assad attended the [Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit](/source/2023_Arab%E2%80%93Islamic_extraordinary_summit) in Riyadh.[217] In May 2024, he attended the Arab League summit in [Bahrain](/source/Bahrain).[218] In this time period the government refused any major incentives for reconciliation and repatriation of the "former" [rebel](/source/Syrian_rebel) groups. Bashar was encouraged to do so by its allies, such as those in the [Axis of Resistance](/source/Axis_of_Resistance), but he did not follow up on these suggestions leaving the society polarised.[82]

## Overthrow and exile

### Regime collapse

See also: [2024 Syrian opposition offensives](/source/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives) and [Fall of the Assad regime](/source/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime)

[Syrian opposition offensives](/source/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives) that overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days

In December 2024, the Islamist group [Hayat Tahrir al-Sham](/source/Tahrir_al-Sham) (HTS), [took control of Aleppo](/source/Battle_of_Aleppo_(2024)), prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by President Assad and his Russian allies. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in the [rebel-held](/source/Insurgency_in_Idlib) city of [Idlib](/source/Idlib), resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to the [White Helmets](/source/White_Helmets_(Syrian_civil_war)) rescue group. [NATO](/source/NATO) countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with [United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254](/source/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_2254), which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The [rebel offensive](/source/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives), which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued its [advance into Hama Governorate](/source/2024_Hama_offensive) following their capture of Aleppo.[219][220][221]

On 4 December 2024, fierce clashes erupted in [Hama Governorate](/source/Hama_Governorate) as the Syrian army engaged Islamist-led insurgents in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of [Hama](/source/Hama). Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), around 6 miles (9.7 km) from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.[222] The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.[223] On 6 December, rebels began encircling the capital Damascus.[224] On 7 December, rebels captured the strategic city of Homs, cutting off Damascus from regime strongholds on the coast.[225] A few hours later in the early morning of 8 December, Assad fled Damascus just before [its fall to the rebels](/source/Fall_of_Damascus_(2024)),[226] ending 54 years of the Assad family's rule.[227] In the final hours of his rule, he reportedly abandoned the capital after Russian officials showed him footage indicating regime forces were collapsing, taking only a few aides and his son Hafez while leaving others behind. As he departed, his longtime driver expressed disappointment, asking, "You're really leaving us?" to which Assad replied, "What about you people? Aren't you going to fight?", an episode observers cited as emblematic of his detachment and unwillingness to assume responsibility for the collapse of his authority.[189] The Russian government said that Assad had "stepped down" as president following a personal decision and had left Syria.[228][229] Following efforts by Russian foreign minister [Sergey Lavrov](/source/Sergey_Lavrov) to facilitate his departure, Assad, who left under great secrecy, was reported to have gone first to the Russian-operated [Khmeimim Air Base](/source/Khmeimim_Air_Base) near [Latakia](/source/Latakia) before proceeding to Moscow.[230] [Interfax](/source/Interfax), quoting an unnamed source at the [Kremlin](/source/Kremlin), said that Assad and his family had arrived in Moscow and that the Russian government had granted them [asylum](/source/Political_asylum) "on humanitarian grounds".[12]

On 16 December, the [Telegram](/source/Telegram_(software)) account of the Syrian presidency published a statement attributed to Assad saying that he had gone to a Russian military base in [Latakia Governorate](/source/Latakia_Governorate) "to oversee combat operations" following the fall of Damascus but was evacuated out of the country by Russia after coming under siege from rebel forces, adding that he had no intention of resigning or going into exile.[231]

### Exile in Moscow

On 7 April 2025, Russian Ambassador to Iraq [Elbrus Kutrashev](/source/Elbrus_Kutrashev) told the *[Islamic Republic News Agency](/source/Islamic_Republic_News_Agency)* that Assad's settlement in Moscow was conditional on his total withdrawal from media and political activities. He added that the asylum granted to Assad and his family had been personally ordered by Russian president [Vladimir Putin](/source/Vladimir_Putin) and would remain unchanged.[232] In an interview with *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)* in April 2025, Syrian president [Ahmed al-Sharaa](/source/Ahmed_al-Sharaa) said that Syrian officials requested Russia to [extradite Assad](/source/Proposed_handover_of_Bashar_al-Assad_to_Syria) as a condition for allowing their military presence in Syria, but Russia refused.[233]

On 20 September 2025, while in exile in Moscow, Assad was hospitalized in critical condition. The [Syrian Observatory for Human Rights](/source/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights) has alleged he was poisoned in his home, though not specifying whether this was intentional or accidental. He was eventually discharged nine days later.[234] On 13 October 2025, Lavrov denied reports that Assad was poisoned, saying Russia granted asylum to Assad and his family for humanitarian reasons and that Assad "has no issues living in our capital."[235]

On 8 October 2025, the German outlet *[Die Zeit](/source/Die_Zeit)* reported that Assad and his family had settled into a luxury [skyscraper](/source/Skyscraper) apartment, where he reportedly made occasional visits to a shopping mall and spent much of his time playing [online games](/source/Online_game) while remaining under Putin's protection and control.[236][237][238] *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)* reported that Assad was likely residing in the upscale neighbourhood of [Rublyovka](/source/Rublyovka), had returned to his [medical training](/source/Medical_education), and was back in the classroom, studying [Russian](/source/Russian_language) and taking [ophthalmology](/source/Ophthalmology) lessons.[239]

During a meeting with Putin on 15 October 2025, Syrian President al-Sharaa requested the extradition of Assad to Syria.[240]

### Post-presidency revelations

In December 2025, leaked footage, originally filmed during a 2018 car tour in Eastern [Ghouta](/source/Ghouta), obtained by [Al Arabiya](/source/Al_Arabiya) showed Assad reportedly saying "to hell with Ghouta" while speaking with [Luna al-Shibl](/source/Luna_al-Shibl), a senior Syrian media adviser and former presidential spokesperson, which drew renewed outrage over the regime's record.[241]

According to a 2026 report in *[The Atlantic](/source/The_Atlantic)*, former associates described him in later years as leading an increasingly insular life, spending time playing video games such as *[Candy Crush](/source/Candy_Crush_Saga)* and engaging in extramarital relationships, including wives of government officials. The article described him as stubborn and resistant to lifelines from allies, with his reliance on a small circle of confidants contributing to strategic misjudgments and a leadership disconnected from much of the Syrian population.[189]

## Controversies

### Corruption

Main article: [Corruption in Syria](/source/Corruption_in_Syria)

See also: [Economy of Syria](/source/Economy_of_Syria)

At the onset of the [Syrian revolution](/source/Syrian_revolution), corruption in Syria was endemic, and the country was ranked 129th in the 2011 [Corruption Perceptions Index](/source/Corruption_Perceptions_Index).[242] Since the 1970s, Syria's economy has been dominated by the patronage networks of Ba'ath party elites and [Alawite](/source/Alawite) loyalists of the Assad family, who established control over Syria's public sectors based on kinship and nepotism. The pervasive nature of corruption had been a source of controversy within the Ba'ath party circles and the wider public; as early as the 1980s.[243] Bashar al-Assad's economic liberalisation program during the 2000s became a symbol of corruption and nepotism, as the scheme's beneficiaries were Alawite loyalists who seized a significant portion of the privatised sectors and business assets. The government's actions alienated the vast majority of the Syrian public, particularly the rural and urban working classes, who strongly disliked the resulting economic disparities that became overtly visible.[36][86] Assad's cousin [Rami Makhlouf](/source/Rami_Makhlouf) was the regime's most favored oligarch during this period, marked by the institutionalisation of corruption, handicapping of small businesses and casting down private [entrepreneurship](/source/Entrepreneurship).[244] The persistence of corruption, sectarian bias towards Alawites, nepotism and widespread bribery that existed in party, bureaucracy and military led to popular anger that resulted in the eruption of the 2011 Syrian Revolution. The protests were the most fierce in working-class neighbourhoods, which had long bore the brunt of the regime's exploitation policies that privileged its own loyalists.[245][246]

According to [ABC News](/source/ABC_News_(United_States)), as a result of the Syrian civil war, "government-controlled Syria is truncated in size, battered and impoverished."[247] Economic sanctions (the [Syria Accountability Act](/source/Syria_Accountability_Act)) were applied long before the Syrian civil war by the U.S. and were joined by the EU at the outbreak of the civil war, causing disintegration of the Syrian economy.[248] These sanctions were reinforced in October 2014 by the EU and U.S.[249][250] Industry in parts of the country that are still held by the government is heavily state-controlled, with [economic liberalisation](/source/Economic_liberalisation) being reversed during the current conflict.[251] The [London School of Economics](/source/London_School_of_Economics) has stated that as a result of the Syrian civil war, a [war economy](/source/War_economy) has developed in Syria.[252] A 2014 [European Council on Foreign Relations](/source/European_Council_on_Foreign_Relations) report also stated that a war economy has formed:

Three years into a conflict that is estimated to have killed at least 140,000 people from both sides, much of the Syrian economy lies in ruins. As the violence has expanded and sanctions have been imposed, assets and infrastructure have been destroyed, economic output has fallen, and investors have fled the country. Unemployment now exceeds 50 percent and half of the population lives below the poverty line ... against this backdrop, a war economy is emerging that is creating significant new economic networks and business activities that feed off the violence, chaos, and lawlessness gripping the country. This war economy – to which Western sanctions have inadvertently contributed – is creating incentives for some Syrians to prolong the conflict and making it harder to end it.[253]

A [UN](/source/United_Nations) commissioned report by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research states that two-thirds of the Syrian population now lives in "extreme poverty".[254] Unemployment stands at 50 percent.[255] In October 2014, a $50 million mall opened in [Tartus](/source/Tartus) which provoked criticism from government supporters and was seen as part of an Assad government policy of attempting to project a sense of normalcy throughout the civil war.[256] A government policy to give preference to families of slain soldiers for government jobs was cancelled after it caused an uproar[151] while rising accusations of corruption caused protests.[153] In December 2014, the EU banned sales of jet fuel to the Assad government, forcing the government to buy more expensive uninsured jet fuel shipments in the future.[257]

Taking advantage of the increased role of the state as a result of the civil war, Bashar and his wife Asma have begun annexing Syria's economic assets from their loyalists, seeking to displace the old business elites and monopolise their direct control of the economy. [Maher al-Assad](/source/Maher_al-Assad), the brother of Bashar, has also become wealthy by overseeing the operations of Syria's state-sponsored [captagon](/source/Captagon) drug industry and seizing much of the spoils of war. The ruling couple currently owns vast swathes of Syria's shipping, real estate, telecommunications and banking sectors.[258][259] Significant changes have been happening to Syrian economy since the government's confiscation campaigns launched in 2019, which involved major economic assets being transferred to the Presidential couple to project their power and influence. Particularly noteworthy dynamic has been the rise of [Asma al-Assad](/source/Asma_al-Assad), who heads Syria's clandestine economic council and is thought to have become "a central funnel of economic power in Syria". Through her Syria Trust NGO, the backbone of her financial network, Asma vets the foreign aid coming to Syria; since the government authorises UN organisations only if it works under state agencies.[260]

Corruption has been rising sporadically in recent years, with Syria being considered the most corrupt country in the [Arab World](/source/Arab_World).[261][262] As of 2022, Syria is the ranked second worst globally in the [Corruption Perceptions Index](/source/Corruption_Perceptions_Index).[263]

### Sectarianism

See also: [Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war](/source/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_civil_war)

Hafez al-Assad's government was widely counted amongst the most repressive Arab [dictatorships](/source/Dictatorship) of the 20th century. As Bashar inherited his father's mantle, he sought to implement "authoritarian upgrading" by purging those from his father's generation and staffing the party and military with loyalist Alawite officers, further entrenching the sectarianism within the system.[264][265] While officially the Ba'athist government adheres to a strict secularist doctrine, in practice it has implemented sectarian engineering policies in the society to suppress dissent and monopolise its absolute power.[266]

"During Hafez-al-Assad's reign, he resorted to emphasising the sectarian identities that the previous [Ba'ath Party](/source/Ba'ath_Party) rejected; believing the only way to ensure stability was through building a trusted security force... Hafez pursued a strategy to "make the Alawite community a loyal monolith while keeping Syria's Sunni majority divided". Yet Syria became a [police state](/source/Police_state), enforcing stability through threat of brute force repression... Bashar had already followed in his father's footsteps, carefully manoeuvring his most loyal allies into the military-security apparatus, government ministries and the [Ba'ath party](/source/Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region)."

— Antonia Robson[267]

The regime has attempted to portray itself to the outside world as "the protector of minorities" and instills the fear of the majority rule in the society to mobilise loyalists from minorities.[268] Assad loyalist figures like [Michel Samaha](/source/Michel_Samaha) have advocated sectarian mobilisation to defend the regime from what he labelled as the "sea of [Sunnis](/source/Sunnis)". Assad regime has unleashed sectarian violence through private Alawite militias like the *[Shabiha](/source/Shabiha)*, particularly in Sunni areas. Alawite religious iconography and communal sentiments are common themes used by [Alawite](/source/Alawites) warrior-shaykhs who lead the Alawite militias; as justification to commit massacres, abductions and torture in opposition strongholds.[269] Various development policies adopted by the regime had followed a sectarian pattern. An urbanisation scheme implemented by the government in the city of Homs led to expulsions of thousands of Sunni residents during the 2000s, while Alawite majority areas were left intact.[270]

Even as [Syrian Ba'athism](/source/Syrian_Ba'athism) absorbed diverse communal identities into the homogenous unifying discourse of the state; socio-political power became monopolised by Alawite loyalists. Despite officially adhering to non-confessionalism, [Syrian Armed Forces](/source/Syrian_Armed_Forces) have also been institutionally sectarianised. While the conscripts and lower-ranks are overwhelmingly non-Alawite, the higher ranks are packed by Alawite loyalists who effectively control the logistics and security policy. Elite units of the Syrian military such as the [Tiger Forces](/source/Tiger_Forces), [Republican Guard](/source/Republican_Guard_(Syria)), [4th Armoured Division](/source/4th_Armoured_Division_(Syria)), etc. regarded by the government as crucial for its survival; are composed mostly of Alawites. Sunni officers are under constant surveillance by the secret police, with most of them being assigned with Alawite assistants who monitor their movements. Pro-regime [paramilitary](/source/Paramilitary) groups such as the [National Defense Force](/source/National_Defense_Force_(Syria)) are also organised around sectarian loyalty to the Ba'athist government. During the [Syrian Revolution](/source/2011_Syrian_Revolution) uprisings, the [Ba'athist government](/source/Ba'athist_Syria) deployed a securitisation strategy that depended on sectarian mobilisation, unleashing violence on protestors and extensive crackdowns across the country, prompting opposition groups to turn to armed revolt. Syrian society was further sectarianised following the [Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war](/source/Iranian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war), which witnessed numerous [Khomeinist](/source/Khomeinism) militant groups sponsored by Iran fight in the side of the Assad government.[271][267]

### Human rights

See also: [Human rights in Ba'athist Syria](/source/Human_rights_in_Ba'athist_Syria)

The Ba'athist government ruled Syria as a totalitarian state, policing every aspect of Syrian society until 2024.[272] The president made key decisions with counsel from a small number of security advisors, ministers, and senior members of the ruling Ba'ath Party, with scant regard for punishing, arresting, or prosecuting officials who violated human rights.[273] The surveillance system of the *[Mukhabarat](/source/Mukhabarat)* was pervasive, with the total number of agents working for its various branches estimated to be as high as 1:158 ratio with the civilian population. Security services shut down civil society organisations, curtailed freedom of movement within the country and banned non-Ba'athist political literature and symbols.[112][274] In 2010, [Human Rights Watch](/source/Human_Rights_Watch) published the report "*A Wasted Decade*" documenting repression during Assad's first decade of [emergency rule](/source/Emergency_rule); marked by arbitrary arrests, censorship and discrimination against [Syrian Kurds](/source/Kurds_in_Syria).[274][275]

Billboard with a portrait of Bashar al-Assad and the text 'Syria is protected by God' on the [old city wall of Damascus](/source/Damascus#Walls_and_gates_of_Damascus) in 2006

Throughout the 2000s, *[Mukhabarat](/source/Mukhabarat)* agents carried out routine [abductions](/source/Forced_abduction), [arbitrary detentions](/source/Arbitrary_detention) and [torture](/source/Torture) of civilians. Numerous [show trials](/source/Show_trial) were conducted against dissidents, filling Syrian prisons with journalists and human rights activists. Members of Syria's [General Intelligence Directorate](/source/General_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)) had long enjoyed broad privileges to carry out extrajudicial actions and they have immunity from criminal offences. In 2008, Assad extended this immunity to other departments of security forces.[275] Human Rights groups, such as [Human Rights Watch](/source/Human_Rights_Watch) and [Amnesty International](/source/Amnesty_International), have detailed how the Assad government's [secret police](/source/Secret_police) tortured, imprisoned, and killed political opponents, and those who speak out against the government.[276][277] In addition, some 600 Lebanese political prisoners were thought to be held in government prisons since the [Syrian occupation of Lebanon](/source/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon), with some held for as long as over 30 years.[278] From 2006, the Assad government expanded the use of travel bans against political dissidents.[279] In an interview with [ABC News](/source/ABC_News_(United_States)) in 2007, Assad stated: "We don't have such [things as] political prisoners," though *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)* reported the arrest of 30 Syrian political dissidents who were organising a joint opposition front in December 2007, with 3 members of this group considered to be opposition leaders being remanded in custody.[280]

The government also denied permission for human rights organisations and independent NGOs to work in the country.[275] In 2010, Syria banned [face veils](/source/Veil) at universities.[281][282] Following the protests of the [Syrian revolution](/source/Syrian_revolution) in 2011, Assad partially relaxed the veil ban.[283]

Demonstration in [Montreal](/source/Montreal) in solidarity with the people of Syria. The sign reads: "Stop torture and inhumane treatment of prisoners in Syria!"

*[Foreign Affairs](/source/Foreign_Affairs)* journal released an editorial on the Syrian situation in the wake of the 2011 protests:[284]

During its decades of rule... the Assad family developed a strong political safety net by firmly integrating the military into the government. In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, Bashar's father, seized power after rising through the ranks of the [Syrian armed forces](/source/Syrian_armed_forces), during which time he established a network of loyal [Alawites](/source/Alawites) by installing them in key posts. In fact, the military, ruling elite, and [ruthless secret police](/source/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)) are so intertwined that it is now impossible to separate the [Assad regime](/source/Assad_regime) from the security establishment. Bashar al-Assad's threat to use force against protesters would be more plausible than Tunisia's or Egypt's were. So, unlike in Tunisia and Egypt, where a professionally trained military tended to play an independent role, the regime and its loyal forces have been able to deter all but the most resolute and fearless oppositional activists... At the same time, it is significantly different from [Libya](/source/Great_Socialist_People's_Libyan_Arab_Jamahiriya_(1977%E2%80%932011)), where the military, although brutal and loyal to the regime, is a more disorganized group of militant thugs than a trained and disciplined army.

Under Ba'athist rule, non-Arab ethnic groups in Syrian society were heavily marginalized. Ethnic minority groups in Syria like the [Kurds](/source/Syrian_Kurds), [Turkmen](/source/Syrian_Turkmen), [Circassians](/source/Syrian_Circassians), [Chechens](/source/Chechens_in_Syria), etc. were systematically persecuted and oppressed under discriminatory state policies. The [2012 constitution](/source/2012_Constitution_of_Ba'athist_Syria) pushed by the Assad regime, which was widely criticized by Syrian opposition and civil society activists, entrenched the discriminatory [Arab nationalist](/source/Arab_nationalism) policies of the Ba'athist system. Languages other than [Arabic](/source/Arabic) were not recognized in the Ba'athist constitutions; and Ba'ath party's front groups such as the "Ba'ath Vanguard" and "[Shabibat al-Thawra](/source/Revolutionary_Youth_Union)" indoctrinated students with racist and chauvinist ideas in Syrian state educational institutions.[285]

Kurds, in particular, were heavily repressed and systemically targeted by the state apparatus. Hundreds of thousands of [Syrian Kurds](/source/Syrian_Kurds) were stripped of citizenship, and several Kurdish localities were Arabized. Assad regime also imposed several restrictions upon Syrian Kurds from speaking the Kurdish language, and launched crackdowns against those who taught the [Kurdish language](/source/Kurdish_language) privately. Several Kurdish tutors were [forcibly disappered](/source/Forcibly_disappeared) or subjected to prolonged imprisonments under charges of fomenting "seperatism", treason, and undermining the stability of the Ba'athist state.[286]

Between 2011 and 2013, the Ba'athist state security apparatus tortured and killed over 10,000 [civil activists](/source/Civil_activist), [political dissidents](/source/Political_dissidents), [journalists](/source/Independent_journalists), [civil defense volunteers](/source/Civil_defense) and those accused of treason and terror charges, as part of a campaign of deadly crackdown ordered by Assad.[287] In June 2023, [UN General Assembly](/source/United_Nations_General_Assembly) voted in favour of establishing an independent body to investigate the whereabouts of hundreds of thousands of missing civilians who have been forcibly disappeared, killed or languishing in Assad regime's [dungeons](/source/Human_rights_in_Ba'athist_Syria#Detention_Centres) and [torture chambers](/source/Torture_chamber). The vote was condemned by Russia, North Korea and Iran.[288][289][290]

In 2023, [Canada](/source/Canada) and Netherlands [filed a lawsuit against Syria](/source/Canada_and_the_Netherlands_v._Syrian_Arab_Republic) at the [International Court of Justice](/source/International_Court_of_Justice) (ICJ), charging the latter with violating the [United Nations Convention Against Torture](/source/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture). The joint petition accused the Syrian regime of organizing "unimaginable physical and mental pain and suffering" as a strategy to collectively punish the Syrian population.[291][292][293] Russia vetoed [UN Security Council](/source/United_Nations_Security_Council) efforts to prosecute Bashar al-Assad at the International Criminal Court.[294]

### Repression of Kurds

Further information: [Arab Belt Project](/source/Arab_Belt), [Arabization in Syria](/source/Arabization#Arabization_in_Syria), and [Qamishli massacre](/source/Qamishli_massacre)

Ba'athist Syria had long banned [Kurdish language](/source/Kurdish_language) in schools and public institutions; and discrimination against [Kurds](/source/Syrian_Kurds) steadily increased during the rule of Bashar al-Assad. State policy officially suppressed Kurdish culture; with more than 300,000 Syrian Kurds being rendered stateless. Kurdish grievances against state persecution eventually culminated in the [2004 Qamishli Uprisings](/source/2004_Qamishli_riots), which were crushed down violently after sending Syrian military forces. The ensuing crackdown resulted in the killings of more than 36 Kurds and injuring at least 160 demonstrators. More than 2000 civilians were arrested and tortured in government detention centres. Restrictions on Kurdish activities were further tightened following the Qamishli massacre, with the [Assad regime](/source/Assad_regime) virtually banning all Kurdish cultural gatherings and political activism under the charges of "inciting strife" or "weakening national sentiment". During 2005–2010, [Human Rights Watch](/source/Human_Rights_Watch) verified security crackdowns on at least 14 [Kurdish](/source/Kurdish_population) political and cultural gatherings.[275][274] In March 2008, Syrian military opened fire at a Kurdish gathering in Qamishli that marked Nowruz, killing three and injuring five civilians.[295]

### Censorship

Main articles: [Censorship in Syria](/source/Censorship_in_Syria) and [Internet censorship in Syria](/source/Internet_censorship_in_Syria)

On 22 September 2001, Assad decreed a Press Law that tightened government control over all literature printed or published in Syria; ranging from newspapers to books, pamphlets and periodicals. Publishers, writers, editors, distributors, journalists and other individuals accused of violating the Press Law are imprisoned or fined. Censorship has also been expanded into the [cyberspace](/source/Cyberspace), and various websites are banned. Numerous bloggers and content creators have been arrested under various "national security" charges.[275]

A 2007 law requires [internet cafés](/source/Internet_caf%C3%A9s) to record all the comments users post on chat forums.[296] Another decree in 2008 obligated internet cafes to keep records of their customers and report them routinely to the police.[297] Websites such as [Arabic Wikipedia](/source/Arabic_Wikipedia), [YouTube](/source/YouTube), and [Facebook](/source/Facebook) were [blocked intermittently between 2008 and February 2011](/source/Internet_censorship_in_Syria).[298][299][300] [Committee to Protect Journalists](/source/Committee_to_Protect_Journalists) (CPJ) ranked Syria as the third dangerous country to be an online blogger in 2009. Individuals are arrested based on a wide variety of accusations; ranging from undermining "national unity" to posting or sharing "false" content.[275][297]

Syria was ranked as the third most censored country in CPJ's 2012 report. Apart from restrictions for international journalists that prohibit their entry, domestic press is controlled by state agencies that promote Ba'athist ideology. From 2011, the Syrian government has issued a complete [media blackout](/source/Media_blackout) and foreign correspondents were quickly detained, abducted or tortured. As a result, the outside world is able to know of situations happening inside Syria only through videos of independent civilian journalists. The Assad government has shut down internet coverage, [mobile networks](/source/Cellular_network) as well as telephone lines in areas under its control to prevent any news that has its attempts to monopolise information related to Syria.[301]

### Crackdowns, ethnic cleansing, and forced disappearances

Further information: [Casualties of the Syrian civil war](/source/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war) and [Syrian refugee crisis](/source/Syrian_refugee_crisis)

The [crackdown](/source/2011_Syrian_revolution#Crackdown) ordered by Bashar al-Assad against Syrian protesters was the most ruthless of all military clampdowns in the entire [Arab Spring](/source/Arab_Spring). As violence deteriorated and death toll mounted to the thousands; the European Union, Arab League and United States began imposing wide range of sanctions against Assad regime. By December 2011, [United Nations](/source/United_Nations) had declared the situation in Syria to be a "[civil war](/source/Civil_war)".[302] By this point, all the protestors and armed [resistance](/source/Resistance_movement) groups had viewed the unconditional resignation of Bashar al-Assad as part of their core demands. In July 2012, [Arab League](/source/Arab_League) held an emergency session demanding the "swift resignation" of Assad and promised "safe exit" if he accepted the offer.[303][304] Assad rebuffed the offers, instead seeking foreign military support from Iran and Russia to defend his embattled regime through [scorched-earth tactics](/source/Scorched_earth), massacres, sieges, forced starvations, ethnic cleansing, etc.[305]

The crackdowns and extermination campaigns of Assad regime resulted in the [Syrian refugee crisis](/source/Syrian_refugee_crisis); causing the [forced displacement](/source/Forced_displacement) of 14 million Syrians, with around 7.2 million refugees.[306] This has made the Syrian refugee crisis the largest [refugee crisis](/source/Refugee_crisis) in the world; and [UNHCR](/source/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees) High Commissioner [Filippo Grandi](/source/Filippo_Grandi) has described it as "the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time and a continuing cause for suffering."[306][307]

### Ethnic cleansing

Wounded civilians getting rushed to a hospital in [Aleppo](/source/Aleppo)

Eva Koulouriotis has described Bashar al-Assad as the "master of [ethnic cleansing](/source/Ethnic_cleansing) in the 21st century".[308] During the course of the civil war, Assad ordered depopulation campaigns throughout the country to re-shape its demography in favor of his regime and the military tactics have been compared to the [persecutions of the Bosnian war](/source/Ethnic_cleansing_in_the_Bosnian_War). Between 2011 and 2015, [Ba'athist](/source/Ba'athism) militias are reported to have committed 49 ethno-sectarian [massacres](/source/Massacre) for the purpose of implementing its social engineering agenda in the country. [Alawite](/source/Alawites) loyalist militias known as the *[Shabiha](/source/Shabiha)* have been launched into [Sunni](/source/Sunni_Islam) villages and towns, perpetrating numerous [anti-Sunni](/source/Anti-Sunnism) massacres. These include the [Houla](/source/Houla_massacre), [Bayda and Baniyas massacres](/source/Bayda_and_Baniyas_massacres), [Al-Qubeir massacre](/source/Al-Qubeir_massacre), Al-Hasawiya massacre, and others which have resulted in hundreds of deaths with hundreds of thousands of residents fleeing under threats of regime persecution and [sexual violence](/source/Sexual_violence). Pogroms and deportations were pronounced in central Syrian regions and Alawite majority coastal areas where the Syrian military and Hezbollah prioritise the establishment of strategic control by expelling Sunni residents and bringing in Iran-backed Shia militants.[309][310][308][311] In 2016, UN officials criticised Bashar al-Assad for pursuing demographic engineering and ethnic cleansing in [Darayya district](/source/Darayya_District) in Damascus under the guise of de-escalation deals.[312]

### War crimes

Further information: [Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war](/source/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war) and [Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](/source/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war)

"The nature and extent of Assad's violence is strategic in design and effect. He is pursuing a [strategy of terror](/source/State_terrorism), [siege](/source/Siege), and [depopulation](/source/Ethnic_cleansing) in key areas, calculating that winning back the loyalty of much of the [Sunni](/source/Sunni) middle class and underclass is highly unlikely and certainly not worth the resources and political capital. Better to level half the country than to give it over to the [opposition](/source/Syrian_opposition_to_Bashar_al-Assad)."

— Emile Hokayem, Senior Fellow at [International Institute for Strategic Studies](/source/International_Institute_for_Strategic_Studies)[313]

Syrian government forces have pursued mass-killings of civilian populations as part of its war strategy throughout the conflict and is responsible for inflicting more than 90% of the [total civilian deaths in the Syrian civil war](/source/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war).[314] The UN estimates a minimum of 306,000 civilian deaths occurred between 2011 and 2021.[119][120] As of 2022, the total death toll has risen to approximately 580,000.[315] An additional 154,000 civilians have been [forcibly disappeared](/source/Forcibly_disappeared) or subject to [arbitrary detentions](/source/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention) across Syria between 2011 and 2023. As of 2023, more than 135,000 individuals are being [tortured](/source/Torture), incarcerated or dead in [Ba'athist prison networks](/source/Human_rights_in_Ba'athist_Syria#Detention_Centers), including thousands of [women](/source/Woman) and [children](/source/Child).[316]

Since 2011, the Assad regime has arrested and detained children without trial until the age of 18, after which they are transferred to Syrian military field courts and killed. A 2024 investigative report by the Syrian Investigative Journalism Unit (SIRAJ) identified 24 Syrian children who were forcibly disappeared, had their assets confiscated, detained and later killed after they reached the age of 18. The report, based on inside sources within the Assad government, interviews with victims' families, and public sources, estimated that more than 6,000 detainees under the age of 18 were sentenced to death in the [Sednaya Prison](/source/Sednaya_Prison) and an Assadist military field court in [Al-Dimas](/source/Al-Dimas) between 2014 and 2017, citing eyewitness accounts of an insider within the Ba'athist military police.[317][318]

Numerous politicians, dissidents, authors and journalists have nicknamed Assad as the "butcher" of Syria for his war-crimes, [anti-Sunni](/source/Anti-Sunnism) sectarian mass-killings, [chemical weapons attacks](/source/Chemical_warfare) and [ethnic cleansing](/source/Ethnic_cleansing) campaigns.[319][320][321][322] The [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/source/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation) has stated that at least 10 European citizens were tortured by the Assad government while detained during the Syrian civil war, potentially leaving Assad open to prosecution by individual European countries for [war crimes](/source/War_crime).[323][183] [UN High Commissioner for Human Rights](/source/UN_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights) Navi Pillay stated in December 2013 that UN investigations directly implicated Bashar al-Assad in perpetrating [crimes against humanity](/source/Crimes_against_humanity) and pursuing an extermination strategy developed "at the highest level of government, including the [head of state](/source/President_of_Syria)."[324]

[Stephen Rapp](/source/Stephen_Rapp), the [U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues](/source/United_States_Ambassador-at-Large_for_War_Crimes_Issues), stated in 2014 that the crimes committed by Assad are the worst seen since those of [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany).[325] In March 2015, Rapp further stated that the case against Assad is "much better" than those against [Slobodan Milošević](/source/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87) of Serbia or [Charles Taylor](/source/Charles_Taylor_(Liberian_politician)) of Liberia, both of whom were indicted by international tribunals.[326] Charles Lister, Director of the Countering Terror and Extremism Program at [Middle East Institute](/source/Middle_East_Institute), describes Bashar al-Assad as the "21st century's biggest war criminal".[194]

Bombing of [Darayya](/source/Darayya) suburb of [Damascus](/source/Damascus) by the [Syrian Arab Air Force](/source/Syrian_Air_Force), 17 June 2016

In a February 2015 interview with the [BBC](/source/BBC), Assad dismissed accusations that the [Syrian Arab Air Force](/source/Syrian_Arab_Air_Force) used [barrel bombs](/source/Barrel_bomb) as "childish", claiming that his forces have never used these types of "barrel" bombs and responded with a joke about not using "cooking pots" either.[327] The *[BBC](/source/BBC) Middle East* editor conducting the interview, [Jeremy Bowen](/source/Jeremy_Bowen), later described Assad's statement regarding barrel bombs as "patently not true".[328][329] As soon as [demonstrations arose in 2011–2012](/source/Civil_uprising_phase_of_the_Syrian_civil_war), Bashar al-Assad opted to implement the "[Samson option](/source/Samson_Option)", the characteristic approach of the [Neo-ba'athist](/source/Neo-ba'athist) regime since the era of Hafez al-Assad; wherein protests were violently suppressed and demonstrators were shot and fired at directly by the armed forces. However, unlike Hafez; Bashar had even less loyalty and was politically fragile, exacerbated by alienation of the majority of the population. As a result, Bashar chose to crack down on dissent far more comprehensively and harshly than his father; and a mere allegation of collaboration was reason enough to get assassinated.[330]

[Nadim Shehadi](/source/Nadim_Shehadi), the director of [The Fares Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies](/source/The_Fares_Center_for_Eastern_Mediterranean_Studies), stated that "In the early 1990s, Saddam Hussein was massacring his people and we were worried about the weapons inspectors," and claimed that "Assad did that too. He kept us busy with chemical weapons when he massacred his people."[331][332] Contrasting the policies of Hafez al-Assad and that of his son Bashar, former [Syrian vice-president](/source/Vice_President_of_Syria) and [Ba'athist](/source/Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region) dissident [Abdul Halim Khaddam](/source/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam) states:

The Father had a mind and the Son has a loss of reason. How could the army use its force and the security apparatus with all its might to destroy Syria because of a protest against the mistakes of one of your security officials. The father would act differently. Father Hafez hit Hama after he encircled it, warned and then hit Hama after a long siege... But his son is different. On the subject of Daraa, Bashar gave instructions to open fire on the demonstrators.[333]

Human rights organisations and criminal investigators have documented Assad's war crimes and sent it to the [International Criminal Court](/source/International_Criminal_Court) for indictment.[334] Since Syria is not a party to the [Rome Statute](/source/Rome_Statute), [International Criminal Court](/source/International_Criminal_Court) requires authorisation from the [UN Security Council](/source/United_Nations_Security_Council) to send Bashar al-Assad to tribunal. As this gets consistently [vetoed](/source/Veto) by Assad's primary backer [Russia](/source/Russia), ICC prosecutions have not transpired. On the other hand, courts in various European countries have begun prosecuting and convicting senior Ba'ath party members, [Syrian military](/source/Syrian_Armed_Forces) commanders and *[Mukhabarat](/source/Mukhabarat)* officials charged with war crimes.[335] In September 2015, France began an inquiry into Assad for [crimes against humanity](/source/Crimes_against_humanity), with French Foreign Minister [Laurent Fabius](/source/Laurent_Fabius) stating "Faced with these crimes that offend the human conscience, this bureaucracy of horror, faced with this denial of the values of humanity, it is our responsibility to act against the impunity of the killers".[336]

In February 2016, head of the UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria, [Paulo Pinheiro](/source/Paulo_S%C3%A9rgio_Pinheiro), told reporters: "The mass scale of deaths of detainees suggests that the government of Syria is responsible for acts that amount to extermination as a crime against humanity." The UN Commission reported finding "unimaginable abuses", including women and children as young as seven perishing while being held by Syrian authorities. The report also stated: "There are reasonable grounds to believe that high-ranking officers – including the heads of branches and directorates – commanding these detention facilities, those in charge of the military police, as well as their civilian superiors, knew of the vast number of deaths occurring in detention facilities ... yet did not take action to prevent abuse, investigate allegations or prosecute those responsible".[337]

In March 2016, the [U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs](/source/United_States_House_Committee_on_Foreign_Affairs) led by [New Jersey](/source/New_Jersey) Rep. [Chris Smith](/source/Chris_Smith_(New_Jersey_politician)) called on the Obama administration to create a war crimes [tribunal](/source/Tribunal) to investigate and prosecute violations "whether committed by the officials of the Government of Syria or other parties to the civil war".[338]

In June 2018, Germany's chief prosecutor issued an international arrest warrant for one of Assad's most senior military officials, [Jamil Hassan](/source/Jamil_Hassan).[339] Hassan is the head of Syria's powerful [Air Force Intelligence Directorate](/source/Air_Force_Intelligence_Directorate). Detention centers run by Air Force Intelligence are among the most notorious in Syria, and thousands are believed to have died because of [torture](/source/Torture) or neglect. Charges filed against Hassan claim he had command responsibility over the facilities and therefore knew of the abuse. The move against Hassan marked an important milestone of prosecutors trying to bring senior members of Assad's inner circle to trial for war crimes.

In an investigative report about the [Tadamon Massacre](/source/Tadamon_Massacre), Professors [Uğur Ümit Üngör](/source/U%C4%9Fur_%C3%9Cmit_%C3%9Cng%C3%B6r) and Annsar Shahhoud found witnesses who attested that Assad gave orders for the [Syrian Military Intelligence](/source/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)) to direct the [Shabiha](/source/Shabiha) to kill civilians.[340]

### 2023–2025 arrest warrant and legal proceedings

On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Assad over the use of banned chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.[341] In May 2024, French anti-terrorism prosecutors requested the Paris appeals court to consider revoking Assad's arrest warrant, asserting his absolute immunity as a serving head of state.[342] On 26 June 2024, the Paris appeals court determined that the international arrest warrant issued by France against Assad for alleged complicity in war crimes during the Syrian civil war remains valid. This decision was confirmed by attorneys involved in the case, who said the ruling marked the first instance where a national court acknowledged that the personal immunity of a serving head of state is not absolute.[342] On 25 July 2025, the French [Court of Cassation](/source/Court_of_Cassation_(France)) annulled Assad's arrest warrant, saying that he enjoyed [presidential immunity](/source/Presidential_immunity) at the time of the attack, but allowed the investigations against him to continue and new warrants to be issued against him.[343]

On 20 January 2025, a French court issued an arrest warrant against Assad for the 2017 killing of 59-year old dual French-Syrian national Salah Abou Nabout in a bombing in [Deraa](/source/Deraa).[21] On 2 September 2025, a French court issued an arrest warrant against Assad for the 2012 killings of journalists [Marie Colvin](/source/Marie_Colvin) and [Remi Ochlik](/source/Remi_Ochlik) in [Homs](/source/Homs).[23] On 27 September 2025, a Syrian court issued an arrest warrant for Assad over the [2011 Daraa incidents](/source/Siege_of_Daraa), paving the way for its circulation through [Interpol](/source/Interpol) and international prosecution. The arrest warrant cited charges such as premeditated murder, torture leading to death, and deprivation of liberty, and was based on lawsuits submitted by the families of victims in [Daraa governorate](/source/Daraa_Governorate) over events that occurred in November 2011.[344]

### Chemical attacks

Main article: [Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war](/source/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war)

See also: [Syria and weapons of mass destruction](/source/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction)

The [Syrian military](/source/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces) has deployed chemical warfare as a systematic military strategy in the [Syrian civil war](/source/Syrian_civil_war), and is estimated to have committed over 300 [chemical attacks](/source/Chemical_warfare), targeting civilian populations throughout the course of the conflict.[345][346] Investigation conducted by the [GPPi](/source/Global_Public_Policy_Institute_(GPPi)) research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total verified chemical attacks to the Assad's regime. Almost 90% of the attacks had occurred after the [Ghouta chemical attack](/source/Ghouta_chemical_attack) in August 2013.[347][348]

Children killed by pro-[Assad military forces](/source/Syrian_military) in the Ghouta chemical attack, the deadliest [chemical weapons attack](/source/Chemical_warfare) in the 21st century

Syria joined the Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW member state in October 2013, and there are currently three OPCW missions with UN mandates to investigate chemical weapons issues in Syria. These are the Declaration Assessment Team (DAT) to verify Syrian [declarations of CW Programme](/source/Destruction_of_Syria's_chemical_weapons); [OPCW Fact-Finding Mission](/source/OPCW_Fact-Finding_Mission_in_Syria) (FFM) tasked to identify the chemical attacks and type of weapons used; and the Investigation and Identification Team (IIT) which investigates the perpetrators of the chemical attacks. The conclusions are submitted to the [United Nations bodies](/source/United_Nations).[349]

In April 2021, Syria was suspended from OPCW through the public vote of member states, for not co-operating with the body's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) and violating the [Chemical Weapons Convention](/source/Chemical_Weapons_Convention).[350][351][352] Findings of another investigation report published the OPCW-IIT in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the reported 77 chemical weapon attacks attributed to Assadist forces.[353][354] As of March 2023, independent United Nations inquiry commissions have confirmed at least nine chemical attacks committed by forces loyal to the [Assad government](/source/Assad_Government).[355][356]

Members of the Syrian community in [Hanover](/source/Hanover) protest against Bashar al-Assad on the second anniversary of [Ghouta chemical attacks](/source/Ghouta_chemical_attacks), 21 August 2015.

The deadliest chemical attack have been the Ghouta chemical attacks, when Assad government forces launched the [nerve agent](/source/Nerve_agent) [sarin](/source/Sarin) into civilian areas during its brutal [Siege of Eastern Ghouta](/source/Siege_of_Eastern_Ghouta) in early hours of 21 August 2013. Thousands of infected and dying victims flooded the nearby hospitals, showing symptoms such as foaming, body convulsions and other neurotoxic symptoms. An estimated 1,100–1,500 civilians; including women and children, are estimated to have been killed in the attacks.[357][358][359] The attack was internationally condemned and represented the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the [Iran-Iraq war](/source/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War).[360][361] On 21 August 2022, United States government marked the ninth anniversary of Ghouta Chemical attacks stating: "[United States](/source/United_States) remembers and honors the victims and survivors of the Ghouta attack and the many other chemical attacks we assess the Assad regime has launched. We condemn in the strongest possible terms any use of chemical weapons anywhere, by anyone, under any circumstances... The United States calls on the Assad regime to fully declare and destroy its [chemical weapons program](/source/Syria_chemical_weapons_program)... and for the regime to allow the [Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons](/source/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons)' Declaration Assessment Team."[362]

In April 2017, a [sarin](/source/Sarin) [chemical attack on Khan Sheikhoun](/source/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack) killed more than 80 people.[363][364][287] In response, U.S. president [Donald Trump](/source/Donald_Trump) ordered a [missile strike against the Syrian Shayrat base](/source/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike).[365][366] A joint report from the UN and international chemical weapons inspectors concluded that Assad regime perpetrated the sarin attack.[183][367]

In April 2018, a [chemical attack occurred in Douma](/source/Douma_chemical_attack), prompting the U.S. and its allies to accuse Assad of violating international law and initiated joint [missile strikes at chemical weapons facilities in Damascus and Homs](/source/2018_bombing_of_Damascus_and_Homs). Both Syria and Russia denied involvement.[368][369] The third report published on 27 January 2023 by the OPCW-IIT concluded that the Assad regime was responsible for the [2018 Douma chemical attack](/source/2018_Douma_chemical_attack) which killed at least 43 civilians.[f]

### Holocaust denial

See also: [Holocaust denial](/source/Holocaust_denial)

In a speech delivered at the [Ba'ath party](/source/Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region)'s central committee meeting in December 2023, Bashar al-Assad claimed that there was "no evidence" of the killings of six million Jews during [the Holocaust](/source/The_Holocaust). Emphasising that Jews were not the sole [victims of Nazi extermination campaigns](/source/Holocaust_victims), Assad alleged that the Holocaust was "politicized" by [Allied powers](/source/Allied_Powers_(World_War_II)) to facilitate the mass-deportation of [European Jews](/source/European_Jews) to Palestine, and that it was used as an excuse to justify the creation of Israel. Assad also accused the U.S. government of financially and militarily sponsoring the [rise of Nazism](/source/Rise_of_Nazism) during the [inter-war period](/source/Interwar_period).[370][371]

## Public image

### Domestic opposition and support

Further information: [Syrian opposition](/source/Syrian_opposition)

[Syrian opposition](/source/Syrian_opposition_to_Bashar_al-Assad) in March 2013

The secular resistance to Assad rule is mainly represented by the [Syrian National Council](/source/Syrian_National_Council) and [National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces](/source/National_Coalition_of_Syrian_Revolutionary_and_Opposition_Forces), two political bodies that constitute a coalition of [centre-left](/source/Centre-left_politics) and [right-wing](/source/Right-wing_politics) [conservative](/source/Conservatism) factions of the [Syrian opposition](/source/Syrian_opposition_to_Bashar_al-Assad). Military commanders and civilian leaders of [Free Syrian Army](/source/Free_Syrian_Army) militias are represented in these councils. The coalition represents the political wing of the [Syrian Interim Government](/source/Syrian_Interim_Government) and seeks the [democratic transition](/source/Democratic_transition) of Syria through grass-roots activism, protests and armed [resistance](/source/Resistance_movement) to overthrow the Ba'athist dictatorship.[372][373][374] A less influential faction within the Syrian opposition is the [National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change](/source/National_Coordination_Committee_for_Democratic_Change) (NCC), a coalition of [left-wing](/source/Left-wing_politics) [socialist](/source/Socialism) parties that seek to end the rule of [Assad family](/source/Al-Assad_family) but without [foreign involvement](/source/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war). Established in June 2011, major parties in the NCC coalition are the [Democratic Arab Socialist Union](/source/Democratic_Arab_Socialist_Union), [Syrian Democratic People's Party](/source/Syrian_Democratic_People's_Party) and the [Communist Labour Party](/source/Communist_Labour_Party_(Syria)).[375]

[National Democratic Rally](/source/National_Democratic_Rally_(Syria)) (NDR) was an older left-wing opposition coalition of [socialist](/source/Socialism) parties formed in 1980, but banned by the Baathist government. NDR was active during the nationwide protests of the 1980s and the [Damascus Spring](/source/Damascus_Spring) of the 2000s.[376] During the early years of the civil war, the [Druze in Syria](/source/Druze_in_Syria) primarily sought to remain neutral, "seeking to stay out of the conflict". [Druze-Israeli](/source/Druze-Israeli) politician Majalli Wahabi claimed in 2016 that over half support the Assad government despite its relative weakness in Druze areas.[377] The "[Men of Dignity](/source/Men_of_Dignity)" movement, which had sought to remain neutral and to defend Druze areas,[378] blamed the government after its leader [Sheikh Wahid al-Balous](/source/Sheikh_Wahid_al-Balous) was assassinated and organised large scale protests which left six government security personnel dead.[379] Druze community became fervently opposed to the Assad government over time and has been vocal about its opposition to increasing Iranian interference in Syria.[380] In August 2023, mass protests against Assad regime erupted in the Druze-majority city of [Suweida](/source/As-Suwayda),[381][382] which eventually spread to other [regions of Southern Syria](/source/Southern_Syria_protests_(2023_%E2%80%93_present)).[382][383][384] Druze cleric Hikmat al-Hajiri, religious leader of Syrian Druze community, has declared war against "Iranian invasion of the country".[380] Syrian [Sufi](/source/Sufism) scholar [Muhammad al-Yaqoubi](/source/Muhammad_al-Yaqoubi), a fervent opponent of both the Ba'athist regime and [Islamic State](/source/Islamic_State) group, has described Assad's rule as a "reign of terror" that wreaked havoc and enormous misery on the Syrian populace.[385] The regime's support base consisted of [Ba'athist](/source/Ba'athism) loyalists who dominate Syrian politics, [trade unions](/source/Trade_union), youth organisations, [students unions](/source/Students'_union), [bureaucracy](/source/Bureaucracy) and [armed forces](/source/Syrian_Armed_Forces).[386] [Ba'ath party](/source/Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region) institutions and its political activities form the "vital pillars of regime survival". Family networks of politicians in the Ba'ath party-led [National Progressive Front](/source/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)) (NPF) and businessmen loyal to the Assad family form another pole of support. Electoral listing is supervised by Ba'ath party leadership which expels candidates not deemed "sufficiently loyal".[387][388][389] Although it has been reported at various stages of the Syrian civil war that [religious minorities](/source/Religion_in_Syria) such as the [Alawites](/source/Alawites) and [Christians in Syria](/source/Christianity_in_Syria) favour the Assad government because of its secularism,[390][391] opposition exists among [Assyrian](/source/Assyrian_people) Christians who have claimed that the Assad government seeks to use them as "puppets" and deny their distinct ethnicity, which is non-Arab.[392] Although Syria's [Alawite](/source/Alawites) community forms Bashar al-Assad's core support base and dominate the [military](/source/Syrian_Military) and [security apparatus](/source/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)),[393][394] in April 2016, [BBC News](/source/BBC_News) reported that Alawite leaders released a document seeking to distance themselves from Assad.[395]

Military situation, November 2023 – November 2024

[Kurdish Supreme Committee](/source/Kurdish_Supreme_Committee) was a coalition of 13 Kurdish political parties opposed to Assad regime. Before its dissolution in 2015, the committee consisted of [KNC](/source/Kurdish_National_Council) and [PYD](/source/Democratic_Union_Party_(Syria)).[375] [Circassians in Syria](/source/Circassians_in_Syria) have also become strong opponents of the regime as Ba'athist crackdowns and massacres across Syria intensified viciously; and members of Circassian ethnic minority have attempted to escape Syria, fearing persecution.[396] In 2014, the Christian [Syriac Military Council](/source/Syriac_Military_Council), the largest Christian organisation in Syria, allied with the Free Syrian Army opposed to Assad,[397] joining other Syrian Christian militias such as the [Sutoro](/source/Sutoro) who had joined the Syrian opposition against the Assad government.[398] [Ahmed al-Sharaa](/source/Ahmed_al-Sharaa), also known by his *[nom de guerre](/source/Nom_de_guerre),* Abu Mohammad al-Julani, commander of the [Tahrir al-Sham](/source/Tahrir_al-Sham) rebel militia, condemned Assad regime for converting Syria "into an ongoing earthquake the past 12 years", in the context of the [2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes](/source/2023_Turkey%E2%80%93Syria_earthquakes).[399]

In June 2014, Assad won a disputed [presidential election](/source/2014_Syrian_presidential_election) held in government-controlled areas (and boycotted in opposition-held areas[400] and Kurdish areas governed by the [Democratic Union Party](/source/Democratic_Union_Party_(Syria))[401]) with 88.7% of the vote. Turnout was estimated to be 73.42% of eligible voters, including those in rebel-controlled areas.[402] The regime's electoral commission also disqualified millions of Syrian citizens displaced outside the country from voting.[403] Independent observers and academic scholarship unanimously describe the event as a [sham election](/source/Sham_election) organised to legitimise Assad's rule.[404][405][406] In his inauguration ceremony, Bashar denounced the opposition as "terrorists" and "traitors"; while attacking the [West](/source/Western_world) for backing what he described as the "fake [Arab spring](/source/Arab_Spring)".[407]

*[Times of Israel](/source/The_Times_of_Israel)* reported that although various individuals interviewed in a "Sunni-dominated, middle-class neighborhood of central Damascus" exhibited fealty for Assad; it was not possible to discern the actual support for the regime due to the ubiquitous influence of the [secret police](/source/Syrian_intelligence) in the society.[408] Ba'athist dissident [Abdul Halim Khaddam](/source/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam) who had served as [Syrian Vice President](/source/Vice_President_of_Syria) during the tenures of both Hafez and Bashar, disparaged Bashar al-Assad as a pawn in Iran's [imperial scheme](/source/Shia_crescent). Contrasting the power dynamics that existed under both the autocrats, Khaddam stated:

[Bashar] is not like his father.. He never allowed the Iranians to intervene in Syrian affairs.. During Hafez Assad's time, an Iranian delegation arrived in Syria and attempted to convert some of the Muslim Alawite Syrians to Shia Islam... Assad ordered his minister of foreign Affairs to summon the Iranian ambassador to deliver an ultimatum: The delegation has 24 hours to exit Syria.... They had no power [during Hafez's rule], unlike Bashar who gave them [Iranians] power and control.[409][410]

### International opposition

Anti-Assad demonstrations held in [Paris](/source/Paris), 14 December 2016

Foreign journalists and political observers who travelled to Syria have described it as the most "ruthless [police state](/source/Police_state)" in the [Arab World](/source/Arab_world). Assad's violent repression of [Damascus Spring](/source/Damascus_Spring) of the early 2000s and the publication of a UN report that implicated him in the [assassination](/source/Assassination_of_Rafic_Hariri) of [Lebanese Prime Minister](/source/Lebanese_Prime_Minister) [Rafic Hariri](/source/Rafic_Hariri), exacerbated Syria's [post-Cold War](/source/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era) isolation.[411][412] Following global outrage against Assad regime's deadly crackdown on the [Arab Spring protestors](/source/Arab_Spring) which led to the Syrian civil war, [scorched-earth policy](/source/Scorched_earth) against the civilian populations resulting in more than half a million deaths, [mass murders](/source/Mass_murder) and systematic deployment of [chemical warfare](/source/Chemical_warfare) throughout the conflict; Bashar al-Assad became an international [pariah](/source/Pariah_state) and numerous world leaders have urged him to resign.[413][412][414][415]

Since 2011, Bashar al-Assad has lost recognition from several international organisations such as the [Arab League](/source/Arab_League) (in 2011),[416] [Union for the Mediterranean](/source/Union_for_the_Mediterranean) (in 2011)[417] and [Organisation of Islamic Co-operation](/source/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (in 2012).[418][419] [United States](/source/United_States), [European Union](/source/European_Union), [Turkey](/source/Turkey), [Arab League](/source/Arab_League) and various countries began enforcing broad sets of sanctions against Syrian regime from 2011, with the objective of forcing Assad to resign and assist in a political solution to the crisis.[420] International bodies have criticised one-sided elections organised by Assad government during the conflict. In the 2014 London conference of countries of the [Friends of Syria group](/source/Friends_of_Syria_Group), [British Foreign Secretary](/source/Foreign_Secretary_(United_Kingdom)) [William Hague](/source/William_Hague) characterised Syrian elections as a "parody of democracy" and denounced the regime's "utter disregard for human life" for perpetrating [war-crimes](/source/War_crime) and [state-terror](/source/State_terrorism) on the [Syrian population](/source/Syrians).[421] Assad's policy of holding elections under the circumstances of an ongoing civil war were also rebuked by the [UN Secretary-General](/source/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations) [Ban Ki-moon](/source/Ban_Ki-moon).[422]

Assad meets with U.S. Senator [Ted Kaufman](/source/Ted_Kaufman) in 2009

[Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)) suspended all relations with Syria following Bashar al-Assad's [recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia](/source/International_recognition_of_Abkhazia_and_South_Ossetia), condemning his government as a "Russian-manipulated regime" that supported [Russian occupation](/source/Russian-occupied_territories_in_Georgia) and "[ethnic cleansing](/source/Ethnic_cleansing)".[g] Following Assad's strong backing of [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/source/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) and recognition of the breakaway separatist republics, [Ukraine](/source/Ukraine) cut off all diplomatic relations with Syria in June 2022. Describing Assad's policies as "worthless", [Ukrainian President](/source/Ukrainian_President) [Volodymyr Zelenskyy](/source/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy) pledged to expand further [sanctions against Syria](/source/Sanctions_against_Syria).[426][427] In March 2023, [National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine](/source/National_Security_and_Defense_Council_of_Ukraine) put into effect a range of sanctions targeting 141 firms and 300 individuals linked to Assad regime, Russian weapons manufacturers and Iranian dronemakers. This was days after Assad's visit to [Moscow](/source/Moscow), wherein he justified [Russian invasion of Ukraine](/source/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) as a fight against "old and new Nazis". Bashar al-Assad, Prime Minister [Hussein Arnous](/source/Hussein_Arnous) and Foreign Minister [Faisal Mikdad](/source/Faisal_Mekdad) were amongst the individuals who were sanctioned.[h] Sanctions also involved freezing of all Syrian state properties in Ukraine, curtailment of monetary transactions, termination of economic commitments and recision of all official Ukrainian awards.[431] Syria formally broke its diplomatic ties to Ukraine on 20 July, citing the [principle of reciprocity](/source/Reciprocity_(international_relations)).[433]

Anti-Assad demonstrations in [Berlin](/source/Berlin), 18 March 2023

In April 2023, a French court declared three high-ranking Ba'athist security officials guilty of [crimes against humanity](/source/Crimes_against_humanity), [torture](/source/Torture), and various war-crimes against French-Syrian citizens. These included [Ali Mamlouk](/source/Ali_Mamlouk), director of [National Security Bureau of Syrian Ba'ath party](/source/National_Security_Bureau_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region) and [Jamil Hassan](/source/Jamil_Hassan), former head of the [Syrian Air Force Intelligence Directorate](/source/Air_Force_Intelligence_Directorate).[434][435] France had issued [international arrest warrants](/source/International_arrest_warrant) against the three officers over the case in 2018.[436] In May 2023, [French Foreign Minister](/source/French_Foreign_Minister) Catherine Colonna publicly demanded the prosecution of Bashar al-Assad for engaging in [chemical warfare](/source/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war) and killing [hundreds of thousands of people](/source/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war); branding him as "the enemy of his own people".[437][438] On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Assad for use of chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.[341]

#### Left-wing

Billboards of the [Spanish Indignados Movement](/source/Anti-austerity_movement_in_Spain) with denouncements of Bashar al-Assad's crackdown against [Syrian revolution](/source/Syrian_revolution) in [Puerta del Sol](/source/Puerta_del_Sol) square, [Madrid](/source/Madrid) (29 May 2011)

Bashar al-Assad is widely criticised by left-wing activists and intellectuals world-wide for appropriating leftist ideologies and its [socialist](/source/Socialist), [progressive](/source/Progressivism) slogans as a cover for his own family rule and to empower a loyalist clique of elites at the expense of ordinary Syrians. His close alliance with clergy-ruled [Khomeinist](/source/Khomeinism) Iran and its sectarian militant networks while simultaneously pursuing a policy of locking up left-wing critics of [Assad family](/source/Al-Assad_family) has been subject to heavy criticism.[439]

The [Egyptian branch](/source/Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Egypt_Region) of the [Iraqi Ba'ath movement](/source/Iraqi_Ba'ath_movement) has declared its strong support to the [Syrian revolution](/source/2011_Syrian_Revolution); denouncing Ba'athist Syria as a repressive dictatorship controlled by the "Assad gang". It has attacked Assad family's Ba'athist credentials, accusing the [Syrian Ba'ath party](/source/Arab_Socialist_Ba'ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region) of acting as the borderguards of [Israel](/source/Israel) ever since its overthrowal of the [Ba'athist National Command](/source/National_Command_of_the_Ba'ath_Party) during the [1966 coup d'état](/source/1966_Syrian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat). Describing Bashar al-Assad as a disgraceful person for inviting hostile powers like [Iran](/source/Iran) to Syria, Egyptian Ba'athists have urged the [Syrian revolutionaries](/source/Free_Syrian_Army) to unite in their efforts to overthrow the Assad regime and resist foreign imperialism.[440]

Describing Assad's regime as a [mafia state](/source/Mafia_state) that thrives on corruption and sectarianism, [Lebanese](/source/Lebanese_people) socialist academic [Gilbert Achcar](/source/Gilbert_Achcar) stated:

Bashar Assad's cousin became the richest man in the country, controlling – it is widely believed – over half of the economy. And that's only one member of the ruling clan... The clan functions as a real mafia, and has been ruling the country for several decades. This constitutes the deep root of the explosion, in combination with the fact that the Syrian regime is one of the most despotic in the region. Compared to Assad's Syria, [Mubarak's Egypt](/source/History_of_Egypt_under_Hosni_Mubarak) was a beacon of democracy and political freedom!... What is specific to this regime is that Assad's father has reshaped and reconstructed the state apparatus, especially its hard nucleus – the armed forces – in order to create a Pretorian guard for itself. The army, especially its elite forces, is tied to the regime itself in various ways, most prominently through the use of sectarianism. Even people who had never heard of Syria before know now that the regime is based on one minority in the country – about 10% of the population; the [Alawites](/source/Alawites).[441]

The [Progressive Socialist Party](/source/Progressive_Socialist_Party) (PSP) in Lebanon has taken an anti-Assad stance and organised mass-protests in support of the Syrian revolution. In August 2012, PSP publicly denounced the Assad government as a "killing machine" engaged in slaughtering Syrian people. PSP leader Ayman Kamaleddine demanded the expulsion of the Syrian ambassador from Lebanon, describing him as "the representative of the murderer regime in Lebanon".[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### International support

#### Left-wing

Left-wing support for Assad had been split since the start of the Syrian civil war;[442][*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items)*] the Assad government was accused of cynically manipulating [sectarian identity](/source/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War) and [anti-imperialism](/source/Anti-imperialism) to continue its worst activities.[443]

In 2017, then-[Democratic](/source/Democratic_Party_(United_States)) [congresswoman](/source/United_States_House_of_Representatives) [Tulsi Gabbard](/source/Tulsi_Gabbard) met with then-president Bashar al-Assad on an unannounced visit to Syria.[444] The visit was the first by a U.S. lawmaker since 2011,[445] and made under a travel warning issued by the [United States Department of State](/source/United_States_Department_of_State), which continues to warn U.S. citizens against all travel to the country.[446] Gabbard did not consult with the [House speaker](/source/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives) or State Department before meeting with Assad.[446] The meeting came after Gabbard introduced legislation that would, in her words, "end our country's illegal war to overthrow the Syrian government."[446] She said that Assad is "a brutal [dictator](/source/Dictator). Just like [Saddam Hussein](/source/Saddam_Hussein). Just like [Gadhafi](/source/Gadhafi) in Libya. The reason that I'm so outspoken on this issue of ending these wasteful [regime-change](/source/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change) wars is because I have seen firsthand this high human cost of war and the impact that it has on my fellow brothers and sisters in uniform."[447] Following her visit to Syria, Gabbard expressed doubts that the Assad regime was behind chemical weapons attacks in Syria.[444][448] Gabbard has continued to defend her comments, and in 2019 stated that Assad was "not the enemy of the United States because Syria does not pose a direct threat to the United States".[444]

Some heads of state or governments declared their support for Assad, including North Korean leader [Kim Jong Un](/source/Kim_Jong_Un).[449] After declaring victory in the 2014 elections, Assad received congratulations from [President of Venezuela](/source/President_of_Venezuela) [Nicolás Maduro](/source/Nicol%C3%A1s_Maduro),[450] [President of Algeria](/source/President_of_Algeria) [Abdelaziz Bouteflika](/source/Abdelaziz_Bouteflika),[451] [President of Guyana](/source/President_of_Guyana) [Donald Ramotar](/source/Donald_Ramotar),[452] [President of South Africa](/source/President_of_South_Africa) [Jacob Zuma](/source/Jacob_Zuma),[453] President of [Nicaragua](/source/Nicaragua) [Daniel Ortega](/source/Daniel_Ortega),[454] and [Mahmoud Abbas](/source/Mahmoud_Abbas), the leader of [Fatah](/source/Fatah) and [President of the State of Palestine](/source/President_of_the_State_of_Palestine).[455][456][457] Palestinian [Marxist–Leninist](/source/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism) militant group [Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine](/source/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine) (PFLP) supported Assad during the Syrian civil war. As a result of this stance, the Iranian government increased its military and financial funding to the PFLP.[458][459]

#### Right-wing

Bashar al-Assad's regime has received support from prominent [white nationalist](/source/White_nationalist), [neo-Nazi](/source/Neo-Nazi) and [far-right](/source/Far-right) figures in Europe, who were attracted by his "[war on terror](/source/War_on_terror)" discourse against [Islamists](/source/Islamists) during the period of [European refugee crisis](/source/European_refugee_crisis). Assad's bombings of Syrian cities are admired in the [Islamophobic](/source/Islamophobic) discourse of far-right circles, which considers Muslims as a civilisational enemy. American [white supremacists](/source/White-supremacists) often praise Assad as an authoritarian bulwark against what they view as the forces of "Islamic extremism" and [globalism](/source/Globalist_(epithet)); and several pro-Assad slogans were chanted in the neo-Nazi [Unite the Right rally](/source/Unite_the_Right_rally) held in [Charlottesville](/source/Charlottesville%2C_Virginia) in 2017.[i][460]

[Nick Griffin](/source/Nick_Griffin), the former leader of the [British National Party](/source/British_National_Party) (BNP), was formerly an official ambassador and guest of the Syrian government;[461] due to public controversy, the Assad government publicly disassociated itself from him after his trip to Syria in 2014.[460]

### International public relations

Assad with Iranian President [Mahmoud Ahmadinejad](/source/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad) and Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in Tehran, Iran, 2010

Assad with Vladimir Putin, [Sergei Shoigu](/source/Sergei_Shoigu), and [Valery Gerasimov](/source/Valery_Gerasimov) in 2017 during the [Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war](/source/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war)

In order to promote their image and media-portrayal overseas, Bashar al-Assad and his wife [Asma al-Assad](/source/Asma_al-Assad) hired U.S. and UK based [PR firms](/source/Public_relations) and consultants.[462] In particular, these secured photoshoots for Asma al-Assad with fashion and celebrity magazines, including *[Vogue](/source/Vogue_(magazine))*'s March 2011 "A Rose in the Desert".[463][464] These firms included [Bell Pottinger](/source/Bell_Pottinger) and [Brown Lloyd James](/source/Brown_Lloyd_James), with the latter being paid $5,000 a month for their services.[462][465]

At the outset of the Syrian civil war, Syrian government networks were hacked by the group [Anonymous](/source/Anonymous_(group)), revealing that an ex-[Al Jazeera](/source/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network) journalist had been hired to advise Assad on how to manipulate the public opinion of the U.S. Among the advice was the suggestion to compare the popular uprising against the regime to the [Occupy Wall Street](/source/Occupy_Wall_Street) protests.[466] In a separate email leak several months later by the [Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution](/source/Supreme_Council_of_the_Syrian_Revolution), which were published by *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*, it was revealed that Assad's consultants had coordinated with an Iranian government media advisor.[467] In March 2015, an expanded version of the aforementioned leaks was handed to the Lebanese *[NOW News](/source/NOW_News)* website and published the following month.[468]

After the Syrian civil war began, the Assads started a [social media](/source/Social_media) campaign which included building a presence on Facebook, YouTube, and most notably [Instagram](/source/Instagram).[465] A Twitter account for Assad was reportedly activated; however, it remained unverified.[469] This resulted in much criticism, and was described by *[The Atlantic Wire](/source/The_Atlantic_Wire)* as "a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the [Assad] family look worse".[470] The Assad government has also allegedly arrested activists for creating Facebook groups that the government disapproved of,[147] and has appealed directly to Twitter to remove accounts it disliked.[471] The social media campaign, as well as the previously leaked emails, led to comparisons with [Hannah Arendt](/source/Hannah_Arendt)'s *[A Report on the Banality of Evil](/source/Eichmann_in_Jerusalem)* by *The Guardian*, *The New York Times* and the *Financial Times*.[472][473][474]

In October 2014, 27,000 photographs depicting torture committed by the Assad government were put on display at the [U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum](/source/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum).[475][476] Lawyers were hired to write a report on the images by the British law firm [Carter-Ruck](/source/Carter-Ruck), which in turn was funded by the [Government of Qatar](/source/Government_of_Qatar).[477] In November 2014, the [Quilliam Foundation](/source/Quilliam_(think_tank)) reported that a propaganda campaign, which they claimed had the "full backing of Assad", spread false reports about the deaths of Western-born jihadists in order to deflect attention from the government's alleged war crimes. Using a picture of a Chechen fighter from the [Second Chechen War](/source/Second_Chechen_War), pro-Assad media reports disseminated to Western media outlets, leading them to publish a false story regarding the death of a non-existent British jihadist.[478]

In 2015, [Russia intervened in the Syrian civil war](/source/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war) in support of Assad, and on 21 October 2015, Assad flew to Moscow and met with Russian president Vladimir Putin, who said regarding the civil war: "this decision can be made only by the Syrian people. Syria is a friendly country. And we are ready to support it not only militarily but politically as well."[479]

## Personal life

Bashar al-Assad and his wife [Asma al-Assad](/source/Asma_al-Assad)

Assad is an [Alawite](/source/Alawites) Muslim.[480] He has performed the *[hajj](/source/Hajj)* pilgrimage twice, in 1999 and in 2000.[481] He speaks fluent English and conversational French, having studied at the Franco-Arab al-Hurriyah school in Damascus.[482]

Assad's sister, [Bushra al-Assad](/source/Bushra_al-Assad), and mother, [Anisa Makhlouf](/source/Anisa_Makhlouf), left Syria in 2012 and 2013, respectively, to live in the [United Arab Emirates](/source/United_Arab_Emirates).[38] Makhlouf died in Damascus in 2016.[483]

In December 2000, Assad married [Asma Akhras](/source/Asma_al-Assad), a British citizen of Syrian origin from [Acton, London](/source/Acton%2C_London).[484][485] In 2001, Asma gave birth to their first child, a son named [Hafez](/source/Hafez_Bashar_al-Assad). Hafez graduated from [Moscow State University](/source/Moscow_State_University) in the November 2024 with a [doctorate](/source/Doctorate) in [number theory](/source/Number_theory).[486] Their daughter Zein was born in 2003, followed by their son Karim in 2004.[38] On 23 December 2024, it was reported that Asma al-Assad had filed for divorce; the Russian government denied this.[487][488]

Assad is under 24-hour protection from the [FSB](/source/Federal_Security_Service). He reportedly lived in apartments under the [Four Seasons Hotel](/source/Four_Seasons_Hotel_Moscow), and in the [Federation Tower](/source/Federation_Tower), before being moved to Rublyovka.[489]

## Electoral history

Electoral history of Bashar al-Assad Year Office Party Votes received Result Total % P. Swing 2000 President of Syria Ba'ath Party 8,689,871 99.74% 1st —N/a Unopposed 2007 11,199,445 99.82% 1st +0.08 Unopposed 2014 10,319,723 92.90% 1st –6.92 Won 2021 13,540,860 95.19% 1st +2.29 Won

## Awards and honours

Revoked and returned awards and honours.

Ribbon Distinction Country Date Location Notes Reference Grand Cross of the National Order of the Legion of Honour France 25 June 2001 Paris Highest rank in the Order of the Legion of Honor in the Republic of France. Returned by Assad on 20 April 2018[490] after the opening of a revocation process by the President of the Republic, Emmanuel Macron, on 16 April 2018. [491][492] Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise Ukraine 21 April 2002 Kyiv Revoked on 18 March 2023, as part of sanctions issued by Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy which revoked all previous Ukrainian state awards to members of the Assad government.[431] [493][431] Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Francis I Two Sicilies 21 March 2004 Damascus Dynastic order of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies; Revoked several years later[when?] by Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro. [494][495] Order of Zayed United Arab Emirates 31 May 2008 Abu Dhabi Highest civil decoration in the United Arab Emirates. [496] Order of the White Rose of Finland Finland 5 October 2009 Damascus One of three official orders in Finland. [497] Order of King Abdulaziz Saudi Arabia 8 October 2009 Damascus Highest Saudi state order. [498] Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic Italy 11 March 2010 Damascus Highest ranking honour of the Republic of Italy. Revoked by the President of the Republic, Giorgio Napolitano, on 28 September 2012 for "indignity". [499][500] Collar of the Order of the Liberator Venezuela 28 June 2010[501] Caracas Highest Venezuelan state order. [502] Grand Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross Brazil 30 June 2010 Brasília Brazil's highest order of merit. [503] Grand Cordon of the National Order of the Cedar Lebanon 31 July 2010 Beirut Second highest honour of Lebanon. [504] Order of the Islamic Republic of Iran Iran 2 October 2010 Tehran Highest national medal of Iran. [505][506] Uatsamonga Order South Ossetia 2018 Damascus State award of South Ossetia. [507]

## See also

- [List of international presidential trips made by Bashar al-Assad](/source/List_of_international_presidential_trips_made_by_Bashar_al-Assad)

- [Presidency of Hafez al-Assad](/source/Presidency_of_Hafez_al-Assad)

- [Foreign Policy of Bashar al-Assad](/source/Foreign_Policy_of_Bashar_al-Assad)

- [Proposed handover of Bashar al-Assad to Syria](/source/Proposed_handover_of_Bashar_al-Assad_to_Syria)

## Explanatory notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Following the [fall of the Assad regime](/source/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime), al-Sharaa served as Syria's *[de facto](/source/De_facto)* [leader](/source/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Syria) as the emir of [Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham](/source/Hay'at_Tahrir_al-Sham), general commander and head of the new Syrian administration until 29 January 2025, when he was appointed President of Syria by the Syrian General Command.[1][2]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** [/bəˈʃɑːr æl.əˈsɑːd/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [*bə-SHAR AL-ə-SAHD*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key), also [/ælˈæsæd/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [ⓘ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-us-Bashar_Al-Assad_from_Syria_pronunciation_(Voice_of_America).ogg) [*al-ASS-ad*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key); [Arabic](/source/Arabic_language): بشار الأسد, [romanized](/source/Romanization_of_Arabic): *Baššār al-ʾAsad*, Levantine Arabic pronunciation: [\[baʃˈʃaːr elˈʔasad\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Sources:[67][68][69][70][71][72]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** Sources:[73][74][75][76][77][78]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-214)** Sources:[205][206][207][208][209]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-375)** Sources: - ["OPCW Releases Third Report by Investigation and Identification Team"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111421/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team). 27 January 2023. Archived from [the original](https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team) on 27 January 2023. - ["Third Report by the OPCW Investigation and Identification Team"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111959/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023(e).pdf) (PDF). 27 January 2023. pp. 2–139. Archived from [the original](https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023%28e%29.pdf) (PDF) on 27 January 2023 – via OPCW. - ["Joint Statement on OPCW Report Finding Syrian Regime Responsible for Chemical Weapons Attack in Douma, Syria on April 7, 2018"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230128024629/https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/). *U.S Department of State*. 27 January 2023. Archived from [the original](https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/) on 28 January 2023. - ["OPCW blames Syria gov't for 2018 chlorine gas attack in Douma"](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/27/opcw-blames-syria-government-forces-for-2018-douma-chlorine-gas-attack). *Al Jazeera*. 27 January 2023. - ["Watchdog blames Syria for 2018 Douma chemical attack"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230128025152/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831). *BBC News*. 27 January 2023. Archived from [the original](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831) on 28 January 2023. - Chulov, Martin (27 January 2023). ["Syrian regime found responsible for Douma chemical attack"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230127200237/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack). *The Guardian*. Archived from [the original](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack) on 27 January 2023. - Loveluck, Louisa (27 January 2023). ["Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/27/syria-chemical-weapons-douma-opcw/). *Washington Post*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-432)** Sources:[423][185][424][425]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-440)** [204][428][429][430][431][432]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-468)** sources: - Elba, Mariam (8 September 2017). ["Mariam Elba"](https://web.archive.org/web/20171005175942/https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/). *The Intercept*. Archived from [the original](https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/) on 5 October 2017. - Strickland, Patrick (14 February 2018). ["Why do Italian fascists adore Syria's Bashar al-Assad?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230105164955/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad). *Al Jazeera*. Archived from [the original](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad) on 5 January 2023. - Snell, James (17 August 2017). ["Why Nazis from Charlottesville to Europe love Bashar al-Assad"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221227143504/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad). *New Arab*. Archived from [the original](https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad) on 27 December 2022. - Ayoub, Joey (3 October 2022). ["How the European far right coopted an Arabic letter"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221220215405/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter). *Al Jazeera*. Archived from [the original](https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter) on 20 December 2022. - ["Western Far-right Worries Syrians and Delights Bashar al-Assad"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221103015933/https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html). *The Syrian Observer*. 3 November 2022. Archived from [the original](https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html) on 3 November 2022. - Huetlin, Josephine (28 March 2018). ["The European Far-Right's Sick Love Affair With Bashar al-Assad"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221116203833/https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad). *The Daily Beast*. Archived from [the original](https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad) on 16 November 2022.

## References

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-defactoleader_1-0)** ["Ahmed al-Sharaa named Syria's transitional president"](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c8d9r0vg6v7o). *www.bbc.com*. 31 January 2025. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Ahmed al-Sharaa has been Syria's de facto leader since leading the overthrow of Bashar al-Assad

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Leader of Syria's new administration congratulates Trump"](https://www.aa.com.tr/en/politics/leader-of-syria-s-new-administration-congratulates-trump/3456721). *Anadolu Ajansi*. Retrieved 20 July 2025. The leader of the new Syrian administration, Ahmed al-Sharaa, congratulated US President Donald Trump on his [inauguration](/source/Second_inauguration_of_Donald_Trump)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["ICG Middle East Report: Syria Under Bashar"](https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/icg%20report%2011-02-2004/icg%20report%2011-02-2004en.pdf) (PDF). *European Parliament*. 11 February 2004. Retrieved 30 November 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Ghadbian, Najib (2001). ["The New Asad: Dynamics of Continuity and Change in Syria"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4329687). *Middle East Journal*. **55** (4): 624–641. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0026-3141](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-3141). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [4329687](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4329687).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Syria's decade of repression | Human Rights Watch"](https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/07/16/syrias-decade-repression). 16 July 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["UN Harīrī probe implicates Syria"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm). BBC News. 21 October 2005..

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Sources: - ["Civilian Death Toll"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/). *SNHR*. September 2022. Archived from [the original](https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/) on 5 March 2022. - ["Syrian Revolution 13 years on | Nearly 618,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011"](https://www.syriahr.com/en/328044/). SOHR. 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024. - ["On the 13th Anniversary of the Start of the Popular Uprising"](https://web.archive.org/web/20241213045100/https://snhr.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/R240209E-1.pdf) (PDF). *SNHR*. 15 March 2024. pp. 5–8. Archived from [the original](https://snhr.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/R240209E-1.pdf) (PDF) on 13 December 2024. - Roth, Kenneth (9 January 2017). ["Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210202082511/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights). *Human Rights Watch*. Archived from [the original](https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights) on 2 February 2021. - ["The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips"](https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips). *Council for Arab-British Understanding*. - ["Assad regime overthrown after 53 years of repression and brutality"](https://web.archive.org/web/20241210102813/https://hrf.org/latest/assad-regime-overthrown-after-53-years-of-repression-and-brutality-pivotal-opportunity-to-establish-rule-of-law-and-individual-rights/). *hrf.org*. 9 December 2024. Archived from [the original](https://hrf.org/latest/assad-regime-overthrown-after-53-years-of-repression-and-brutality-pivotal-opportunity-to-establish-rule-of-law-and-individual-rights/) on 10 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** - ["Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm). *United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases*. 6 March 2023. Archived from [the original](https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm) on 14 March 2023. - ["Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en). *European Union External Action*. 15 May 2023. Archived from [the original](https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en) on 15 May 2023. - ["Assad regime overthrown after 53 years of repression and brutality"](https://web.archive.org/web/20241210102813/https://hrf.org/latest/assad-regime-overthrown-after-53-years-of-repression-and-brutality-pivotal-opportunity-to-establish-rule-of-law-and-individual-rights/). *hrf.org*. 9 December 2024. Archived from [the original](https://hrf.org/latest/assad-regime-overthrown-after-53-years-of-repression-and-brutality-pivotal-opportunity-to-establish-rule-of-law-and-individual-rights/) on 10 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Multiple sources: - Robertson QC, Geoffrey (2013). "11: Justice in Demand". *Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice* (4th ed.). New York: The New Press. pp. 560–562, 573, 595–607. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59558-860-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59558-860-9). - [*Syria Freedom Support Act; Holocaust Insurance Accountability Act of 2011*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SdxEAQAAMAAJ&dq=Assad+crimes+against+humanity&pg=PA229). Washington DC: Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives. 2012. pp. 221–229. - Vohra, Anchal (16 October 2020). ["Assad's Horrible War Crimes Are Finally Coming to Light Under Oath"](https://web.archive.org/web/20201102212057/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/16/assads-horrible-war-crimes-are-finally-coming-to-light/). *Foreign Policy*. Archived from [the original](https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/16/assads-horrible-war-crimes-are-finally-coming-to-light/) on 2 November 2020. - ["German court finds Assad regime official guilty of crimes against humanity"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220122082145/https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/german-court-finds-assad-regime-official-guilty-of-crimes-against-humanity). *Daily Sabah*. 13 January 2022. Archived from [the original](https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/german-court-finds-assad-regime-official-guilty-of-crimes-against-humanity) on 22 January 2022. - Nosakhare, Whitney Martina (15 March 2022). ["Some Hope in the Struggle for Justice in Syria: European Courts Offer Survivors a Path Toward Accountability"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220405071705/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/15/some-hope-struggle-justice-syria). *Human Rights Watch*. Archived from [the original](https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/15/some-hope-struggle-justice-syria) on 5 April 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Abdulrahim, Raja (7 December 2024). ["The leader of Syria's rebels told The Times that their aim is to oust al-Assad"](https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/12/07/world/syria-war-damascus/syria-rebels-assad-al-jolani). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. Retrieved 7 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Gebeily, Maya; Azhari, Timour; Gebeily, Maya (8 December 2024). ["Syrian army command tells officers that Assad's rule has ended, officer says"](https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/). *Reuters*.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_14-1) Gebeily, Maya; Azhari, Timour (8 December 2024). ["Syria's Assad and his family are in Moscow after Russia granted them asylum, say Russian news agencies"](https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-his-family-are-moscow-after-russia-granted-them-asylum-say-russian-2024-12-08/). *Reuters*. Retrieved 8 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["Bashar al-Assad and family given asylum in Moscow, Russian media say"](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqx89reeevgo). BBC News. 8 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** ["Syrian rebels topple President Assad, prime minister calls for free elections"](https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/). *[Reuters](/source/Reuters)*. 7 December 2024. Retrieved 7 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** ["Assad flees to Moscow after rebels take Syrian capital, Russian state media report"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-damascus-falls-to-rebels-1.7404700). *[CBC News](/source/CBC_News)*. 9 December 2024. Retrieved 9 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media"](https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-175000548.html). 8 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Sources describing the [Assad](/source/Al-Assad_family) family's rule of Syria as a [personalist dictatorship](/source/Dictatorship#Personalist): - Svolik, Milan. ["The Politics of Authoritarian Rule"](https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/politics-authoritarian-rule). *Cambridge University Press*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180915144932/https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/politics-authoritarian-rule) from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2019. - Weeks, Jessica (2014). *Dictators at War and Peace*. Cornell University Press. p. 18. - Wedeen, Lisa (2018). [*Authoritarian Apprehensions*](https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo41676402.html). Chicago Studies in Practices of Meaning. University of Chicago Press. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191021203359/https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo41676402.html) from the original on 21 October 2019. Retrieved 21 October 2019. - Hinnebusch, Raymond (2012). "Syria: from 'authoritarian upgrading' to revolution?". *International Affairs*. **88** (1): 95–113. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2346.2012.01059.x). - Michalik, Susanne (2015). "Measuring Authoritarian Regimes with Multiparty Elections". In Michalik, Susanne (ed.). *Multiparty Elections in Authoritarian Regimes: Explaining their Introduction and Effects*. Studien zur Neuen Politischen Ökonomie. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. pp. 33–45. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-658-09511-6_3](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-09511-6_3). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3658095116](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3658095116). - Geddes, Barbara; Wright, Joseph; Frantz, Erica (2018). *How Dictatorships Work*. Cambridge University Press. p. 233. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/9781316336182](https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316336182). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-316-33618-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-33618-2). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [226899229](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226899229).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-dictator2_20-0)** Sources characterising Assad as a dictator: - ["Ousted Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad issues his first statement since leaving the country"](https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ousted-syrian-leader-bashar-al-assad-issues-first-statement-leaving-sy-rcna184338). *[NBC News](/source/NBC_News)*. 16 December 2024. Retrieved 27 December 2024. - Beaumont, Peter (8 December 2024). ["From doctor to brutal dictator: the rise and fall of Syria's Bashar al-Assad"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/dec/08/syria-doctor-to-brutal-dictator-rise-fall-bashar-al-assad). *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0261-3077](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved 27 December 2024. - ["From eye doctor to dictator - the rise and fall of Assad's presidency"](https://news.sky.com/story/from-eye-doctor-to-dictator-the-rise-and-fall-of-assads-presidency-13269485). *[Sky News](/source/Sky_News)*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. - Malsin, Isabel Coles and Jared (8 December 2024). ["Bashar al-Assad, an Ophthalmologist Who Became a Dictator, Is the Last of a Despotic Dynasty"](https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/bashar-al-assad-syria-regime-ends-672af9a8). *[The Wall Street Journal](/source/The_Wall_Street_Journal)*. Retrieved 27 December 2024. - ["Syria has exchanged a vile dictator for an uncertain future"](https://www.economist.com/briefing/2024/12/12/syria-has-exchanged-a-vile-dictator-for-an-uncertain-future). *[The Economist](/source/The_Economist)*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0013-0613](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613). Retrieved 27 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Multiple sources: - [Khamis, Gold & Vaughn 2013](#CITEREFKhamisGoldVaughn2013), p. 422. - [Wieland 2021](#CITEREFWieland2021), p. 68. - Hensman, Rohini (2018). "The Syrian Uprising". *Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism*. Chicago: Haymarket Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60846-912-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60846-912-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["Worst of the Worst 2011"](https://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/WorstOfTheWorst2011.pdf) (PDF). [Freedom House](/source/Freedom_House). 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto4_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto4_23-1) ["France issues new arrest warrant for Assad on war crimes charges"](https://www.politico.eu/article/france-syria-bashar-assad-war-crimes-civillian-prosecution-middle-east/). *Politico.eu*. 22 January 2025. Retrieved 22 January 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** ["French court issues second arrest warrant for Syria's Assad"](https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20250122-french-court-issues-second-arrest-warrant-for-syria-assad-nabout). *RFI*. 22 January 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto3_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto3_25-1) ["France issues arrest warrant for Syria's Assad over killing of journalists"](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/9/2/france-issues-arrest-warrant-for-syrias-assad-over-killing-of-journalists). *Al Jazeera*. 2 September 2025. Retrieved 3 September 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Simons, Marlise (2 September 2025). ["Assad and Aides Are Wanted in France for Deadly Strike on Journalists"](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/09/02/world/middleeast/assad-warrant-marie-colvin.html). *The New York Times*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** ["France issues third arrest warrant against Syria's ex-leader Assad"](https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20251023-france-issues-new-arrest-warrant-against-syria-s-ex-leader-assad-for-chemical-attacks). *France24*. 23 October 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** ["France issues third arrest warrant for Bashar al-Assad"](https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2025/10/france-issues-third-arrest-warrant-for-bashar-al-assad/). *Enab Baladi*. 23 October 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Gharaibeh, Sara (27 September 2025). ["Syria Issues Arrest Warrant for Former President Bashar Al-Assad"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-09-27/syria-issues-arrest-warrant-for-former-president-bashar-al-assad?). *Bloomberg*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** ["Damascus: Arrest Warrant in Absentia Issued Against Bashar al-Assad"](https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2025/09/damascus-arrest-warrant-in-absentia-issued-against-bashar-al-assad/). *Enab Baladi*. 27 September 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** ["Syrian court issues arrest warrant for ousted president Bashar al-Assad"](https://www.newarab.com/news/syrian-court-issues-arrest-warrant-ousted-president-assad). *The New Arab*. 27 September 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZisser200720_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZisser200720_32-1) [Zisser 2007](#CITEREFZisser2007), p. 20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** ["بشار الأسد.. رئيس سوريا المخلوع"](https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/2014/11/19/%d8%a8%d8%b4%d8%a7%d8%b1-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d8%b3%d8%af). *الجزيرة نت* (in Arabic). Retrieved 1 March 2026.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealeMcConville19926_34-0)** [Seale & McConville 1992](#CITEREFSealeMcConville1992), p. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze201338_35-0)** [Mikaberidze 2013](#CITEREFMikaberidze2013), p. 38.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-guardian_36-0)** Seale, Patrick (15 June 2000). ["Hafez al-Assad"](https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2000/jun/15/guardianweekly.guardianweekly1). *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190330172138/https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2000/jun/15/guardianweekly.guardianweekly1) from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoosa1987305_37-0)** [Moosa 1987](#CITEREFMoosa1987), p. 305.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Allam,_Saber_2019_26–27_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Allam,_Saber_2019_26–27_38-1) Ashraf Allam; Salah Saber (2019). "The domestic structure of the regime". *Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring*. Alexandria, Egypt: Lamar. pp. 26–27. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-977-85412-3-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-85412-3-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Cole, Robert (2022). "Syria". *The Encyclopaedia of Propaganda*. Routledge. pp. 760–761. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781317471981](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317471981).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-New_Republic_2013_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-New_Republic_2013_40-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-New_Republic_2013_40-2) Dwyer, Mimi (8 September 2013). ["Think Bashar al Assad Is Brutal? Meet His Family"](https://newrepublic.com/article/114630/bashar-al-assad-syria-family-guide). *The New Republic*. Retrieved 15 March 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bar_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bar_41-1) Bar, Shmuel (2006). ["Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf) (PDF). *Comparative Strategy*. **25** (5). The Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya Lauder School of Government, Diplomacy and Strategy Institute for Policy and Strategy: 16, 379. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/01495930601105412](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01495930601105412). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [154739379](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154739379). Archived from [the original](http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf) (PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Dow, Nicole (18 July 2012). ["Getting to know Syria's first family"](https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/26/world/meast/assad-family/). *CNN*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160420230131/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/26/world/meast/assad-family) from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZisser200721_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZisser200721_43-1) [Zisser 2007](#CITEREFZisser2007), p. 21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Republic_44-0)** Ciezadlo, Annia (19 December 2013). ["Bashar Al Assad: An Intimate Profile of a Mass Murderer"](https://newrepublic.com/article/115993/bashar-al-assad-profile-syrias-mass-murderer). *The New Republic*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210327142240/https://newrepublic.com/article/115993/bashar-al-assad-profile-syrias-mass-murderer) from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Roula_45-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Roula_45-1) Khalaf, Roula (15 June 2012). ["Bashar al-Assad: behind the mask"](https://www.ft.com/content/669da3aa-b5b5-11e1-ab92-00144feabdc0). *Financial Times*. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/669da3aa-b5b5-11e1-ab92-00144feabdc0) from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Belt, Don (November 2009). ["Syria"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091025083543/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/11/syria/belt-text/2). *[National Geographic](/source/National_Geographic_(magazine))*. pp. 2, 9. Archived from [the original](http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/11/syria/belt-text/2) on 25 October 2009. Retrieved 14 March 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Sachs, Susan (14 June 2000). ["Man in the News; The Shy Young Doctor at Syria's Helm; Bashar al-Assad"](https://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/14/world/man-in-the-news-the-shy-young-doctor-at-syria-s-helm-bashar-al-assad.html). *The New York Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180828232623/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/14/world/man-in-the-news-the-shy-young-doctor-at-syria-s-helm-bashar-al-assad.html) from the original on 28 August 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** ["The enigma of Assad: How a painfully shy eye doctor turned into a murderous tyrant"](https://qz.com/959806/the-enigmatic-story-of-how-syrias-bashar-al-assad-turned-from-a-painfully-shy-eye-doctor-into-a-murderous-tyrant/). 21 April 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190422161332/https://qz.com/959806/the-enigmatic-story-of-how-syrias-bashar-al-assad-turned-from-a-painfully-shy-eye-doctor-into-a-murderous-tyrant/) from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeverett200559_49-0)** [Leverett 2005](#CITEREFLeverett2005), p. 59.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ladno_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ladno_50-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Ladno_50-2) ["Ladno.ru" Асад Башар : биография](https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150441/http://ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/) [Bashar Assad: A Biography]. *Ladno* (in Russian). Archived from [the original](http://www.ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/) on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:6_51-0)** Beeston, Richard; Blanford, Nick (22 October 2005). ["We are going to send him on a trip. Bye, bye Hariri. Rot in hell"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170214204537/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article2604469.ece). *[The Times](/source/The_Times)*. London. Archived from [the original](http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article2604469.ece) on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeverett200560_52-0)** [Leverett 2005](#CITEREFLeverett2005), p. 60.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** ["How Syria's 'Geeky' President Went From Doctor to Dictator"](https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/syria-peace-talks/how-syrias-geeky-president-assad-went-doctor-dictator-n453871). *NBC News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171222005409/https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/syria-peace-talks/how-syrias-geeky-president-assad-went-doctor-dictator-n453871) from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 14 April 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinahan200283_54-0)** [Minahan 2002](#CITEREFMinahan2002), p. 83.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuckerRoberts2008167_55-0)** [Tucker & Roberts 2008](#CITEREFTuckerRoberts2008), p. 167.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** ["Iran Report: June 19, 2000"](https://www.rferl.org/a/1342883.html). *Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty*. 11 November 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220515140405/https://www.rferl.org/a/1342883.html) from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Wedeen, Lisa (2015). [*Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric and Symbols in Contemporary Syria*](https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo22776830.html). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 28, 39, 60–61. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-33337-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-33337-3). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221202182756/https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo22776830.html) from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZisser200735_58-0)** [Zisser 2007](#CITEREFZisser2007), p. 35.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Gresh, Alain (July 2020). ["Syria: the rise and rise of Doctor Bashar"](https://mondediplo.com/2000/07/07syria). *[Le Monde diplomatique](/source/Le_Monde_diplomatique)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220808142937/https://mondediplo.com/2000/07/07syria) from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeverett200561_60-0)** [Leverett 2005](#CITEREFLeverett2005), p. 61.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZisser200730_61-0)** [Zisser 2007](#CITEREFZisser2007), p. 30.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** Sadiki, Larbi; Abbas, Akeel (2015). "31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring". *Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring*. New York: Routledge. pp. 412, 413. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-52391-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2). In the nearly 50-minute speech, President al-Assad gave his interpretation to the protests in Syria and other Arab countries, almost mocking the Arab Spring, invoking the outside regional and international conspirators and their inside 'agents' as the evil 'them'.. Resorting to conspiratorial attribution to explain the 'real' reasons behind the protests in Syria, al-Assad bestowed a pathological inevitability on the actions of political opposition, where the oppressive political system he heads turns into a noble victim, recipient of foreign illnesses. [Assad speech] "Conspiracies are like germs: They procreate at every moment everywhere; they cannot be annihilated, but the immunity of the body can be strengthened against them." … dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the 'fitna'.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Farge_123-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Farge_123-1) Farge, Emma (28 June 2022). ["War has killed 1.5% of Syria's population: UN estimate"](https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/). *Reuters*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220628101243/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/) from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2022.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ohchr.org_124-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ohchr.org_124-1) ["UN Human Rights Office estimates more than 306,000 civilians were killed over 10 years in Syria conflict"](https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10). *Ohchr.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220701075327/https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10) from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** Sadiki, Larbi; Abbas, Akeel (2015). "31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring". *Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring*. New York: Routledge. pp. 412, 413. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-52391-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** ["Administration Takes Additional Steps to Hold the Government of Syria Accountable for Violent Repression Against the Syrian People"](http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx). *[United States Department of the Treasury](/source/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110522122023/http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx) from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2011. Today, President Obama signed an Executive Order ([E.O. 13573](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13573)) imposing sanctions against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and six other senior officials of the Government of Syria in an effort to increase pressure on the Government of Syria to end its use of violence against its people and to begin a transition to a democratic system that protects the rights of the Syrian people.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ussanct_127-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ussanct_127-1) ["How the U.S. message on Assad shifted"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html). *The Washington Post*. 18 August 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104022/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html) from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 23 November 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** Oweis, Khaled Yacoub (18 May 2011). ["U.S. imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad"](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518). *[Reuters](/source/Reuters)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111248/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/18/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518) from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2015. The U.S. move, announced by the Treasury Department, freezes any of the Syrian officials' assets that are in the United States or otherwise fall within U.S. jurisdiction and generally bars U.S. individuals and companies from dealing with them.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** ["EU imposes sanctions on President Assad"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395). *BBC News*. 23 May 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190401032222/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395) from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-130)** ["Canada imposes sanctions on Syrian leaders"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833). *BBC News*. 24 May 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190402085604/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833) from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** ["Speech of H.E. President Bashar al-Assad at Damascus University on the situation in Syria"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120525170047/http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm). [Syrian Arab News Agency](/source/Syrian_Arab_News_Agency). 21 June 2011. Archived from [the original](http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm) on 25 May 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-mustgo_132-0)** ["Assad must go, Obama says"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html). *[The Washington Post](/source/The_Washington_Post)*. 18 August 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190513065624/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html) from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 23 November 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-133)** ["Assad must go: the world unites against Syria's tyrant"](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html). *[The Independent](/source/The_Independent)*. 19 August 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20241118232120/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html) from the original on 18 November 2024. Retrieved 25 November 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-whstatem_134-0)** [President Obama: "The future of Syria must be determined by its people, but President Bashar al-Assad is standing in their way."](https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170123020409/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad) 23 January 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) The White House website, 18 August 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-135)** Nour Ali (25 August 2011). ["Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten). *The Guardian*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190419133157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten) from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 4 March 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** ["Prominent Syrian Cartoonist Attacked, Beaten"](https://www.voanews.com/a/syrian-activists-anti-regime-cartoonist-attacked-beaten-128385448/144294.html). [Voice of America](/source/Voice_of_America). 25 August 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120203183255/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html) from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 4 March 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-guardunlegit_137-0)** ["Russian vetoes are putting UN security council's legitimacy at risk, says US"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us). *The Guardian*. 23 September 2015. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190517013841/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us) from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Itar-Tass27-1-12_138-0)** ["Russia won't back U.N. call for Syria's Assad to go"](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127). *[Reuters](/source/Reuters)*. 27 January 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120128064627/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/27/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127) from the original on 28 January 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** [Russia and China veto draft Security Council resolution on Syria](https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170629175424/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935) 29 June 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) UN website, 4 October 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** ["Syria's Assad blames 'foreign conspiracy'"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548). *BBC News*. 10 January 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190402193447/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548) from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** Khaled Yacoub Oweis (13 December 2011). ["Syria death toll hits 5,000 as insurgency spreads"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040746/https://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213). *Reuters*. Archived from [the original](http://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213) on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** Martin Chulov (27 February 2012). ["Syria claims 90% of voters backed reforms in referendum"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad). *The Guardian*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad) from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 4 March 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** Aneja, Atul (17 July 2012). ["Russia backs Assad as fighting in Damascus escalates"](http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece). *[The Hindu](/source/The_Hindu)*. Chennai. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece) from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 17 July 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** ["Syria in civil war, Red Cross says"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362). *BBC News*. 15 July 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190620110230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362) from the original on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 31 July 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-145)** ["Syrian death toll tops 19,000, say activists"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000). *The Guardian*. London. 22 July 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014621/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000) from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 31 July 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** ["Al-Assad: Enemies of Syria 'will go to hell'"](https://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1). *CNN*. 6 January 2013. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103510/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1) from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-147)** ["Syrian Live Blog"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071334/http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/Syria-153). *Listening Post*. Al Jazeera. 6 January 2012. Archived from [the original](http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/syria-153) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** ["Assad assassination attempt may have prompted chemical weapons strike"](https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/assad-assassination-attempt-may-have-prompted-chemical-weapons-strike-flna8c11021682). *NBC News*. 28 August 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-149)** ["Major assassination attempts in Syria's conflict"](https://apnews.com/general-news-afa095170f9f4f8c8a5d0778b5488e1f). *AP News*. 29 April 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-AssadWeak_150-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-AssadWeak_150-1) ["Bashar Assad may be weaker than he thinks"](https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing). *The Economist*. 16 October 2014. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171019131748/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing) from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2014. In Latakia and Tartus, two coastal cities near the Alawite heartland, posters of missing soldiers adorn the walls. When IS took over four government bases in the east of the country this summer, slaughtering dozens of soldiers and displaying some of their heads on spikes in Raqqa, IS's stronghold, families started to lose faith in the government. A visitor to the region reports hearing one man complain: 'We're running out of sons to give them.'

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Dissent2014_151-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Dissent2014_151-1) Dziadosz, Alexander; Heneghan, Tom (September 2014). ["Pro-government Syrian activist arrested after rare public dissent"](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901). *Reuters*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150924204007/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/01/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** Westhall, Syliva (18 September 2014). ["Assad's army stretched but still seen strong in Syria's war"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180419222514/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918). *Reuters*. Archived from [the original](http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918) on 19 April 2018. Retrieved 23 September 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-153)** Hadid, Diaa. ["Activists Say Assad Supporters Protest in Syria"](https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163). *[ABC News](/source/ABC_News_(United_States))*. Associated Press. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141002102336/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163) from the original on 2 October 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-154)** Aziz, Jean (16 October 2014). ["Assad dismisses security chief of powerful 'Branch 40'"](https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html). Al Monitor. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141018101938/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html) from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-BurySons_155-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-BurySons_155-1) Hadid, Diaa (1 November 2014). ["Syria's Alawites Pay Heavy Price as They Bury Sons"](https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184). Associated Press. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141031172047/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184) from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-156)** ["Car bomb wounds 37 in government-held area of Syria's Homs"](https://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029). *Reuters*. 29 October 2014. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150924210033/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/29/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2014.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-AlawitesVoice_157-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-AlawitesVoice_157-1) ["Alawites find their voice against Assad"](https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html). Al Monitor. 29 October 2014. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141102024626/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html?) from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-158)** Sherlock, Ruth (7 April 2015). ["In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html). *The Daily Telegraph*. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html) from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-159)** ["Assad relative assassinated in Syria: activists"](http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx). *The Daily Star*. Agence France-Presse. 15 March 2015. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190531205717/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx) from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 15 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-160)** Alajlan, Anas (14 April 2015). ["Syria: Bashar al-Assad arrests own cousin Munther 'for kidnapping links'"](http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410). *International Business Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150417073648/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410) from the original on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-161)** Blanford, Nicholas (21 August 2015). ["Can Syria's Assad withstand latest battlefield setbacks? (+video)"](https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video). *The Christian Science Monitor*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170621060446/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video) from the original on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-162)** Flores, Reena (2 May 2015). ["Flash Points: Is Syria's Assad losing power?"](http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/). *CBS News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150504064305/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/) from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015. 'a lot of suspicion within the regime itself about who's doing what and if folks are leaving.' [...] 'These are signs that I think demonstrate a bit of weakness and instability in the regime that you haven't seen in recent months,' he said. He cites the waning support from the nation's minority Alawite community as one of these important shifts.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-163)** Harel, Amos; Cohen, Gili; Khoury, Jack (6 May 2015). ["Syrian rebel victories stretch Assad's forces"](https://www.haaretz.com/2015-05-06/ty-article/.premium/syrian-rebel-victories-stretch-assads-forces/0000017f-dba0-df9c-a17f-ffb890ce0000). *Haaretz*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153) from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 6 May 2015. There have also been increasing reports of Assad relatives, businessmen and high-ranking members of the Alawite community fleeing Damascus for the coastal city of Latakia, or other countries, after transferring large sums of money to banks in Lebanon, eastern Europe and the United Arab Emirates.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-164)** Karkouti, Mustapha (9 May 2015). ["Time to reconsider 'Life after Al Assad'"](http://www.gulfnews.com/opinion/time-to-reconsider-life-after-al-assad-1.1507735). *Gulf News*. Retrieved 10 May 2015. [The] reality on the ground can't be more clear as the population in the regime-controlled parts of Syria are preparing for life after the Al Assad dynasty. According to information received by this author, many businessmen and financiers who flourished under the regime have successfully moved huge amounts of money and capital to neighbouring Lebanon. Some of these funds are now known to have been secretly deposited in Europe.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-165)** Sherlock, Ruth; Malouf, Carol (11 May 2015). ["Bashar al-Assad's spy chief arrested over Syria coup plot"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html). *The Daily Telegraph*. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html) from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2015. Mamlouk had also used a businessman from Aleppo as an intermediary to contact Rifaat al-Assad, Bashar's uncle, who has lived abroad exile since he was accused of seeking to mount a coup in Syria in the 1980s.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-166)** Kaileh, Salameh (22 May 2015). ["The Syrian regime is slowly being liquidated"](http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2015/5/22/the-syrian-regime-is-slowly-being-liquidated). *Al-Araby Al-Jadeed*. Retrieved 28 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-167)** Oliphant, Roland; Loveluck, Louisa (4 September 2015). ["Vladimir Putin confirms Russian military involvement in Syria's civil war"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html). *[The Daily Telegraph](/source/The_Daily_Telegraph)*. [Archived](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html) from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 14 January 2016.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Borshchevskaya_2022_69–88_169-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Borshchevskaya_2022_69–88_169-1) Borshchevskaya, Anna (2022). "6: The Military Campaign". *Putin's War in Syria*. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 69–88. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7556-3463-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-3463-7).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-380)** Sayigh, Yezid (April 2013). ["The Syrian Opposition's Leadership Problem"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220916020532/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf) (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. pp. 1–31. Archived from [the original](https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf) (PDF) on 16 September 2022.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Guide_to_the_Syrian_opposition_381-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Guide_to_the_Syrian_opposition_381-1) ["Guide to the Syrian opposition"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230104105606/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15798218). *BBC News*. 17 October 2013. Archived from [the original](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15798218) on 4 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-382)** Daher, Joseph (30 October 2020). ["Syria's Labor Communist Party, a rich political history"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230104175433/https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/). *Syria Untold*. Archived from [the original](https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/) on 4 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-383)** ["Druse ex-MK: Syrian brethren not abandoned by Assad"](https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Druse-ex-MK-Syrian-brethren-not-abandoned-by-Assad-441879). *The Jerusalem Post*. 21 January 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-384)** Ayoub, Alexander (7 February 2015). ["The 'neutral' Druze sheikh angering Syria's regime"](http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/features/2015/2/7/the-neutral-druze-sheikh-angering-syrias-regime). *alaraby*. The New Arab. Retrieved 2 February 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-385)** ["Six Syria regime loyalists killed after Druze cleric assassinated"](https://www.timesofisrael.com/six-syria-regime-loyalists-killed-after-druze-cleric-assassinated/). *The Times of Israel*. AFP and AP. 5 September 2015. Retrieved 2 February 2016.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Abdulhamid_386-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Abdulhamid_386-1) Abdulhamid, Ammar (5 February 2024). ["The Syrian Conflict"](https://www.cjlpa.org/post/the-syrian-conflict-the-myth-of-containment-and-the-realities-of-accountability). *The Cambridge Journal of Law, Politics, and Art* – via cjlpa.org.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-387)** ["Protests in southern Syria as economy worsens"](https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/08/protests-southern-syria-economy-worsens). *Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East*. 17 August 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sinjab_388-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sinjab_388-1) Sinjab, Lina (24 August 2023). ["Syria: Protests over growing economic hardship spread in south"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118). *BBC News*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230825090905/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118) from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-389)** ["Syria Protests Spurred by Economic Misery Stir Memories of the 2011 Anti-Government Uprising"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230829122111/https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising). *Asharq al-Awsat*. 29 August 2023. Archived from [the original](https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising) on 29 August 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-390)** al-Mahmoud, Hussam (12 February 2024). ["Six months into As-Suwayda uprising, What is the future of street protests?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240212161419/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/). *Enab Baladi*. Archived from [the original](https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/) on 12 February 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-391)** al-Yaqoubi, Muhammad (5 December 2014). ["To defeat the Islamic State we must first remove Bashar al-Assad"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220816235657/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html). *The Washington Post*. Archived from [the original](https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html) on 16 August 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-392)** Awad, Ziad (2023). *The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks*. San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy: European University Institute. pp. 5–20. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2870/52247](https://doi.org/10.2870%2F52247). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-9466-358-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9466-358-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-393)** Carl Yonker; Christopher Solomon. ["The Banality of Authoritarian Control: Syria's Ba'ath Party Marches On"](https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2021/02/the-banality-of-authoritarian-control-syrias-baath-party-marches-on?lang=en). *[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace](/source/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221202101520/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906) from the original on 2 December 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-394)** ["Al-Assad: The Presidency That Never Ends"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230226152530/https://crd.org/al-assad/). *[Civil Rights Defenders](/source/Civil_Rights_Defenders)*. Archived from [the original](https://crd.org/al-assad/) on 26 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-395)** Awad, Ziad (2023). *The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks*. San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy: European University Institute. pp. 5–20. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2870/52247](https://doi.org/10.2870%2F52247). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-9466-358-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9466-358-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-396)** "[Loyalty to Assad runs deep on Syrian coast](https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150627151953/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast) 27 June 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)". *[The Christian Science Monitor](/source/The_Christian_Science_Monitor)*. 22 January 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-397)** ["Syria's Christians stand by Assad"](https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/). *[CBS News](/source/CBS_News)*. 6 February 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131111004508/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57372175-503543/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/) from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 13 January 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-398)** Ahmad, Rozh (23 September 2014). ["A glimpse into the world of Syria's Christian "Sutoro" fighters (video)"](http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956). Your Middle East. Retrieved 17 March 2015. The regime wants us to be puppets, deny our ethnicity and demand an Arab-only state.{{[cite web](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web)}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_deprecated_archival_service))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-399)** Rosen, Nir. ["Assad's Alawites: The guardians of the throne"](http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111010122434671982.html). Al Jazeera. Retrieved 8 January 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-400)** [Syria's Alawites: The People Behind Assad](https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170226142611/https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941) 26 February 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) *The Wall Street Journal*, 25 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-401)** Wyatt, Caroline (4 April 2016). ["Syrian Alawites distance themselves from Assad"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-35941679). *BBC News*. Retrieved 10 April 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-402)** Richmond, Walter (2013). "8: The Road to Sochi". *The Circassian Genocide*. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 170. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8135-6068-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-6068-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-SyriacMilitaryCouncil_403-0)** Bronstein, Scott; Griffin, Drew (26 September 2014). ["Syrian rebel groups unite to fight ISIS"](https://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/25/world/meast/us-syria-rebel-agreement/). *CNN*. Retrieved 1 October 2014. Under the agreement, moderate Muslim rebel groups fighting under the Supreme Military Council of Syria agreed to form an alliance with the predominantly Christian Syriac Military Council.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-404)** Cousins, Sophie (22 December 2014). ["Remaining Christians in Syria fight to save their land"](https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/12/21/syria-christian-islamic-state/18915275). *USA Today*. Retrieved 9 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-405)** Ruth Michaelson; Lorenzo Tondo (13 February 2023). ["Syrian rebel leader pleads for outside help a week on from earthquakes"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230214012142/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help). *The Guardian*. Archived from [the original](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help) on 14 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-406)** ["Syria's 2014 Presidential Election Ignored in Opposition-Held Areas"](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/03/syria-presidential-electi_n_5435706.html). *HuffPost*. 2 August 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-407)** Wladimir van Wilgenburg. ["Syria's Kurdish region to boycott presidential elections"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140607230545/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html). *Al-Monitor*. Archived from [the original](https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html) on 7 June 2014. Retrieved 8 June 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-408)** ["Supreme Constitutional Court: Number of participants in Presidential elections reached at 11.634.412 with 73.42%"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000918/http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm). Damascus. Syrian Arab News Agency. 4 June 2014. Archived from [the original](http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm) on 7 June 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-409)** Evans, Dominic (28 April 2014). ["Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230104163541/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428). *Reuters*. Archived from [the original](https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428) on 4 January 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-410)** Cheeseman, Nicholas (2019). *How to Rig an Election*. Yale University Press. pp. 140–141. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-300-24665-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-24665-0). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1089560229](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1089560229).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-411)** Norris, Pippa; Martinez i Coma, Ferran; Grömping, Max (2015). ["The Year in Elections, 2014"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210415091339/https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015). *Election Integrity Project*. Archived from [the original](https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015) on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2020. The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-412)** Jones, Mark P. (2018). Herron, Erik S; Pekkanen, Robert J; Shugart, Matthew S (eds.). ["Presidential and Legislative Elections"](https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190258658-e-23). *The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190258658.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0190258658](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190258658). Retrieved 21 May 2020. unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-413)** Makdisi, Marwan (16 July 2014). ["Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170903040841/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717). *Reuters*. Archived from [the original](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717) on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-414)** "[Syria's Assad reelected with 88.7% of vote](https://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160126192515/http://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/) 26 January 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)". [The Times of Israel](/source/The_Times_of_Israel). 4 June 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-415)** ["Interview with Former Syrian Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam"](https://web.archive.org/web/20161005013940/http://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/). *NewsWeek*. 10 October 2017. Archived from [the original](https://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/) on 5 October 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-416)** ["Daesh was nurtured by Iran, says former Syrian vice president"](https://web.archive.org/web/20161006075951/http://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east). *Arab News*. 6 October 2016. Archived from [the original](https://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east) on 6 October 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-417)** Bowen, Jeremy (2013). "Prologue: Before the Spring". *The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime*. [Simon & Schuster](/source/Simon_%26_Schuster). pp. 14, 15, 118. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1471129827](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1471129827).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Fisher_418-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Fisher_418-1) Fisher, Marc (16 June 2012). ["Syria's Assad has embraced pariah status"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120618133455/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html). *[The Washington Post](/source/The_Washington_Post)*. Archived from [the original](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html) on 18 June 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-419)** Jung, Dietrich; Seeberg, Peter; Beck, Martin (2016). "5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant". *The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics*. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 101–102. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-57628-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-57628-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-420)** Khan, Hamzah (24 November 2021). ["Focus on Pariah Leaders: Bashar al-Assad"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221208152331/http://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/). *The Diplomatic Envoy*. Archived from [the original](https://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/) on 8 December 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-421)** C. Tucker, Spencer (2016). *U.S Conflicts in The 21st Centiry (Volume 1)*. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 834, 835. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4408-3878-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3878-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NYT_Arab_League_422-0)** MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). ["Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html). *The New York Times*. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-423)** ["Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm). Xinhua News Agency. 1 December 2012. Archived from [the original](http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm) on 6 December 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-CNN_OIC_424-0)** ["Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet"](https://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1). *CNN*. 14 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-425)** ["OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html). *RFE/RL*. 16 August 2012. Archived from [the original](https://www.rferl.org/a/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html) on 8 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-426)** Jung, Dietrich; Seeberg, Peter; Beck, Martin (2016). "5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant". *The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics*. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 101–122. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-349-57628-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-57628-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-427)** ["UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221026161021/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552). *BBC News*. 15 May 2014. Archived from [the original](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552) on 26 October 2022. Retrieved 13 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-UN_428-0)** ["Syrian election will undermine political solution: U.N.'s Ban"](https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBREA3K0ST20140421?irpc=932). *Reuters*. 21 April 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-429)** ["US Condemns Syria for Recognizing Georgia's Breakaway Regions"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230323062308/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html). *[Voice of America](/source/Voice_of_America)*. 30 May 2018. Archived from [the original](https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html) on 23 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-430)** ["Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html). *rferl.org*. 29 May 2018. Archived from [the original](https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html) on 30 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-431)** ["Syria recognises Russian-backed Georgia regions"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180529144450/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. 29 May 2018. Archived from [the original](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091) on 29 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-433)** ["Ukraine's Zelenskyy cuts ties with Syria after it recognized separatist republics"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220630120322/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics). *[Al Arabiya](/source/Al_Arabiya)*. 30 June 2022. Archived from [the original](https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics) on 30 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-434)** ["Ukraine Cuts Diplomatic Ties With Syria After It Recognizes Eastern Regions As Independent"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220701050748/https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html). *rferl.org*. 30 June 2022. Archived from [the original](https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html) on 1 July 2022.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-508)** ["Dettaglio decorato: Al-Assad S.E. Bashar Decorato di Gran Cordone"](http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=311336) (in Italian). quirinale.it. 29 June 2010. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-509)** [ATTO CAMERA INTERROGAZIONE A RISPOSTA SCRITTA 4/17085](http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8) 18 October 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Banchedati.camera.it (in Italian)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-510)** ["Gaceta Oficial 39.454 lunes 28 de junio 2010"](https://www.aporrea.org/actualidad/n160308.html) [Official Gazette 39.454 Monday 28 June 2010] (in Spanish). [Aporrea](/source/Aporrea). 28 June 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-511)** ["Venezuela: Chávez's Authoritarian Legacy"](https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/05/venezuela-chavezs-authoritarian-legacy). Human Rights Watch. 5 March 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-512)** ["Diário Oficial da União – Seção"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091010/http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231) (in Portuguese). Superintenência de Seguros Privados. 13 July 2010. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1677-7042](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1677-7042). Archived from [the original](http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231) (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-513)** ["President Michel Suleiman hosts Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and Saudi King Abdullah bin Abdel Aziz"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140429080726/http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node%2F3338). Marada-news.org. 31 July 2010. Archived from [the original](http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node/3338) on 29 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-514)** ["Iran Awards Syrian Leader Highest Medal of Honor"](https://www.voanews.com/a/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html). [Voice of America](/source/Voice_of_America). 1 October 2010. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140429052040/http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html) from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-515)** ["Syrian President Awarded Iran's Medal of Honor"](http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/insideisrael/2010/October/Syrian-President-Awarded-Irans-Medal-of-Honor/). [CBN News](/source/CBN_News). 4 October 2010. Retrieved 14 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-516)** ["Syrian president Bashar al-Assad to visit South Ossetia"](https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/). OC Media. 31 July 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180804000533/https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/) from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2022.

### General and cited references

- Blanford, Nicholas (2006). [*Killing Mr Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and Its Impact on the Middle East*](https://archive.org/details/killingmrlebanon00blan). I.B. Tauris. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84511-202-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-202-8).

- Bronner, Stephen Eric (2007). *Peace Out of Reach: Middle Eastern Travels and the Search for Reconciliation*. [University Press of Kentucky](/source/University_Press_of_Kentucky). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8131-2446-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2446-9).

- Hashemi, Nader; Postel, Danny, eds. (2013). *The Syria Dilemma*. [MIT Press](/source/MIT_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-262-02683-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02683-3).

- Heydemann, Steven; Leenders, Reinoud (2013). *Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran*. [Stanford University Press](/source/Stanford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8047-9333-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-9333-9).

- Khamis, Sahar; Gold, Paul B.; Vaughn, Katherine (2013). "Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Jonathan; Castronovo, Russ (eds.). *The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-976441-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9).

- Leverett, Flynt L. (2005). [*Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial By Fire*](https://archive.org/details/inheritingsyria00flyn). [Brookings Institution](/source/Brookings_Institution). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8157-5204-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-5204-2).

- Lesch, David W. (2011). *Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad*. [Yale University Press](/source/Yale_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-300-18651-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-18651-2).

- Mammone, Andrea; Godin, Emmanuel; Jenkins, Brian, eds. (2012). *Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe: From Local to Transnational*. New York: Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-50265-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-50265-8).

- Ma'oz, Moshe; Ginat, Joseph; Winckler, Onn (1999). *Modern Syria: From Ottoman Rule to Pivotal Role in the Middle East*. [Sussex Academic Press](/source/Sussex_Academic_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-898723-83-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-898723-83-4).

- Mikaberidze, Alexander, ed. (2013). *Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia*. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59884-925-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-925-7).

- Minahan, James (2002). *Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A–C*. [Greenwood Press](/source/Greenwood_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-32109-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32109-2).

- Moosa, Matti (1987). *Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects*. [Syracuse University Press](/source/Syracuse_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8156-2411-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2411-0).

- Pierret, Thomas (2013). *Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-60990-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60990-7).

- Sadiki, Larbi (2014). *Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-52391-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2).

- Seale, Patrick; McConville, Maureen (1992). [*Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East*](https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal). [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-06976-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06976-3).

- Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla (2008). *The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-85109-841-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-841-5).

- Wieland, Carsten (2021). "De-Neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". *Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes*. London: I. B. Tauris. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7556-4138-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4138-3).

- Zisser, Eyal (2007). *Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Asad And the First Years in Power*. I.B. Tauris. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84511-153-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-153-3).

## Further reading

- Abboud, Samer (2015). *Syria (Hot Spots in Global Politics)*. Polity. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7456-9797-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-9797-0).

- Belhadj, Souhaïl (2013). *La Syrie de Bashar Al-Asad : Anatomie d'un régime autoritaire* [*Bashar's Syria: Anatomy of an Authoritarian Regime*] (in French). Belin. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2-7011-6467-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7011-6467-0).

- Hinnebusch, Raymond (2002). *Syria: Revolution From Above*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-28568-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28568-1).

- Perthes, Volker (2005). *Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-856750-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-856750-9).

- Tabler, Andrew (2011). [*In the Lion's Den: An Eyewitness Account of Washington's Battle with Syria*](https://archive.org/details/inlionsdeneyewit00tabl). Zephyr Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-56976-843-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56976-843-3).

**Reports**

- Yossi Baidatz (August 2001). [Bashar's First Year: From Ophthalmology to a National Vision](https://web.archive.org/web/20161225095843/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Washington Institute for Near East Policy. [ASIN](/source/ASIN_(identifier)) [B0006RVLNM](https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0006RVLNM). Archived from [the original](http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf) (PDF) on 25 December 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2015.

- Annette Büchs (March 2009). [The Resilience of Authoritarian Rule in Syria under Hafez and Bashar Al-Asad](https://web.archive.org/web/20171009210705/https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf) (PDF) (Report). German Institute of Global and Area Studies. 97. Archived from [the original](http://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf) (PDF) on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2015.

**Articles**

- Abdelnour, Ziad K. (12 April 2003). ["Syria's Proxy Forces in Iraq"](http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0304_s2.htm). [Al-Hayat](/source/Al-Hayat).

- ["Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2579331.stm). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. 10 March 2005.

- Harris, William (Summer 2005). ["Bashar al-Assad's Lebanon Gamble"](http://www.meforum.org/article/730). *[Middle East Quarterly](/source/Middle_East_Quarterly)*.

- Pan, Esther (10 March 2006). ["Syria's Leaders"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html). [Council on Foreign Relations](/source/Council_on_Foreign_Relations). Archived from [the original](http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html) on 19 July 2006.

- ["Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703833204576114712441122894). *[The Wall Street Journal](/source/The_Wall_Street_Journal)*. 31 January 2011.

- ["Profile: Bashar al-Assad"](http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2007/07/200852518514154964.html). [Al Jazeera](/source/Al_Jazeera_Arabic). 25 March 2011.

- [Rose, Charlie](/source/Charlie_Rose) (9 September 2013). ["Interview with Bashar Hafez al-Assad"](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg). [PBS](/source/PBS). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161118094013/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg) from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 5 November 2016.

## External links

**Bashar al-Assad**  at Wikipedia's [sister projects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects)

- [Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:_Bashar_al-Assad) from Commons
- [Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad) from Wikiquote
- [Data](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44329) from Wikidata

- [Official website](http://sana.sy/en/) - [Biography](https://web.archive.org/web/20110811101337/http://www.sana.sy/eng/article/123.htm) - [Decrees](https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042116/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=13&newlang=eng) - [Speeches](https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042110/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=11&newlang=eng) - [Interviews](https://web.archive.org/web/20110529041500/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=12&newlang=eng) - [Press releases](https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042829/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=10&newlang=eng)

- [Appearances](https://www.c-span.org/person/?93150) on [C-SPAN](/source/C-SPAN)

- [Bashar al-Assad](https://www.theguardian.com/world/bashar-al-assad) collected news and commentary at *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*

- [Bashar al-Assad](https://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/a/bashar_al_assad/index.html) collected news and commentary at *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*

- [Bashar al-Assad](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1519747/) at [IMDb](/source/IMDb_(identifier))

Political offices Preceded by Abdul Halim Khaddam Acting President of Syria 2000–2024 Succeeded by Ahmed al-Sharaa as de facto leader Party political offices Preceded by Hafez al-Assad Secretary of the Syrian Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party 2000–2024 Succeeded by Ibrahim al-Hadid Acting

v t e Presidents of Syria (list) French Mandate (1922–1932) French mandate Subhi Bey Barakat (1922–1925) François Pierre-Alype (1926) Ahmad Nami (1926–1928) Taj al-Din al-Hasani (1928–1931) Léon Solomiac (1931–1932) First Syrian Republic (1932–1950) First Syrian Republic Muhammad Ali Bey al-Abid (1932–1936) Hashim al-Atassi (1936–1939) Bahij al-Khatib (1939–1941) Khalid al-Azm (1941) Taj al-Din al-Hasani (1941–1943) Jamil al-Ulshi (1943) Ata Bey al-Ayyubi (1943) Shukri al-Quwatli (1943–1949) Husni al-Za'im (1949–1950) Sami al-Hinnawi (1949) Hashim al-Atassi (1949–1951) Second Syrian Republic (1950–1958) Second Syrian Republic Adib Shishakli (1951) Fawzi Selu (1951–1953) Adib Shishakli (1953–1954) Maamun al-Kuzbari (1954) Hashim al-Atassi (1954–1955) Shukri al-Quwatli (1955–1958) United Arab Republic (1958–1961) United Arab Republic Gamal Abdel Nasser (1958–1961) Second Syrian Republic (1961–1963) Second Syrian Republic Nazim al-Qudsi (1961–1963) Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024) Ba'athist Syria Lu'ay al-Atassi (1963) Amin al-Hafiz (1963–1966) Nureddin al-Atassi (1966–1970) Ahmad al-Khatib (1970–1971) Hafez al-Assad (1971–2000) Abdul Halim Khaddam (2000) Bashar al-Assad (2000–2024) Syrian Arab Republic (Transitional period) (2024–present) Transitional period post vacant, 2024–25 Ahmed al-Sharaa (2025–present) Elections 1932 1936 1943 1948 1949 (Jun) 1949 (Dec) 1953 1955 1958 1961 1971 1978 1985 1991 1999 2000 2007 2014 2021 Acting presidents are denoted by italics.

v t e Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party Iraqi-dominated faction Syrian-dominated faction History Predecessors Arab Ba'ath Arab Ba'ath Movement Arab Socialist Movement Syrian Committee to Help Iraq Founders Michel Aflaq Salah al-Din al-Bitar Pre-split 1954 Syrian coup d'état 14 July Revolution 1959 Mosul uprising Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim 1961 Syrian coup d'état Ramadan Revolution 1963 Syrian coup d'état Ba'athist Syria Politics National Council for the Revolutionary Command Ar-Rashid revolt November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état 1964 Hama riot 1966 Syrian coup d'état Post-split 17 July Revolution Ba'athist Iraq Revolutionary Command Council Members Arab Belt Corrective Revolution Corrective Movement Union of Arab Republics Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq 1979 Ba'ath Party Purge Assadist–Saddamist conflict 1984 Syrian coup attempt 8th Regional Congress of the Syrian Ba'ath Party Faith Campaign Iraqi conflict De-Ba'athification in Iraq Ba'ath Party archives Syrian civil war Fall of the Assad regime Leadership General Secretaries Pre-split Michel Aflaq Munif Razzaz Iraqi-dominated faction Michel Aflaq Saddam Hussein Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri Salah Al-Mukhtar* Syrian-dominated faction Nureddin al-Atassi Hafez al-Assad Abdullah al-Ahmar (de facto) Bashar al-Assad Regional Secretaries Iraq Fuad al-Rikabi Talib El-Shibib Ali Salih al-Sa'di Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Saddam Hussein Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed* Jordan Abdullah Rimawi Munif Razzaz Akram al-Homsi* Lebanon Assem Qanso Abd al-Majid al-Rafei Palestine Isam al-Qadi Rakad Salem* Syria Hammud al-Shufi Shibli al-Aysami Amin al-Hafiz Nureddin al-Atassi Hafez al-Assad Bashar al-Assad Members of the National Command Hadiya Khalaf Abbas Michel Aflaq Abdullah al-Ahmar Zaki al-Arsuzi Bashar al-Assad Hafez al-Assad Nureddin al-Atassi Mansur al-Atrash Shibli al-Aysami Ali Abdullah Ayyoub Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Salah al-Din al-Bitar Elias Farah Hakem Al-Fayez Wahib al-Ghanim Amin al-Hafiz Akram al-Hourani Salah Jadid Zuheir Mohsen Munif Razzaz Fuad al-Rikabi Abdullah Rimawi Ali Salih al-Sa'di Talib El-Shibib Khaled Yashruti Members of the Regional Commands Iraq Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur Ghanim Abdul-Jalil Saad Abdul-Majid Jamal Mustafa Abdullah Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed Salah Omar al-Ali Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash Salih Mahdi Ammash Hussein Al-Awadi Tariq Aziz Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri Saadoun Ghaidan Fadil Mahmud Gharib Mizban Khadr al-Hadi Sa'dun Hammadi Qusay Hussein Saddam Hussein Latif Nassif Jassim Rashid Taan Kazim Adnan Khayr Allah Ali Hassan al-Majid Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim Aziz Saleh Al-Numan Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi Taha Yassin Ramadan Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi Rashid al-Rifai Fuad al-Rikabi Ali Salih al-Sa'di Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun Abdul Khaliq al-Samarra'i Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i Talib El-Shibib Nayef Shindakh Thamer Khamis Sirhan Hardan al-Tikriti Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi Tahir Yahya Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi Ibrahim Hesqel Lebanon Musa Shuaib Syria Hadiya Khalaf Abbas Abdullah al-Ahmar Hussein Arnous Bashar al-Assad Hafez al-Assad Maher al-Assad Rifaat al-Assad Nureddin al-Atassi Shibli al-Aysami Ali Abdullah Ayyoub Mahmoud al-Ayyubi Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan Muhsen Bilal Mahdi Dakhlallah Ahmad Diyab Ali Duba Fahd Jassem al-Freij Marwan Habash Ibrahim al-Hadid Amin al-Hafiz Muhammad Ali al-Halabi Wael Nader al-Halqi Adnan Badr Hassan Salim Hatum Hilal Hilal Mohammad al-Hussein Hisham Ikhtiyar Salah Jadid Abdul-Karim al-Jundi Sami al-Jundi Abdul Rauf al-Kasm Abdul Halim Khaddam Imad Khamis Ahmad al-Khatib Abdul Rahman Khleifawi Mohammad Jihad al-Laham Ibrahim Makhous Zuhair Masharqa Muhammad Mustafa Mero Muhammad Naji al-Otari Abdul Qadir Qaddura Hammouda Sabbagh Farouk al-Sharaa Hikmat al-Shihabi Hammud al-Shufi Mustafa Tlass Hasan Turkmani Muhammad Umran Salim Yasin Mahmoud Al-Zoubi Yusuf Zuayyin Yemen Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab Heads of state Iraq Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Saddam Hussein Syria Amin al-Hafiz Nureddin al-Atassi Ahmad al-Khatib Hafez al-Assad Presidency Abdul Halim Khaddam (interim) Bashar al-Assad Presidency Heads of government Iraq Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Saddam Hussein Sa'dun Hammadi Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai Syria Salah al-Din al-Bitar Amin al-Hafiz Yusuf Zuayyin Nureddin al-Atassi Hafez al-Assad Abdul Rahman Khleifawi Mahmoud al-Ayyubi Muhammad Ali al-Halabi Abdul Rauf al-Kasm Mahmoud Al-Zoubi Muhammad Mustafa Mero Muhammad Naji al-Otari Adel Safar Riyad Farid Hijab Wael Nader al-Halqi Imad Khamis Hussein Arnous Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali * = incumbent Organization Regional branches Iraqi-dominated faction Algeria Bahrain Egypt Iraq Regional Command Jordan Lebanon Libya Mauritania Palestine Sudan Tunisia Yemen Syrian-dominated faction Jordan Lebanon Mauritania Palestine Yemen Sudan Syria Central Command History National Security Bureau Yemen Committees Control and Inspection Committee Military Committee Newspapers Al-Ba'ath Sawt al-Jamahir Al-Thawra Al-Souria Popular fronts National Progressive Front (Iraq) National Progressive Front (Syria) Wings Paramilitary Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order Ba'ath Brigades Fedayeen Saddam General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries Jaysh Muhammad al-Fatih National Defense Battalions National Defence Forces Popular Army Popular Resistance of the Eastern Region Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation Syrian Popular Resistance Others General Federation of Trade Unions General Union of Peasants National Union of Syrian Students Revolutionary Youth Union Associated organizations Armed groups Al-Abud Network Free Iraqi Army Rejectionists Snake Party Breakaway groups Arab Revolutionary Workers Party Arab Socialist Movement Damascus branch Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party Arabic Toilers' Movement Al-Awda Arab Democratic Socialist Ba'ath Party Palestinian Arab Front Socialist Lebanon Sudanese Ba'ath Party Political alliances Current Alliance of Palestinian Forces Forces of Freedom and Change March 8 Alliance National Consensus Forces National Democratic Alliance Palestine Liberation Organization Palestinian National and Islamic Forces Former Ahd Bloc Front of Patriotic and National Parties Lebanese National Movement Lebanese National Resistance Front National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria National Union Front Palestinian National Alliance Palestinian National Salvation Front Rejectionist Front Political parties Arab Socialist Union Party Arab Democratic Union Party Democratic Socialist Unionist Party Kurdistan Revolutionary Party Libyan National Movement National Covenant Party Popular Unity Party Sawab Social Democratic Unionists Socialist Unionist Party Syrian Communist Party Bakdash Unified Syrian Social Nationalist Party Intifada Wing in Lebanon Miscellaneous Ideology Anti-imperialism Anti-Zionism Arab nationalism Arab socialism Assadism Ba'athism Left-wing populism Neo-Ba'athism Pan-Arabism Progressivism Republicanism Revolutionary socialism Romantic nationalism Saddamism Secularism Socialism Ta'addudiyya Vanguardism Literature The Battle for One Destiny On the Way of Resurrection Symbolism Arḍulfurātayni Pan-Arab colors Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya

v t e Arab Spring "Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam" Events by country Algeria Bahrain Djibouti Egypt Iraq Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libya Mauritania Morocco Oman Palestine Saudi Arabia Sudan Syria Tunisia Western Sahara Yemen Groups Bahrain: Al Wefaq February 14 Youth Coalition Egypt: April 6 Youth Movement Kefaya Muslim Brotherhood (FJP) National Association for Change National Democratic Party National Salvation Front Revolutionary Socialists Shayfeencom Ultras Ahlawy Libya: National Liberation Army National Transitional Council Mauritania: February 25th Movement Saudi Arabia: Women to drive movement CDHRAP Society for Development and Change Syria: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party Regional Command National Command National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces Free Syrian Army Syrian Revolution General Commission Syrian National Council National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change Hizb ut-Tahrir Foreign fighters Tunisia: Constitutional Democratic Rally Ennahda Popular Front Tunisian General Labour Union Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet Yemen: Alliance of Yemeni Tribes Al-Islah Hashid Houthis General People's Congress Hiraak Notable people Women in the Arab Spring Algeria: Abdelaziz Bouteflika Ahmed Ouyahia Bahrain: Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa Hasan Mushaima Ali Salman Ali Jawad al-Sheikh Egypt: Hosni Mubarak Omar Suleiman Mohamed Hussein Tantawy Ahmed Nazif Ahmed Shafik Wael Ghonim Kamal Ganzouri Khaled Mohamed Saeed Essam Sharaf Mohamed ElBaradei Mohamed Morsi Hesham Qandil Bassem Youssef Jordan: Abdullah II Marouf al-Bakhit Samir Rifai Libya: Muammar Gaddafi Saif al-Islam Gaddafi Mustafa Abdul-Jelil Mahmud Gebril Mohammed Nabbous Mauritania: Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz Moulaye Ould Mohamed Laghdaf Morocco: Mohammed VI Abbas El Fassi Saudi Arabia: Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Khaled al-Johani Manal al-Sharif Nimr al-Nimr Sudan: Omar al-Bashir Hassan al-Turabi Syria: Bashar al-Assad Muhammad Naji al-Otari Adel Safar Riyad Farid Hijab Wael Nader al-Halqi Maher al-Assad Burhan Ghalioun Moaz al-Khatib Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb Tunisia: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali Mohamed Ghannouchi Moncef Marzouki Rashid al-Ghannushi Fouad Mebazaa Beji Caid Essebsi Hamadi Jebali Mohamed Bouazizi Chokri Belaid United Arab Emirates: UAE Five Yemen: Ali Abdullah Saleh Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi Tawakkol Karman Abdul Majeed al-Zindani Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar Sadiq al-Ahmar Abdul-Malik al-Houthi Mohammed Ali al-Houthi Role of the Internet Internet censorship Online social media Impact Occupy movement Albania Armenia Azerbaijan 2011 2013 Belarus Burkina Faso China Greece India 2011 2012 Iran Iraqi Kurdistan Israel Maldives Mali Mexico 2011 2012 Portugal Russia Spain Turkey 2011–2012 2013 United Kingdom United States Libyan civil war (2011–present) Egyptian crisis (2011–2014) UN Resolutions 65/265 1970 1973 2009 2014 2016 International reactions Bahrain Egypt Libya civil war military intervention death of Muammar Gaddafi Syria Tunisia Yemen Domestic reactions Egypt Libya domestic responses Syria Timelines by country Bahrain Egypt Libya Saudi Arabia Syria Yemen Yemen Libya Egypt Category

v t e Syrian civil war Overviews Main overviews Syrian civil war Timeline Background and causes Syrian government reactions Belligerents Inter-rebel conflict Spillover Cities and towns Sectarianism and minorities Syrian Desert campaign (2017–2024) 2024 Syrian opposition offensives Fall of the Assad regime Effects and ongoing concerns Casualties of the Syrian civil war Refugees of the Syrian civil war Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war Phases and processes Syrian revolution Early insurgency phase 2012–2013 escalation Ceasefires Syrian peace process World reaction International reactions to the Syrian civil war Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war Reactions to the fall of the Assad regime Specific groups and countries Russian involvement Russian intervention Turkish involvement Turkish occupation of northern Syria Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria US intervention in the Syrian civil war 2023 attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria Kurdish Area in Syria Syrian Democratic Forces Rojava conflict U.S. task force Agreements and dialogues Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria Relations between the Syrian government and North-East Syria Transitional phase Syrian caretaker government Syrian transitional government Timeline Background 1963 coup 1963 failed coup 1966 coup Corrective Revolution Islamist uprising Latakia protests Damascus Spring Qamishli riots Syrian occupation of Lebanon Damascus Declaration Human rights in Syria 2010s in Syria political history Arab Spring 2011 Jan–Apr May–Aug Sep–Dec Syrian revolution Killing of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb Siege of Daraa Siege of Baniyas May Talkalakh siege Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh June Jisr ash-Shughur operation Siege of Hama Siege of Homs Siege of Latakia Deir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014) Rif Dimashq clashes (Nov 2011-Mar 2012) Battle of Zabadani Battle of Douma Daraa Governorate clashes Battle of Rastan Idlib Governorate clashes December Jabal al-Zawiya massacres 2012 Jan–Apr May–Aug Sep–Dec January al-Midan bombing Battle of Rastan First Battle of Idlib Battle of al-Qusayr Idlib Governorate operation (Apr) Battle of Taftanaz May Battle of Rastan Houla massacre Battle of al-Haffah Al-Qubeir massacre Battle of Tremseh Battle of Damascus 18 July 2012 Damascus bombing Battle of Aleppo Battle of Anadan Siege of Base 46 Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2014) Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug-Oct) Darayya massacre Battle of Khirbet Al-Joz Battle of Maarrat al-Numan First siege of Wadi Deif Battle of Harem Rif Dimashq offensive (Nov 2012–Feb 2013) Battle of Darayya Aqrab massacre Hama offensive Halfaya massacre Battle of Darayya Quneitra Governorate clashes Talbiseh bakery massacre 2013 Jan–Apr May–Dec Battle of Safira Battle of Shadadeh Damascus offensive Raqqa campaign (2012–2013) Battle of Raqqa (Mar) Daraa offensive Rif Dimashq offensive (Mar–Aug) Battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl Ghouta chemical attack Al-Qusayr offensive Battle of al-Qusayr Bayda and Baniyas massacres Hama offensive Hatla massacre Khan al-Assal chemical attack Khan al-Assal massacre Adra massacre Battle of Ras al-Ayn Battle of Tell Abyad Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep–Nov) Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec) Battle of al-Yaarubiyah Battle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (Dec–Jan) 2014 Jan–Jul Aug–Dec First Inter-rebel conflict Battle of Markada Deir ez-Zor offensive Battle of Morek Daraa offensive (Feb–May) Maan massacre Al-Otaiba ambush Idlib offensive Battle of Hosn Latakia Offensive Battle of Al-Malihah Kafr Zita chemical attack Second siege of Wadi Deif Qalamoun offensive (Jun–Aug) Battle of Arsal First Battle of the Shaer gas field Eastern Syria offensive Battle of Tabqa Airbase Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb–Jul) Hama Offensive Quneitra offensive Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug–Nov) Siege of Kobanî Homs school bombing Daraa offensive (Oct) Al-Safira offensive Idlib Raid Second Inter-Rebel Conflict Second Battle of the Shaer gas field Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin Deir ez-Zor offensive (Dec) 2015 Jan–Jul Aug–Dec Air Force An-26 crash Daraa Offensive (Jan) Southern Syria Offensive Eastern Hasakah offensive Battle of Sarrin (Mar–Apr) Battle of Sarrin (Jun–Jul) Battle of Bosra Idlib Offensive Second Battle of Idlib Battle of Nasib Border Crossing Battle of Yarmouk Camp Western Hasakah offensive Palmyra offensive (May) Qamishli bombings Tell Abyad offensive Kobanî massacre Quneitra offensive (Jun) Palmyra offensive (Jul–Aug) Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep) Northwestern Syria offensive (Oct–Nov) Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec) Al-Hawl offensive Homs offensive (Nov-Dec) East Aleppo offensive (2015–2016) 2015–2016 Latakia offensive Tishrin Dam offensive Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown 2016 Jan–Apr May–Aug Sep–Dec Second Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan) January Sayyidah Zaynab bombings Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb) Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Feb–Mar) Al-Shaddadi offensive February Homs bombings February Sayyidah Zaynab bombings Khanasir offensive Battle of Tel Abyad Battle of Maarrat al-Numan Battle of Qamishli (Apr) Northern Aleppo offensive (Mar–Jun) Palmyra offensive (Mar) East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May) Rif Dimashq offensive (Apr–May) Northern Raqqa offensive (May) May Jableh & Tartous bombings Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Jun) Rif Dimashq offensive (Jun–Oct) Manbij offensive Tokhar massacre Southern Aleppo campaign Battle of al-Rai (Aug) Operation Euphrates Shield Aleppo summer campaign Western al-Bab offensive (Sep) 5 September bombings September Deir ez-Zor air raid September Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack Aleppo offensive (Sep–Oct) Dabiq offensive Western al-Bab offensive (Oct–Nov) Khan al-Shih offensive (Oct–Nov) Raqqa campaign Battle of al-Bab Aleppo offensive (Nov-Dec) Palmyra offensive (Dec) 2017 Jan–Apr May–Aug Sep–Dec Wadi Barada offensive (2016–2017) January Azaz bombing Desert campaign (Dec 16–Apr 17) Idlib clashes (Jan–Mar) Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan–Feb) Daraa offensive (Feb–Jun) Southwestern Daraa offensive (Feb) Qaboun offensive Palmyra offensive East Aleppo offensive (Jan–Apr) March Damascus bombings Al-Jinah airstrike Hama offensive (Mar–Apr) Battle of Tabqa Khan Shaykhun chemical attack Shayrat missile strike Aleppo bombing April Turkish airstrikes East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May) Desert campaign (May–Jul) Maskanah Plains offensive East Hama offensive Battle of Raqqa Daraa offensive (Jun) Southern Raqqa offensive (Jun) Jobar offensive (Jun–Aug) Quneitra offensive (Jun) Idlib clashes (Jul) Central campaign Qalamoun (Jul–Aug) Deir ez-Zor offensive (Sep 17–Mar 18) Hama offensive (Sep) Northwestern campaign (Oct 17–Feb 18) Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate Battle of Harasta Eastern campaign (Sep–Dec) Euphrates Crossing offensive Mayadin offensive Battle of Deir ez-Zor (Sep–Nov) Abu Kamal offensive Beit Jinn offensive 2018 Jan–Apr May–Aug Sep–Dec Operation Olive Branch Battle of Khasham Rif Dimashq offensive (Feb–Apr) Southern Damascus offensive (Jan–Feb) Syrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict Southern Damascus offensive (Mar) Douma chemical attack Missile strikes (Apr) Northern Homs offensive (Apr–May) Eastern Qalamoun offensive (Apr) Southern Damascus offensive (Apr–May) Deir ez-Zor clashes (Apr) Deir ez-Zor offensive (May–Jun) Suwayda offensive (Jun) Southern offensive Suwayda attacks Suwayda (Aug-Nov) Qamishli clashes (Sep) Missile strikes (Sep) Northern border clashes 2019 Jan–Apr May–Aug Sep–Dec Idlib inter-rebel conflict Manbij bombing Battle of Baghuz Fawqani ISIL insurgency in Deir-ez-Zor Dêrik prison escape attempt Tell Rifaat clashes Northwestern offensive (Apr–Aug) June bombings Hass refugee camp bombing Missile strikes (Aug) Turkish offensive into northeast Barisha raid November bombings Israeli missile strikes (Nov) Qah missile strike Northwestern offensive (Dec 19–Mar 20) US airstrikes 2020 Jan–Dec COVID-19 pandemic Afrin bombing Idlib Governorate clashes Kafr-Takharim airstrike Ayn Issa clashes Deir ez-Zor ambush 2021 Jan–Dec Siege of Qamishli and Hasakah Missile strikes (Jan) US airstrike (Feb) Battle of Qamishli (Apr) US airstrike (Jun) Daraa clashes Tahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict 2022 Jan–Dec Battle of Hasakah Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes Jabal al-Bishrī clashes Jarqli airstrikes Northern Aleppo clashes (Oct) Operation Claw-Sword Northwest clashes (Dec) 2023 Jan–Dec Al-Sukhnah attack Damascus airstrike Hama attack Northern border clashes 2024 Jan–Oct Nov–present Opposition offensives Deir ez-Zor offensive Northwestern Syria offensive Battle of Aleppo Hama offensive Southern offensive Operation Dawn of Freedom Manbij offensive Ayn Issa attack Kobani clashes Homs offensive Palmyra offensive Fall of Damascus Fall of the Assad regime Western Syria clashes Hezbollah-Syria clashes Turkish offensive Israeli invasion 2025 Nov 2024 –present Druze insurgency Jaramana clashes Southern clashes (April–May) Massacres of Syrian Druze Southern clashes (July–present) Massacres of Syrian Alawites Daraa clashes Mar Elias Church attack Aleppo clashes Homs mosque bombing 2026 Nov 2024 –present Northeastern Syria offensive Spillover Israel and Golan Heights: March 2017 incident February 2018 incident May 2018 Israel–Iran incidents Iraq: Akashat ambush Operation al-Shabah April 2014 Iraqi border airstrike Jordanian border incidents April 2014 Jordanian border airstrike Lebanon: Lebanese border clashes Battle of Sidon Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut North Lebanon clashes Qalamoun (Jul–Aug 2017) Turkey: December 2011 Turkish border clash 2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown 2012 Turkish border clashes 2013 Reyhanlı car bombings January 2014 Turkish attack in Syria Assassination of Andrei Karlov Russian Air Force Al-Bab incident 2020 Balyun airstrikes Operation Spring Shield Elsewhere: Deir ez-Zor missile strike (Iran) Belligerents Ba'athist regime Politics of Ba'athist Syria Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region Ba'ath Brigades Syrian Social Nationalist Party Arab Socialist Movement Syrian Communist Party Syrian Communist Party (Unified) Military and militias Lions of Hussein Guardians of the Dawn Arab Nationalist Guard Jaysh al-Muwahhidin Sootoro Ba'ath Brigades National Defence Forces Popular Committees Golan Regiment Syrian Arab Armed Forces Eagles of the Whirlwind The Islamic Resistance Front in Syria Military Council for the Liberation of Syria Syrian Popular Resistance Syrian Resistance Popular Resistance of the Eastern Region PFLP-GC Jihad Jibril Brigades Galilee Forces Free Palestine Movement Palestinian People's Party Liwa Fatemiyoun As-Sa'iqa al-Quds Brigade Palestine Liberation Army Foreign support Hezbollah involvement Iranian involvement Liwa Fatemiyoun Russian involvement medical facility targeting military intervention Wagner Group Iraqi involvement Popular Mobilization Forces Opposition Interim government National Coalition Local Coordination Committees Syrian National Council Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change Syrian Revolution General Commission Syrian Support Group Adopt a Revolution Syrian Patriotic Group Opposition militias Syrian National Army Free Syrian Army National Front for Liberation Army of Glory Authenticity and Development Front Army of Free Tribes Syrian Free Army Muslim Brotherhood in Syria Grey Wolves Syrian Council of Tribes and Clans Foreign support US intervention Jordanian intervention Qatar Saudi Arabia Turkey Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria DFNS Government Democratic Union Party Kurdish National Council Smaller political parties SDF militias People's Protection Units Women's Protection Units Anti-Terror Units Al-Sanadid Forces Army of Revolutionaries SDF military councils Syriac Military Council Liwa Thuwar al-Raqqa Northern Democratic Brigade Support Patriotic Union of Kurdistan Kurdistan Workers' Party International Freedom Battalion Sinjar Resistance Units Êzîdxan Women's Units Islamists Islamic State Military activity of ISIL Dokumacılar Al-Barakah Khalid ibn al-Walid Army Yarmouk Martyrs Brigade Islamic Muthanna Movement Jaysh al-Jihad Jund al-Aqsa Group of the One and Only Liwa Dawud Liwa Aqab al-Islami Katibah Nusantara Katiba al-Bittar al-Libi Al-Khansaa Brigade Saraya Ansar al-Sunnah al-Qaeda and allies Al-Nusra Front (Jabhat Fatah al-Sham (Khorasan group, Suqour al-Ezz) Jaysh Muhammad in Bilad al-Sham Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria Caucasus Emirate Ajnad al-Kavkaz Junud al-Makhdi Rouse the Believers Operations Room (Ansar al-Tawhid (Firqat al-Ghuraba), Hurras al-Din, Ansar al-Din Front (Harakat Sham al-Islam), Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan) Jaish al-Haramoun Jaysh al-Sunna Liwa al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar (Green Battalion) Mujahideen Shura Council Malhama Tactical Katibat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad Katibat Jabal al-Islam Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham Ghuraba al-Sham Taliban (Pakistani Taliban, Imam Bukhari Jamaat) Fatah al-Islam Muhajirin wa-Ansar Alliance (Liwaa al-Umma) People Pro-Government Assad family Bashar Maher Rifaat Rami Makhlouf Hafez Makhlouf Fahd Jassem al-Freij Suheil al-Hassan Ali Habib Mahmud Dawoud Rajiha Bouthaina Shaaban Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid (Accused) Dissidents Ammar Abdulhamid Ali al-Abdallah Adnan al-Aroor Riad al-Asaad Hadi al-Bahra Anwar al-Bunni Haitham al-Maleh Moaz al-Khatib Kamal al-Labwani Hamza al-Khateeb Tal al-Mallohi Fida al-Sayed Riad al-Turk Khaled Khoja Ammar al-Qurabi Suheir Atassi Ali Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni Aref Dalila Farid Ghadry Burhan Ghalioun Razan Ghazzawi Ghassan Hitto Salim Idris Randa Kassis Abdul Halim Khaddam Michel Kilo Bassma Kodmani Ali Mahmoud Othman Yassin al-Haj Saleh Ahmed al-Sharaa Abdulbaset Sieda Riad Seif Fadwa Souleimane Yaser Tabbara Razan Zaitouneh Rami Jarrah Abdurrahman Mustafa Fadlallah al-Haji DAANES Mazloum Abdi Ferhad Şamî Salih Muslim Related Elections 2011 local elections 2012 parliamentary election 2014 presidential election 2015 Northern local elections 2016 parliamentary election 2017 Northern local elections 2017 Northern regional elections 2018 local elections 2020 parliamentary election 2021 presidential election Issues Casualties Cities and towns Chemical weapons Damaged heritage sites Foreign involvement Human rights violations Humanitarian aid International demonstrations and protests International reactions Massacres Mass graves Refugees Sectarianism and minorities Status of the Golan Heights Spillover in Lebanon Syrian government reactions Peace process Arab League monitors Friends of Syria Group Kofi Annan peace plan UN supervision mission Lakhdar Brahimi peace plan U.S.–Russia peace proposals 39th G8 summit UN Security Council Resolution 2118 Geneva II conference 2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement Vienna talks 2016 Geneva talks Idlib demilitarization (2018–present) First Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal Second Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal Syrian Negotiation Commission Syrian Constitutional Committee Investigations/legal cases Investigations International Commission Chemical weapons War crimes cases Germany Canada + Netherlands vs Syria Related topics Exclusive mandate Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference Syria Files Syrian detainee report Syrian media coverage 2015 European migrant crisis Syrian civil war in popular culture Category

v t e Arab nationalism Ideology Arab socialism Arab-Islamic nationalism Ba'athism Assadism Neo-Ba'athism Saddamism Nasserism Pan-Arabism Third International Theory History Arab Revolt Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine Iraqi Revolt Arab separatism in Khuzestan 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Great Syrian Revolt 1941 Iraqi coup d'état Anglo-Iraqi War Arab–Israeli conflict Suez Crisis Six-Day War War of Attrition Yom Kippur War Israeli–Palestinian conflict 1952 Egyptian revolution Iraqi Intifada Algerian War 14 July Revolution 1959 Mosul uprising 1961 Syrian coup d'état Arab Cold War North Yemen civil war Ramadan Revolution 1963 Syrian coup d'état Dhofar rebellion November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état Aden Emergency 1966 Syrian coup d'état 17 July Revolution 1969 Sudanese coup d'état 1969 Libyan revolution Black September Lebanese Civil War Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy war Yemeni unification Concepts Arab identity Arab Union Arab world Arabization Personalities Butrus al-Bustani Michel Aflaq Jassem Alwan Abdel Hakim Amer Yasser Arafat Abdul Rahman Arif Abdul Salam Arif Zaki al-Arsuzi Bashar al-Assad Hafez al-Assad Jamal al-Atassi Nureddin al-Atassi Mansur al-Atrash Sultan al-Atrash Tariq Aziz Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Mohamed Siad Barre Omar al-Bashir Ahmed Ben Bella Salah al-Din al-Bitar Houari Boumediene Abdelaziz Bouteflika Izzat Darwaza Faisal I Muammar Gaddafi Rashid Ali al-Gaylani George Habash Sati' al-Husri Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz Saddam Hussein Amin al-Husseini Salah Jadid Rashid Karami Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi Mostéfa Merarda Hosni Mubarak Mohamed Naguib Gamal Abdel Nasser Gaafar Nimeiry Moktar Ould Daddah Adnan Pachachi Abdul-Karim Qasim Shukri al-Quwatli Ameen Rihani Fuad al-Rikabi Abdullah Rimawi Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i Hamdeen Sabahi Anwar Sadat Abdullah al-Sallal Constantin Zureiq Organizations Al-Awda Al-Fatat Al-Mourabitoun Arab Ba'ath Arab Ba'ath Movement Arab Federation Arab Higher Committee Arab Islamic Republic Arab Liberation Army Arab Nationalist Movement Arab Socialist Action Party Arab Socialist Union (Egypt) Arab Socialist Union (Iraq) Arab Socialist Union (Libya) Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria) Arabian Peninsula People's Union Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order Ba'ath Party Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction) Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction) Fatah Federation of Arab Republics General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine) Islamic Legion Lebanese National Movement National Liberation Front (Algeria) Palestine Liberation Organization Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Rejectionist Front Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation Unified Political Command Union of Arab Republics (1972) United Arab Republic United Arab States Literature The Arab Awakening The Battle for One Destiny On the Way of Resurrection Symbolism Arab Liberation Flag Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic Eagle of Saladin Flag of the Arab Federation Flag of the Arab Revolt Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics Flag of the United Arab Republic Hawk of Quraish Pan-Arab colors Related topics Anti-Zionism Greater Mauritania Greater Morocco Greater Syria Greater Yemen Islamism Nationalisms Algerian Egyptian Iraqi Jordanian Lebanese Libyan Moroccan Palestinian Sahrawi Syrian Tunisian Pan-Islamism Category

[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals):
- [Biography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biography)
- [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics)
- [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Russia)
- [Socialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Socialism)
- [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Syria)

Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Sweden Poland Israel Finland Catalonia People Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Bashar al-Assad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.